Introduction to Nanomaterials

1.1 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are cornerstones of nanoscience and nanotechnology. Nanostructure
science and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of research and development activity
that has been growing explosively worldwide in the past few years. It has the potential for
revolutionizing the ways in which materials and products are created and the range and nature of
functionalities that can be accessed. It is already having a significant commercial impact, which
will confidently increase in the future.
Nanoscale materials are defined as a set of substances where at least one dimension is
less than approximately 100 nanometers. A nanometer is one millionth of a millimeter -
approximately 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. Nanomaterials are of
interest because at this scale unique optical, magnetic, electrical, and other properties appear.
These developing properties have the potential for great impacts in electronics, medicine, and
other fields.
1.2 Classification of Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials can be nanoscale in one dimension (eg. surface films), two dimensions
(eg. strands or fibres), or three dimensions (eg. particles). They can exist in single, fused,
aggregated or agglomerated forms with spherical, tubular, and irregular shapes. Common types
of nanomaterials include nanotubes, dendrimers, quantum dots and fullerenes. Nanomaterials
have applications in the field of nanotechnology and display different physical, chemical
characteristics when compared with normal chemicals (i.e., silver nano, carbon nanotube,
fullerene, photocatalyst, carbon nano, silica).
According to Siegel, Nanostructured materials are classified as Zero dimensional, one
dimensional, two dimensional, three dimensional nanostructures.
Fig. 1 Classification of Nanomaterials (a) 0D spheres and clusters, (b) 1D nanofibers,
wires, and rods, (c) 2D films, plates, and networks, (d) 3D nanomaterials.

1.3 Importantance of nanomaterials

These materials have created a high interest in recent years by virtue of their unusual
mechanical, electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Few examples are given below:

(i) Nanophase ceramics are of particular interest because they are more ductile at elevated
temperatures as compared to the coarse-grained ceramics.

(ii) Nanostructured semiconductors are known to show various non-linear optical properties.
Nanostructured semiconductors are used as window layers in solar cells.

(iii) Nanosized metallic powders have been used for the production of gas tight materials, dense
parts and porous coatings.

(iv) Very small particles have special atomic structures with discrete electronic states, which give
rise to special properties in addition to the superparamagnetic behavior.

(v) Nanostructured metal clusters and colloids of mono or plurimetallic composition have a
special impact in catalytic applications.

(vi) Nanostructured metal-oxide thin films are receiving a growing attention for the realization of
gas sensors (NOx, CO, CO2, CH4 and aromatic hydrocarbons) with enhanced sensitivity and
selectivity.

(vii) Polymer based composites with a high content of inorganic particles leading to a high
dielectric constant are interesting materials for photonic band gap structure.

1.4 Moore’s Law

 Gordon Moore’s Law states that the number of transistors per square inch on integrated
circuits doubled every year since the integrated circuit was invented. In subsequent years, this
pace slowed down, but the data density doubled approximately every 18 months. It is the
foundation for exciting new technological capabilities and improved energy efficiency. While
Moore’s Law is the fundamental driver of the semiconductor industry, what’s even more
important is what it delivers to the end user.

Advances in process technology and reductions in cost make computing devices accessible to an
ever-increasing number of people worldwide, empowering innovations across the computing
continuum from the smallest handheld devices to the largest cloud-based servers.

These improvements integrate more transistors on each chip to boost productivity and
performance while cutting the cost per transistor inspiring smarter, more adaptive technologies
that optimize function integration at greater speeds while reducing energy consumption.

The evidence of Moore’s Law is everywhere, embedded in devices millions of people use every
day, such as personal computers and laptops, mobile phones, and common household appliances
and consumer electronics—as well as inspiring, important technological innovations in
automobiles, life-saving medical devices, and spacecrafts.
 Fig.2 Moore’s law

1.5 Properties of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials have the structural features in between that of atoms and the bulk materials.
While most microstructured materials have similar properties to the corresponding bulk
materials, the properties of materials with nanometer dimensions are significantly different from
that of atoms and bulk materials. This is mainly due to the nanometer size of the materials which
render them
(i) large fraction of surface atoms
(ii) high surface energy
(iii) spatial confinement and
(iv) reduced imperfections

Examples of Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials (gold, carbon, metals, meta oxides and alloys) with variety of

morphologies (shapes) are depicted in Fig. 3

 .

Au nanoparticle Buckminsterfullerene FePt nanosphere

Titanium nanoflower Silver nanocubes SnO2 nanoflower

Fig. 3 Nanomaterials with a variety of morphologies

1.5.1 Mechanical properties of the nanomaterials

Mechanical Properties of Nanoparticles deals with bulk metallic and ceramic materials, the
influence of porosity, influence of grain size, superplasticity, filled polymer composites, particle-
filled polymers, polymer-based nanocomposites filled with platelets, carbon nanotube-based
composites. The syntheses of metal and alloys with grain size of 50-100 nm find extremely high
strength. The relation between grain size and yield strength is given by

y = o + k/(d)1/2

Where y is the yield strength, o is a friction stress, k is the constant, and d is the grain size.
Due to nanosize, mechanical properties like hardness, elastic modulus, fracture toughness,
scratch resistance, fatigue strength are modified to a large extent.

An improvement in mechanical properties of nanomaterials can result due to reduced

imperfections in the materials. Filling polymers with nanoparticles or nanorods and nanotubes,
respectively, leads to significant improvements in their mechanical properties. Such
improvements depend heavily on the type of the filler and the way in which the filling is
conducted. By using carbon nanotubes it is possible to produce composite fibers with extremely
high strength and strain at rupture. Further, composites consisting of a polymer matrix and
defoliated phyllosilicates exhibit excellent mechanical and thermal properties.
The improved mechanical properties of the nanomaterials find applications both in nano
scale such as mechanical nano resonators, mass sensors and nano tweezers for nano scale object
manipulation, and in micro scale applications such as flexible conductive coatings, wear
resistance coatings etc.

1.5.2 Optical properties of the nanomaterials

One of the most fascinating and useful aspects of nanomaterials is their optical properties.
Applications based on optical properties of nanomaterials include optical detector, laser, sensor,
imaging, phosphor, display, solar cell, photocatalysis, photoelectrochemistry and biomedicine.
The optical properties of nanomaterials depend on parameters such as feature size, shape, surface
characteristics, and other variables including doping and interaction with the surrounding
environment or other nanostructures
The significant decrease in the size of materials affects the optical properties of the
materials. A change in optical properties is due to two reasons. One is the quantum confinement
of electrons within the nanoparticles and the other is surface plasma resonance. Surface plasmon
is a natural oscillation of the electrons within a given nanosphere. If the sphere is small enough
compared to the wavelength of the light, and the light has frequency close to that of surface
plasmons, then surface plasmons will absorb energy. For example, for a gold spherical particle,
the frequency is about 0.58 of the bulk plasmons frequency. Thus the bulk plasma frequency is
in UV region, the surface plasma frequency is in visible region.

Quantum size effect: The optical properties of nanomaterial may arise from quantum size effect
also. When the size of the nanocrystal is smaller than the de Brogle’s wavelength, electrons and
holes are spatially confined and electric dipoles are formed and discrete electronic energy levels
would be formed in all materials. In semiconductor nano particles, the band gap increases with
the decrease in size of the particles which results in inter band transition shifting to higher
frequencies. In a conductor, the separation between valence band and conduction band is of the
order of few electron volt and it increases rapidly with a decrease in crystallite size. When the
size of the nano particles are reduced to small enough, the continuous electronic density states
will become as discrete energy states.

1.5.3 Electrical properties the nanomaterials

Electrical Properties of Nanoparticles discuss about fundamentals of electrical

conductivity in nanotubes and nanorods, carbon nanotubes, photoconductivity of nanorods, and
electrical conductivity of nanocomposites. One interesting method which can be used to
demonstrate the steps in conductance is the mechanical thinning of a nanowire and measurement
of the electrical current at a constant applied voltage. The important point here is that, with
decreasing diameter of the wire, the number of electron wave modes contributing to the electrical
conductivity is becoming increasingly smaller by well-defined quantized steps.
In electrically conducting carbon nanotubes, only one electron wave mode is observed
which transport the electrical current. As the lengths and orientations of the carbon nanotubes are
different, they touch the surface of the mercury at different times, which provides two sets of
information:
(i) the influence of carbon nanotube length on the resistance and
(ii) the resistances of the different nanotubes.
As the nanotubes have different lengths, then with increasing protrusion of the fiber bundle an
increasing number of carbon nanotubes will touch the surface of the mercury droplet and
contribute to the electrical current transport.
 Fig.4 Electrical behavior of naotubes

Nanomaterials store more energy than that of conventional ones due to their large surface
area. The nanomaterials are the one in which an optical absorption band can be introduced or
existing band can be modified by allowing current through these materials. Conventional and
rechargeable batteries require electric power. But the storage capacity of these is quite low
requiring frequent recharging. But nanocrystalline materials acting as separator plates in
batteries can hold more energy than that of conventional ones. For example, nanocrystalline
Nickel and metal hydrides store energy longer time and require less frequent recharging.

Liquid crystals displays commonly used in calculators, watctes, the resolution, brightness
and contrast depend on the tungstic acid gel are used for this purpose. The effect of size on
electrical conductivity of nanostructures and nanomaterials are complex, since they are based on
distinct mechanism. These mechanisms can be grouped into four categories, surface scattering
including grain boundary scattering, quantized conduction including ballistic conduction,
coulomb charging and tunneling and discrete of band gaps and change of microstructure.

Moreover, reduced impurities, structural defects and dislocations would affect the
electrical conductivity of the nanostructure and nano materials.

1.5.4 Magnetic properties the nanomaterials

Bulk gold (Au) and platinum (Pt) are non-magnetic, but at the nano size they are
magnetic. Surface atoms are not only different to bulk atoms, but they can also be modified by
interaction with other chemical species, that is, by capping the nanoparticles. This phenomenon
opens the possibility to modify the physical properties of the nanoparticles by capping them with
appropriate molecules. Actually, it should be possible that non-ferromagnetic bulk materials
exhibit ferromagnetic-like behavior when prepared in nano range. One can obtain magnetic
nanoparticles of Pd, Pt and the surprising case of Au (that is diamagnetic in bulk) from non-
magnetic bulk materials. In the case of Pt and Pd, the ferromagnetism arises from the structural
changes associated with size effects.

Fig.5 Magnetic properties of nanostrucutred materials

However, gold (Au) nanoparticles become ferromagnetic when they are capped with
appropriate molecules: the charge localized at the particle surface gives rise to ferromagnetic-like
behavior. Surface and the core of Au nanoparticles with 2 nm in diameter show ferromagnetic
and paramagnetic character, respectively. The large spin-orbit coupling of these noble metals can
yield to a large anisotropy and therefore exhibit high ordering temperatures.
More surprisingly, permanent magnetism was observed up to room temperature for
thiol-capped Au nanoparticles. For nanoparticles with sizes below 2 nm the localized carriers are
in the 5d band. Bulk Au has an extremely low density of states and becomes diamagnetic, as is
also the case for bare Au nanoparticles. This observation suggested that modification of the
d band structure by chemical bonding can induce ferromagnetic like character in metallic
clusters.
1.5.5 Superparamagnetism the nanomaterials

Superparamagnetism is a form of magnetism in which a Superparamagnetic material consists of

small ferromagnetic clusters. The clusters are so small in size so that they can randomly change
the direction under thermal fluctuations. Superparamagnetism is phenomenon in which magnetic
material show a behavior similar to paramagnetism at temperatures below the Curie temperature.
This is a small length scale phenomenon where the energy required to change the direction of the
magnetic moment of a particle is comparable to the ambient thermal energy.
Superparamagnetism occur when the material is composed of very small crystallites (1-10 nm).
Here, though the temperature is below Curie temperature, the thermal energy is sufficient to
change the direction of magnetization of the entire crystallite. Hence the material behave in a
manner similar to paramagnetism.

1.6.1 Quantum Dot

Quantum dots are semiconductor nanocrystals (2-100 nm) which have unique optical and
electrical properties. In structure, quantum dots consist of a metalloid crystalline core and a
‘cap’or ‘shell’ that shields the core. Quantum dot cores can be formed from a variety of metal
conductors such as semiconductors, noble metals and magnetic transition metals. The shells are
also formed of a variety of materials. Therefore, not all quantum dots are alike and they cannot
be considered to be a uniform group of substances

With regard to the cores of quantum dots, group III-V series quantum dots are composed of
mixtures of compounds such as indium phosphate (InP), indium arsenate (InAs), gallium
arsenate (GaAs) and gallium nitride (GaN). Group II-IV series of quantum dots are composed of
mixtures of compounds such as zinc sulfide (ZnS), zinc-selenium (Zn-Se), cadmium-selenium
(CdSe) and cadmium-tellurium cores (CdTe)

A quantum dot can also be defined as a semiconductor nanostructure which got the capacity to
confine the motion of conduction band electrons, valence band holes or excitons (bound pairs of
conduction band electrons and valence band holes) in all three spatial directions.
A quantum dot possesses a discrete quantized energy spectrum. The corresponding wave
functions are spatially localized within the quantum dot, but extended over many periods of the
crystal lattice. A quantum dot contains a small finite number (1-100) of conduction band
electrons, valence band holes, or exitons, i.e a finite number of elementary electric charges.

Small quantum dots like colloidal semiconductor nanocrytalls are as small as 2-10 nm which
corresponds to 10-50 atoms in diameter and also a total of 100-100,000 atoms within the
quantum dot volume. Self-assembled quantum dots are typically between 10-50 nm in size.

Quantum confinement

When a crystal is having a size smaller than exciton Bohr radius of its constituent compound,
then it is in a state of quantum confinement. In unconfined state (bulk), semiconductors usually
have an electron-hole pair which is typically bound within the exciton Bohr radius. If the
electron and hole are constrained further or reduced in distance between them, then the
semiconductor properties change. This effect is called as quantum confinement

Quantum dots can be compared to other semiconductor nanostructures

i. Quantum wires would confine the motion of electrons or holes in two spatial
directions. They allow free propagation in third direction
ii. Quantum wells would confine the motion of electrons or holes in one direction. They
allow free propagation in two direction.
1.6.2 Quantum wire

A quantum wire is an electrically conductive wire in which quantum effects are affecting
transport properties as per the condensed matter physics. The confinement of conductive
electrons is in the transverse direction of the wire. Because of this transverse confinement the
transverse energy is quantized into a series of separate values. The quantization is inversely
proportional to the diameter of the nanowire of a given material. It depends on the electronic
properties, effective mass of the electrons. It depends on the conduction electron interaction with
the atoms within a given material. Semiconductors show conductance quantization for large
wires having transverse dimensions of 100 nm.

1.6.3 Quantum well

 A quantum well is a potential well that confines particles and forces them to occupy a
planar region to move them in two dimensions instead of the usual three-dimensional
movements. The effects of quantum confinement take place when the quantum well thickness
becomes comparable to the de Broglie wavelength of the carriers.

1.7 Carbon nanotube

Carbon nanotubes belongs to the family of nanomaterials. They are allotropes of carbon
with a nanostructure that can have a length-to-diameter ratio greater than 1,000,000 and as high
as 40,000,000. They have cylindrical carbon molecules. Their novel properties make them
potentially useful in many applications like electronics, optic and other fields of materials
sciences. Nanotubes are part of the fullerene structural family. Spherical buckyballs also belong
to the same family. The cylindrical nanotube usually has at least one end capped with a
hemisphere of the buckyball structure, the other end being open. The name nanotube is because
of their size. The diameter of a nanotube is in the order of few nanometers, but their length can
be up to several millimeters.

Types of carbon nanotubes

i. single walled carbon nanotube (SWNT)

ii. multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT)
iii. fullerene
iv. torus
v. nanobud
vi. nanoflower

1.7.1 Single-walled nanotube (SWNT)

Generally the single walled nanotubes will have a diameter of the order of 1 nm. The
length of the tube may be few thousand time of the diameter of the nanotube. The structure
of a Single walled nanotube can be visualized by wrapping a one –atom-thick layer of
graphite called grapheme into a seamless cylinder. The most basic building block these
systems are the electric wire and Single walled nanotubes can be excellent conductors.
 Fig.6 Single walled carbon nanotube

1.7.2 Multi-walled nanotubes

Multi-walled nanotubes are the ones in which multiple layers of graphite are rolled in on
themselves to form a tube shape. A Carbon Nanotube is a tube-shaped material, made of
carbon, having a diameter measuring on the nanometer scale. The graphite layer appears
somewhat like a rolled-up chicken wire with a continuous unbroken hexagonal mesh and
carbon molecules at the apexes of the hexagons.
 Fig.7 Multi-walled carbon nanotubes

Carbon Nanotubes have many structures, differing in length, thickness, and in the type of
helicity and number of layers. Although they are formed from essentially the same graphite
sheet, their electrical characteristics differ depending on these variations, acting either as metals
or as semiconductors. As a group, Carbon Nanotubes typically have diameters ranging from <1
nm up to 50 nm. Their lengths are typically several microns, but recent advancements have made
the nanotubes much longer, and measured in centimeters.

1.8 Potential Applications of Carbon Nanotubes

Carbon Nanotube Technology can be used for a wide range of new and existing applications:
 Conductive plastics
 Structural composite materials
 Flat-panel displays
 Gas storage
 Antifouling paint
 Micro- and nano-electronics
 Radar-absorbing coating
 Technical textiles
 Ultra-capacitors
 Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) tips
 Batteries with improved lifetime
 Biosensors for harmful gases
 Extra strong fibers

1.9 Nanosensors
The term sensor can be referred to any device that uses an active chemical species or component
that generates a signal in presence of an analyte molecule. The signal, in turn, is used either
directly or after suitable amplification to trigger a suitable detector.
Thus, three essential components of a sensor device are;
 1. The responding element, which recognizes the presence of the analyte species and
generate a signal. This is the principal component which sees the molecule, ion or
process. In general the sensor element has to specify certain requirement like:
i. It should be capable of detecting the analyte in a quantitative and qualitative
manner
ii. It should be able to detect even very small amounts of the analyte
iii. The signal it generates should be reproducible
2. Amplifier, which receives the signal of the sensor as an input and amplifies it to a level
that is acceptable for processing by the detector, and
3. A detector, which receives the output of the amplifier as an input and converts it to a
parameter which represents either the analyte species or its concentration or both.
The main properties of nanomaterials that are utilized for conceiving and desining a viable
sensor are as follows
i. Properties derived from the high surface to volume ratio
ii. Optical properties
iii. Electrical and electrochemical properties
iv. Physical properties

1.9.1 Type of Nanosensors

(a) Electrical nanosensor

Electrical nanosensors incorporating nanostructure as sensing probes are highly
promising devices for disease diagnostics in medicine. Chemical or biochemical binding events
are directly converted into electrical signals which allow for label free read out in the case of
DNA detection

(b) Electrochemical biosensors:

Nanomaterials and nanotechnology bring new possibilities for biosensor construction and
for developing novel electrochemical bioassays. The use of nanoscale materials for
electrochemical biosensing has seen explosive growth in the past five years. Nanoscale materials
have been used to achieve direct wiring of enzyme to electrode surface, to promote
electrochemical reaction to impose nanobarcode for biomaterials and to amplify the signal of
biorecognition event.

(c)Nanowire biosensor:
Nanowire based biosensor arrays have significant impact for the detection of biological
threats, early diagnosis of cancer, drug discovery and medical treatment. The nanowire based
biosensor arrays enable simultaneous detection of multiple analytes such as cancer biomarkers in
single chip, as well as fundamental kinetic studies for biomolecular reactions.

1.9.2 Applications of nanotechnology in sensors

(a) High-Sensitivity Sensors

Sensors employ their sensitivity to the changes in various parameters they are designed to
measure. The measured parameters include electrical resistivity, chemical activity, magnetic
permeability, thermal conductivity, and capacitance. All of these parameters depend greatly on
the microstructure (grain size) of the materials employed in the sensors. A change in the sensor’s
environment is manifested by the sensor material’s chemical, physical, or mechanical
characteristics, which is exploited for detection. For instance, a carbon monoxide sensor made of
zirconium oxide (zirconia) uses its chemical stability to detect the presence of carbon monoxide.
In the event of carbon monoxide’s presence, the oxygen atoms in zirconium oxide react with the
carbon in carbon monoxide to partially reduce zirconium oxide. This reaction triggers a change
in the sensor’s characteristics, such as conductivity (or resistivity) and capacitance. The rate and
the extent of this reaction are greatly increased by a decrease in the grain size. Hence, sensors
made nanocrystalline materials are extremely sensitive to the change in their environment.
Typical applications for sensors made out of nanocrystalline materials are smoke detectors, ice
detectors on aircraft wings, automobile engine performance sensor.
(b) Chemical and Biological sensors

Nanotechnology can enable sensors to detect very small amounts of chemical vapors. Various
types of detecting elements, such as carbon nanotubes, zinc oxide nanowires or palladium
nanoparticles can be used in nanotechnology-based sensors. These detecting elements change
their electrical characteristics, such as resistance or capacitance, when they absorb a gas
molecule. Because of the small size of nanotubes, nanowires, or nanoparticles, a few gas
molecules are sufficient to change the electrical properties of the sensing elements. This allows
the detection of a very low concentration of chemical vapors. The goal is to have small,
inexpensive sensors that can sniff out chemicals just as dogs are used in airports to smell the
vapors given off by explosives or drugs.

1.10. Applications of nanotechnology in various fileds

Medicine

Researchers are developing customized nanoparticles the size of molecules that can deliver drugs
directly to diseased cells in your body. When it's perfected, this method should greatly reduce
the damage treatment such as chemotherapy does to a patient's healthy cells.

Electronics

Nanotechnology holds some answers for how we might increase the capabilities of electronics
devices while we reduce their weight and power consumption.

Food

Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is grown
to how it is packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a difference not
only in the taste of food, but also in food safety, and the health benefits that food delivers.

Fuel Cells
Nanotechnology is being used to reduce the cost of catalysts used in fuel cells to produce
hydrogen ions from fuel such as methanol and to improve the efficiency of membranes used in
fuel cells to separate hydrogen ions from other gases such as oxygen.

Solar Cells

Companies have developed nanotech solar cells that can be manufactured at significantly lower
cost than conventional solar cells.

Batteries

Companies are currently developing batteries using nanomaterials. One such battery will be a
good as new after sitting on the shelf for decades. Another battery can be recharged significantly
faster than conventional batteries.

Space

Nanotechnology may hold the key to making space-flight more practical. Advancements in
nanomaterials make lightweight spacecraft and a cable for the space elevator possible. By
significantly reducing the amount of rocket fuel required, these advances could lower the cost of
reaching orbit and traveling in space.

Fuels

Nanotechnology can address the shortage of fossil fuels such as diesel and gasoline by making
the production of fuels from low grade raw materials economical, increasing the mileage of
engines, and making the production of fuels from normal raw materials more efficient.

Better Air Quality

Nanotechnology can improve the performance of catalysts used to transform vapors escaping
from cars or industrial plants into harmless gasses. That's because catalysts made from
nanoparticles have a greater surface area to interact with the reacting chemicals than catalysts
made from larger particles. The larger surface area allows more chemicals to interact with the
catalyst simultaneously, which makes the catalyst more effective.

Cleaner Water

Nanotechnology is being used to develop solutions to three very different problems in water
quality. One challenge is the removal of industrial wastes, such as a cleaning solvent called TCE,
from groundwater. Nanoparticles can be used to convert the contaminating chemical through a
chemical reaction to make it harmless. Studies have shown that this method can be used
successfully to reach contaminates dispersed in underground ponds and at much lower cost than
methods which require pumping the water out of the ground for treatment.

Sporting Goods

If you're a tennis or golf fan, you'll be glad to hear that even sporting goods has wandered into
the nano realm. Current nanotechnology applications in the sports arena include increasing the
strength of tennis racquets, filling any imperfections in club shaft materials and reducing the rate
at which air leaks from tennis balls.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain Moore’s law

2. What are nanomaterials?
3. Discuss the importance of nanomaterials
4. What are the types of nanomaterials?
5. What are the applications of nanotechnology?
6. What is a nanosensor?
7. Explain various components of nanosensors
8. What are the applications of nanosensors?
9. List out the properties of nanomateirls
10. Explain quantum dot, quantum well and quantum wire
11. What are the applications of quantum dots?
12. Give some peculiar properties of nanomaterials?
13. Explain mechanical properties of nanomaterials with examples
14. Explain optical properties of nanomaterials with examples
15. Explain electrical properties of nanomaterials with examples
16. Explain magnetic properties of nanomaterials with examples
17. What is a carbon nanotube and its types
18. What are the applications of carbon nanotubes?
19. Explain single walled and multi walled carbon nanotubes in detail
20. List out the various applications of nanotechnology