Instrumentation and

Programmable Devices

Pr. H. BENTARZI

Chapter III Signal processing and

Measurement systems.
III.1 Introduction
III.2 Signal processing
III.2.1 ADC
III.2.2 DSP
III.3 Measurement systems.

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III.1 Introduction

III.1 Introduction

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 III.2 Signal processing

 A/D Conversion Techniques

– Dual Slope Tracking A/D Converter

III.2 Signal processing

 A/D Conversion Techniques

– Dual Slope Successive-Approximation A/D
Converter

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 III.2 Signal processing

A/D Conversion
Techniques
– Flash or Parallel
Conversion

III.2 Signal processing

 Sampling Frequency of A/D Converter

– Sampling speed and available calculation time
– Constant time interval sampling or constant samples per
cycle
– Frequency calculation technique

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 III.2 Signal processing

 Errors Associated with A/D Conversion

– Word Length
– Quantization Error of a N-bit A/D Converter is Equal to 2-N
– Gain, and Offset Errors

III.2 Signal processing

 Errors Associated with A/D Conversion

Output

Desired Output
x

Actual
Output
x

Quantization
Error
x

Offset
Error
10% 50% 90%
Input

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 III.2 Signal processing

 Errors Associated with A/D Conversion

– Sampling Speed and Alaising Errors

III.2 Signal processing

 Errors Associated with A/D Conversion

– Reconstruction Errors (Original Signal)

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 III.2 Signal processing

 Errors Associated with A/D Conversion

– Reconstruction Errors (Sampled Data)

III.2 Signal processing

 Errors Associated with A/D Conversion

– Reconstruction Errors (Reconstructed Waveform)

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 III.2 Signal processing

 Errors Reduction Techniques for A/D Conversion

– Word Length Selection of A/D Converter
– Full Scale Value Selection
– Coordination Between Anti-Alaising Filter and
Sampling Speed
– Compensation of Gain and Offset Errors
– Programmable Gain Control

III.2 Signal processing

Fourier analysis can be used to calculate the

fundamental frequency components.
According to the definition of Fourier series, in the analog domain, a signal x(t)
which repeats with period T can be expressed as a sum of cosines and sines
as follows:

Where,

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 III.2 Signal processing (2)

And a0 represents the DC component. Here, ω0=2π/T. The Fourier

technique separates the dc, fundamental and harmonic components of f(t).
For the nth harmonic, the amplitude is given by:

And phase angle is given by:

Where ω = 2π / T. absolute value of Eq.(4) yields the frequency

amplitude content and the argument gives the phase content.
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III.2 Signal processing (2)

The fundamental frequency components are given by a1and b1.

The Fourier series has certain practical limitations in its use. It assumes
that the time function is of infinite duration, whereas practical
data in the case of a fault are often transient having finite duration.
Further, if assumes that the data are periodic over unlimited extent,
whereas practical data are usually non-periodic. It is possible to represent
non-periodic data by a Fourier Transform (FT). The FT of the time function
x(t) is given

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 III.2 Signal processing

If the integral is taken over N samples within time interval T which

immediately precedes the sampling instant in question. The digital
domain equivalent of signal is given by

Where, n=0,1,2,…….(N-1)/2 and k=1,2,3,……..(N-1).

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III.2 Signal processing

The discrete from of the integrals are given by:

Where x(k) represents individual samples within the sampling

window. This is known as the discrete Fourier series.

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 III.2 Signal processing

The amplitude and the phase of the fundamental components

of the voltage and current can be obtained from ,

The impedance and phase angle can be derived by using:

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III.3 Measurement systems.

The purpose of Electrical Measurement Systems which integrates

Sensors, Signal Processing, and Displays is to provide a reference that is
both concise and useful for engineers in industry, scientists, designers,
managers, research personnel and students.

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 III.3 Measurement systems.

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III.3 Measurement systems

Voltage measurement

Instruments for the measurement of electric voltage are called voltmeters,

Correct insertion of a voltmeter requires the connection of its terminals to the points of
an electric circuit across which the voltage has to be measured,

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Voltage measurement

Sensors:
Voltage transformers are used to sense
the voltage, then their outputs to be sent
to the signal conditioning and filtering
circuit.

III.3 Measurement systems

Voltage measurement
Signal conditioning circuit:
Sensor signals are often incompatible with
data acquisition hardware. To overcome
this incompatibility, the signal must be To DAQ

conditioned. For example; amplifying an

input signal or by removing unwanted
frequency components and also converting
current input signal into proportionate
voltage signals.
The data acquisition card do not support voltage signals above 5V. Thus, the output of
the voltage transformer (220/6V) must be reduced to a suitable value, then passes
through a low pass filter to eliminate the unwanted frequencies above 100Hz.
To overcome this, the voltage divider is implemented to reduce the secondary voltage
of VTto the value of 4V with R1=2.5kΩ and R2=5.1kΩ, whereas, the low pass filter is
designed with C=0.1µF and R=15kΩ.

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Voltage measurement

Voltage is the electrical potential difference between two points.

You may have heard terms like “single-ended referenced,”
"single-ended, non-referenced” and “differential” and
wondered what they really meant in terms of making voltage
measurements. Well, it’s all about the reference point.
Single-ended Measurements
Single-ended measurements are those that are made with respect
to ground. The signal is carried only on the positive wire, and the
other wire is referenced to the ground. But who provides this
ground?
If the measuring instrument provides the ground reference, then
the measurement is classified as “referenced, single-ended.” This
is often abbreviated as RSE.

III.3 Measurement systems

Voltage measurement

Example of a referenced single-ended measurement (RSE)

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Voltage measurement
On the other hand, if the signal itself provides the ground reference, then
the measurement is classified as “non-referenced, single-ended”,
abbreviated as NRSE.

III.3 Measurement systems

Voltage measurement

Differential Measurements
If we ignore the ground and measure between two points in a circuit, we
are making a differential measurement. It’s called differential because
we are measuring the DIFFERENCE between these two points. We’re
really measuring two signals instead of one in a single-ended scenario.
Each differential channel really has two preamps inside it, and these
inputs are floating with respect to ground.

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Voltage measurement

Example of a differential (DIFF) measurement

III.3 Measurement systems

Voltage measurement

Floating Signal Sources

You may also hear about a signal source being a “floating” one. This
simply means that it is not directly referenced to the ground. A
common example of such a source would be a battery. In the case of
measuring from the outputs of floating signal sources, the
measurement system needs to provide the ground reference.

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Voltage measurement

What Do Terms Like Average, RMS, Peak-to-Peak Mean?

Voltage can be quantified in several ways. Let’s take a look at each of
these common terms and what it means.

III.3 Measurement systems

Voltmeters

The Average voltage (VAV) is, as the name already states, the average
value during one period. For pure sinusoidal signals, the average will be
zero, because the amount of current in the first positive half of the
waveform is equal to the current in the negative half cycle. These
currents cancel each other out resulting in zero. So taking just one half of
a cycle we can define the average by taking the peak the peak (max)
value and multiply it by 0.637.
The RMS voltage (root-mean-square aka VRMS) is the square root of
the arithmetic mean of the squared function values that define the
continuous waveform. A common way to calculate RMS is to multiply
the peak value by 0.707. RMS is the most common way to express AC
voltages.

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Voltage measurement

The Peak voltage (VPK or VMAX) describes the highest voltage within
one period.
The Peak-to-peak voltage (VPK) defines the entire amplitude of the
positive and negative peaks within one period.
Crest factor is a ratio of the maximum peak values divided by the RMS
value of an AC waveform. Since DC voltage levels and square waves
don’t have peaks, they have a crest factor of 1, where a pure sine wave
has a crest factor of 1.414.
Please note that in most measuring systems, the average, RMS, peak, and
crest factor values are typically calculated over a period of time, usually
a subset of the data acquisition system’s selected sample rate. This is a
very useful way of presenting these values.

III.3 Measurement systems

Voltmeters

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Voltmeters

Electromagnetic Voltmeters
A dc moving-coil meter :
A small rectangular pivoted coil
is wrapped around an iron cylinder
and placed between the poles of a
permanent magnet. Because of the
shape of the poles of the permanent
magnet, the induction magnetic
field B in the air gap is radial and
constant.

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III.3 Measurement systems

Voltmeters

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III.3 Measurement systems
Voltmeters

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III.3 Measurement systems

Voltmeters

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III.3 Measurement systems
Voltmeters

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III.3 Measurement systems

Voltmeters

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III.3 Measurement systems
Voltmeters

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III.3 Measurement systems

Voltmeters

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III.3 Measurement systems
Rectifier-Based AC Analog Voltmeters.

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III.3 Measurement systems

Rectifier-Based AC Analog Voltmeters.

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III.3 Measurement systems
Rectifier-Based AC Analog Voltmeters.

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III.3 Measurement systems

Rectifier-Based AC Analog Voltmeters.

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III.3 Measurement systems
True rms Analog Voltmeters

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III.3 Measurement systems

True rms Analog Voltmeters

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 III.3 Measurement systems
True rms Analog Voltmeters

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III.3 Measurement systems

Digital Voltmeter DVM

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III.3 Measurement systems
Digital Voltmeter DVM

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III.3 Measurement systems

Digital Voltmeter DVM

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Current Measurement

Hall Effect Sensor Measurement

The Hall effect has been adopted for thousands of applications,
including proximity switches, motor speed control circuitry,
tachometers, and even as a fuel level sensor in automobiles.
But we will focus on its application specifically with current sensors.

III.3 Measurement systems

Current Measurement

Current Transformer (CT) Measurement

Current transformers (CTs) are used to measure alternating current (AC).
They are inductive sensors that consist of a primary winding, a magnetic
core, and a secondary winding.

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Current Measurement

Rogowski Current Sensor Measurement

Rogowski sensors have the advantage of going around large cable
bundles, bus bars, and irregularly shaped conductors in a way that
regular clamps cannot.
They’re made for AC measurements, and their low inductance means
that they can respond to fast-changing currents. And their lack of an iron
core makes them highly linear, even when subjected to very large
currents. They provide excellent performance when measuring harmonic
content.

III.3 Measurement systems

Current Measurement

Rogowski Current Sensor Measurement

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Watt Hour meter

Power is the rate of doing work, i.e., the amount of energy consumed
per unit of time. The power of an electrical system is the
multiplication of the voltage with the current, integrated over and
then divided through the periodic time. The periodic time (equals the
frequency) must be known in order to calculate the power of an
electrical system. “Power analysis” is simply the method by which
power is tested and studied, typically using a power analyzer.
A power analyzer is an instrument that measures and quantifies the
rate of power flow in electrical systems. Power flow is expressed in
Joules/second (J/s) or kilowatt-per-hour (kW/h). Electrical power is
the rate per unit of time that electrical energy is transferred in an
electrical system between two points.

III.3 Measurement systems

Watt Hour meter

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 III.3 Measurement systems
Watt Hour meter

We need an equation that accurately describes electrical power if we

want to analyze its characteristics. Luckily, there is such an equation:

Where:
P is power in Watt (W)
i is current in Ampere (A)
u is the voltage in Volt (V)
T is the periodic time in seconds (s)
Let’s visualize this equation on a graph:

III.3 Measurement systems

Watt Hour meter
Looking at the curvature of the
waveforms in the visualization we
can see that the power in an AC
system is not just voltage
multiplied with current as in a DC
system. It is defined by the time
average of the instantaneous power
over one cycle. This means that we
must know the frequency in order
to calculate the power of an
electrical system.

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III.3 Measurement systems
Watt Hour meter

III.3 Measurement systems

Watt Hour meter

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III.3 Measurement systems
Impedance Measurement Algorithms

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Thank You

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