Hydraulics

CE 410
ENGR. RAVEN TRISTAN D. CLAVERIA
L ECTURER I
D E PA R T M E N T O F C I V I L E N G I N E E R I N G
Fluid Flow
Measurement
LECTURE - 06
Fluid Flow Measurement
This lecture deals with measurement of flow using different flow measuring device including
venturi meter, nozzle, pitot tube, orifice, and weirs.
Flow Measuring Devices
1. Venturi Meter
2. Orifice Meter
3. Nozzle meter or flow nozzle
4. Rotameter
5. Elbow meter or pipe bend meter
Venturi Meter
Venturi Meter
A device which is used to measure the rate of flow or discharge in a pipe.
It works on the principle of measurement of pressure drop in the direction of flow that
facilitates in the determination of discharge.
Parts of Venturi Meter
1. Converging cone with included
angle 21° - 1° and length nearly
(d1-d2), where d1 is diameter at
inlet and d2 is the diameter at
the throat.
2. Throat of diameter, d2, which
may vary from 1/3 to ¾ of
diameter at inlet d1. In general,
d2 = d1/2 is adopted.
3. The diverging cone of a larger
length as compared with the
convergent cone and with
included angle of about 6° (to
minimize frictional losses)
Venturi Meter
Consider sections (1) and (2) which are at the base of the inlet section and at the throat respectively.
Neglecting frictional losses, we write the energy equation between these sections,

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22 𝑃2
2𝑔
+𝛾 + 𝑧1 = 2𝑔
+ 𝛾
+ 𝑧2

Where: v1 and v2 are mean velocities at sections 1 and 2 respectively

P1 and P2 are the pressures at sections 1 and 2 respectively
z1 and z2 are the elevation head of sections 1 and 2 with respect to the datum
Venturi Meter
In the horizontal position (Z1 = Z2), the above equation will be
reduced to:

𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22
+ = + 𝑃2 or
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
𝑣12 𝑣22 𝑃2 𝑃1
− = −
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾

where the left side represents the increase in kinetic energy

per unit weight from section (1) to (2), while the right side
gives the corresponding decrease in the potential (or
pressure) per unit weight.
Venturi Meter
With the use of the continuity equation between the two sections, we have
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1𝑣1= 𝐴2𝑣2
𝐴2
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 or n𝑣2
𝐴1
For the velocity of the throat,

2𝑔 𝑃1
𝑣2 = − 𝑃2
1−𝑛2 𝛾 𝛾
in which the pressure head differences inside the parenthesis is calculated through the
differential manometer.
Venturi Meter
In the case the Venturi meter is not positioned horizontally or 𝒛𝟏 ≠ 𝒛𝟐, then the difference in
elevation heads, 𝒛𝟏 − 𝒛𝟐, must be included in the parenthesis, together with the pressure head
difference in the equation,
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣2 2 𝑃2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
Venturi Meter
With the use of the continuity equation between the two sections, we have

𝐴1𝑣1= 𝐴2𝑣2
𝐴2
𝑣1 = 𝑣2 or n𝑣2
𝐴1
By simplifying, the velocity 𝑣2 at the throat is:

2𝑔 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑣2 = − + 𝑧1 − 𝑧2
1−𝑛2 γ γ
Venturi Meter
Accordingly, the discharge computed using velocity is called the theoretical flow or theoretical
discharge.

𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴2𝑣2
which must be corrected by the multiplication of a correction factor, C, known as the meter
coefficient or the discharge coefficient.
The actual discharge is now written as

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑄𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝐴2𝑣2
Venturi Meter
Accordingly, the discharge computed using velocity is called the theoretical flow or theoretical
discharge.

𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴2𝑣2
which must be corrected by the multiplication of a correction factor, C, known as the meter
coefficient or the discharge coefficient.
The actual discharge is now written as

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑄𝑡 𝑜𝑟 𝐶𝐴2𝑣2
Nozzle
Nozzle
A converging tube connected to the end of the pipe or hose and is used in engineering practice
for the creation of jets and streams and for a variety of purposes as well as for metering.
It is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of a fluid flow (especially to
increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber or pipe.
Nozzle
It is in the shape of a frustum of a cone similar to that of the converging tube of the Venturi
meter.
Since, a nozzle resembles the inlet section of a Venturi meter, the flow condition may also be
interpreted with the use of the Energy Theorem of Bernoulli’s between the nozzle’s base and the
tip
The jet discharges from the tip of the nozzle, being unconfined, will have a pressure equal to
that of the surrounding medium (e.g. if the is exposed to the atmosphere, P = 0)
Theoretically, under this assumption, the issuing jet will have a uniform section.
The effect of gravity will cause an expansion of the jet when the motion is upward, or a
contraction of the jet when motion is downward.
Nozzle
For a horizontal nozzle, considering no frictional losses, the energy equation between the two
section is
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22
+ =
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
where 𝑃2 is taken as atmospheric.
Nozzle
The mean velocity 𝑣1 may be expressed in terms of 𝑣2 with the use of the continuity equation
The velocity 𝑣2 which will result from equation is theoretical velocity of the jet and is corrected
by a correction factor called the coefficient of velocity, cv, or the actual velocity is

𝑣𝑎= 𝑐𝑣𝑣𝑡
where 𝑣𝑡= 𝑣2

𝑣12
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣2 = 2𝑔 + 𝑃1 or 2𝑔𝐻
2𝑔 𝛾
Nozzle
The equation for actual velocity,

𝑣𝑎= 𝑐𝑣 2𝑔𝐻
Head loss in a Nozzle
If frictional losses are eliminated, the total energy per unit weight at the base of the nozzle, will
be exactly the same as the total energy per unit weight in the issuing jet
𝑣12 𝑣22
+ 𝑃1 =
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Nozzle
Initial Head – Actual Head = Head loss
𝑣12 𝑣𝑎2
𝐻𝑛 = + 𝑃1 − 2𝑔 or
2𝑔 𝛾
2
𝐻𝑛 = 𝐻 − 𝑣2𝑔
𝑎
or

1 𝑣𝑎2
𝐻𝑛 = 𝑐𝑣2
−1
2𝑔
Pitot Tube
Pitot Tube
A tube with a circular cross section bent in the shape of an
L with both ends open.
This is a simple tube used to measure the velocity at a point
or to measure the velocity of liquid in an open flow.
If the tube is placed in a moving stream in such a way that
the horizontal diverging part points against the direction of
motion, the liquid enters the opening point at (2) and fills
until the vertical part is filled up to the height ℎ2.
As long as steady flow condition is maintained, the
contained volume will remain constant and static
equilibrium is established within the tube.
Pitot Tube
The pitot tube works with the principle of reducing the velocity at a point to zero called
stagnation point and the pressure rise is used to determine the velocity. This pressure rise is
called the stagnation pressure.
𝑣12
+ 𝑃1 = 𝑃2
2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
𝑃1 𝑃2
In which = ℎ1 and = ℎ2. Considering ℎ2 − ℎ1 = ℎ, the above equation is reduced to
𝛾 𝛾

𝑣12
=ℎ
2𝑔
Pitot Tube
The velocity at the upstream point is

𝑣1= 2𝑔𝐻
Orifice
Orifice
The term orifice is used to denote an opening with a
closed perimeter, made in a wall or partition.
The primary purpose of an orifice is the metering or
control of fluid flow.
Orifice
An orifice can be:
a. Rounded – which enables the mass of the outgoing jet of fluid to conform
very closely to the shape and size of the opening.
b. Shard-edged – it is so thin that the outgoing mass simply touches a line
before it contracts due to inability of the individual particles to abruptly
change in direction
According to geometrical shapes, an orifice can be:
a. Square
b. Rectangular
c. Circular

Due to the simplicity in the design and construction, the sharp edged circular
orifice has been adapted.
Orifice
Short tube
A special type of orifice is one in which the sides are extended.
An example is a pipe of two or three diameters long and whose characteristics and hydraulic
properties are similar to that of an orifice cut in a thick wall.
Properties of Orifice: Free-flow Type
The Bernoulli’s equation between points 1 and 2 is:
𝑣12 𝑃1 𝑣22
+ +ℎ = + 𝑃2
2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾
From this equation, the theoretical velocity of the flow through
the orifice is
𝑣12 𝑃1−𝑃2
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣2 = 2𝑔 ℎ + + or
2𝑔 𝛾

𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣2 = 2𝑔𝐻
2
Where H = ℎ + 𝑣1 + 𝑃1−𝑃2 ,
2𝑔 𝛾

H = total head which produces the flow

Theorem of Torricelli
It states that the theoretical velocity through the orifice under a head of h is equal to the
velocity acquired by a body falling from the rest through a height h.
2
𝑣1
This usual condition is encounter when 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 0 and the velocity head is ≈ 0.
2𝑔

These reduce the equation to:

𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣2 = 2𝑔𝐻
The Three Orifice Coefficients
Three Orifice Coefficients:
1. Coefficient of Velocity
2. Coefficient of Contraction
3. Coefficient of Discharge
 The Three Orifice Coefficients
Coefficient of Velocity
It has been shown experimentally that the actual mean velocity of the jet from a sharp-edged orifice is a little less
than the theoretical velocity.
To correct for the head losses initially neglected, a correction factor known as the coefficient of velocity and
defined as
𝑣𝑎
𝑐𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡
To get the actual velocity,

𝑣𝑎 = 𝑐𝑣𝑣𝑡 or 𝑣𝑎 = 𝑐𝑣 2𝑔𝐻

The coefficient of velocity Cv is not often used by the practicing engineer, but if needed arises, a conservative value of 0.98
may be assumed for water.
The Three Orifice Coefficients
Coefficient of Contraction
Note that the individual particles of the mass
approaching the orifice follow a converging paths
Due to the inertia of the particles lying close to the
inner wall, they cannot make abrupt changes in
their direction as they reach the opening.
This cause them to follow curvilinear paths
affecting a contraction of the jet up to a section,
say m-n, at which point the stream paths are
assumed to be parallel, and the pressure having a
value equal to that of the surrounding medium.
The Three Orifice Coefficients
The section where the contraction of the jet ceases is called the vena contracta and its distance
from the inner wall of the orifice is approximately ½ of the diameter of the orifice 𝐷𝑜.

◦ The dimensionless ratio of the area of the vena contracta (diameter d) to the area of the orifice is
known as the coefficient of contraction, Cc
𝑎
𝐶𝑐 =
𝐴𝑜
where a – cross-sectional area of the vena contracta
𝐴𝑜 − cross sectional area of the orifice
The Three Orifice Coefficients
Cc is not frequently used by the engineer. An average value of 0.62 may be assumed for general purposes.

A slight rounding off the upstream edge will eliminate the contraction of the outgoing jet and under this
condition Cc becomes unity while Cv may slightly change from its sharp-edged average value of 0.98.
The Three Orifice Coefficients
Coefficient of Discharge
The ideal or theoretical is the product of the area of the orifice and the theoretical velocity.
𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜𝑣𝑡 or 𝑄𝑡 = 𝐴𝑜 2𝑔𝐻
On the other hand, the real or actual flow is obtained at the issuing jet (vena contracta) and
represented as the product of the area of the contracted section and the actual velocity.
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑎𝑣𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑐𝐴𝑜 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔𝐻
The Three Orifice Coefficients
The coefficient of discharge is given as,
𝑎𝑣 𝑎
𝑐 = 𝑄𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑐=
𝑄𝑡 𝐴𝑜𝑣𝑡
𝑎 𝑣
But, 𝐶𝑐 =
𝐴𝑜
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶𝑣 = 𝑎
𝑣𝑡

Therefore,
𝐶 = 𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑣
Head Loss of an Orifice
To determine the loss of energy per unit weight of the fluid mass passing any orifice
1 𝑣𝑎2
𝐻𝑜 = 𝑐𝑣2
−1
2𝑔
or

𝐻𝑜 = 1 − 𝑐𝑣2 ℎ
Circular Orifice
Diameter in mm
Head (m)
6.25 12.5 18.75 25 50 100
0.24 0.647 0.627 0.616 0.609 0.603 0.601
0.43 0.635 0.619 0.610 0.605 0.601 0.600
0.61 0.629 0.615 0.607 0.603 0.600 0.599
1.22 0.621 0.609 0.603 0.600 0.598 0.597
1.83 0.617 0.607 0.601 0.599 0.597 0.596
2.44 0.614 0.605 0.600 0.598 0.596 0.595
3.05 0.613 0.604 0.600 0.597 0.596 0.595
3.66 0.612 0.603 0.599 0.597 0.595 0.595
4.27 0.611 0.603 0.598 0.596 0.595 0.594
4.88 0.610 0.602 0.598 0.596 0.595 0.594
6.10 0.609 0.602 0.598 0.596 0.595 0.594
7.62 0.608 0.601 0.597 0.596 0.594 0.594
9.15 0.607 0.600 0.597 0.595 0.594 0.594
12.20 0.606 0.600 0.596 0.595 0.594 0.593
Discharge Coefficients for Vertical Sharp-Edged
15.24 0.605 0.599 0.596 0.595 0.594 0.593
Circular Orifice Discharging into Air at 15.6 °C(60°F)
18.30 0.605 0.599 0.596 0.594 0.593 0.593
Velocity of Approach
Under the assumption made that the velocity 𝑉1is the mean velocity at the liquid surface, then
each particle at any depth will have a similar velocity, known as the velocity of approach, or
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉1.

If the upstream area of the flow is very large in relation to the area of the jet, the velocity of
approach 𝑉𝐴 may be considered as negligible.
 Velocity of Approach
On the other hand, the velocity of approach may be considered to be appreciable under the flow
condition encountered in an orifice in a flat plate installed at the end of the pipe, or inserted in a
pipe.

For the orifice shown in Figure A, the formula for discharge is

𝑃1 𝐷𝑜 4
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑐𝐴𝑜 2𝑔 1 + 1 𝑐2
γ 2 𝐷𝑝

Likewise, for the orifice shown in Figure B, the formula for discharge is

4
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 1 𝐷𝑜
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑐𝐴𝑜 2𝑔 1 + 𝑐2
γ 2 𝐷𝑝
Where 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = measured by either the piezometer or the open manometer shown
𝐷𝑃 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑖𝑝𝑒
𝐷𝑜 = 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
C = coefficient of discharge
Unsteady Flow in Orifice: Discharge
Under a Rising or Falling Head
1. The flow is steady if 𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄𝑜, that is, when ℎ1 is maintained constant.
2. The flow is unsteady if 𝑄𝑖 ≠ 𝑄𝑜, the liquid surface may rise or drop as to whether 𝑄𝑖 is greater or
smaller than 𝑄𝑜 at time t = 0. A special case of unsteady flow is attained if the inflow 𝑄𝑖 is cut off, that
is when 𝑄𝑖 = 0.
Cases of Unsteady Flow
Case 1: When 𝑄𝑖 = 0, the surface drops and the volume decreases or
ⅆ(𝑽𝒐𝒍)
<𝟎
ⅆ𝒕
By definition, the rate of change in the volume of the contained liquid is the outflow 𝑄𝑜 𝑄𝑖 = 0
ⅆ(𝑽𝒐𝒍)
= −𝑸 𝒐 = −𝐂𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈𝒉
ⅆ𝒕
If the time interval ℎ2 ≤ ℎ ≤ ℎ1 is required, the above equation is integrated as
𝟏 𝒉𝟐 ⅆ(𝑽𝒐𝒍) 𝟏 𝒉𝟏 𝑨ⅆ𝒉
𝒕=− ‫׬‬
𝒉 𝟏 or 𝒕= ‫׬‬
𝒉 𝟏
𝑪𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈 𝟏 𝒉 ൗ 𝟐 𝑪𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈 𝟐 𝒉 ൗ 𝟐
Where A=f(h), the cross-sectional area of the container of elevation h above the orifice.
Cases of Unsteady Flow
Note that if the sides of the tank are vertical, the area A at any elevation is constant, may br
further
𝟐𝑨
𝒕= 𝒉𝟏/𝟐
𝟏
− 𝒉𝟏/𝟐
𝟐
𝑪𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈
Cases of Unsteady Flow
Case 2: When 𝑄𝑖 ≠ 𝑄𝑜 at time t=0. Under this condition there are two (2) related subcases:
a. 𝑄𝑖 < 𝑄𝑜 : the liquid surface drops as in the first case

Here, the rate of change of the contained volume is:

ⅆ(𝑽𝒐𝒍)
= −(𝑸𝒐−𝑸𝒊)
ⅆ𝒕
and,
𝒉𝟐 ⅆ(𝑽𝒐𝒍) 𝒉𝟏 𝑨ⅆ𝒉
𝒕 = − ‫𝒉׬‬ or 𝒕 = ‫𝒉׬‬
𝟏 𝒄𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈𝒉−𝑸𝒊 𝟐 𝒄𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈𝒉−𝑸𝒊

where A=f(h), the cross-sectional area

Cases of Unsteady Flow
Case 2: When 𝑄𝑖 ≠ 𝑄𝑜 at time t=0. Under this condition there are two (2) related subcases:
a. 𝑄𝑖 > 𝑄𝑜 : the liquid surface rises and the volume increases or

Here, the rate of change of the contained volume is:

ⅆ(𝑽𝒐𝒍)
= 𝑸𝒊 − 𝑸𝒐
ⅆ𝒕
and,
𝒉𝟐
𝑨ⅆ𝒉
𝒕=න
𝒉𝟏 𝑸𝒊 − 𝒄𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈𝒉

where A=f(h), the cross-sectional area

Properties of Orifice Flow: Submerged
Type
By Bernoulli’s Energy Equation from points 1 to 2

𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝟐 𝑷𝟐
+ + 𝒛𝟏 = + + 𝒛𝟐
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
from which the theoretical velocity is obtained as
𝒗𝟐𝟏 𝑷𝟏−𝑷𝟐
𝒗𝒕= 𝒗𝟐 = 𝟐𝒈 𝒉 + +
𝟐𝒈 𝜸

Where
𝑷𝟐 = 𝑷𝟑 + 𝜸𝒉𝟐
Properties of Orifice Flow: Submerged
Type
For the special case, where 𝑃1 = 𝑃3 = 0 and the velocity head at point 1 is negligible, the
equation becomes,
𝒗𝒕 = 𝟐𝒈 𝒉𝟏 − 𝒉𝟐 or 𝒗𝒕 = 𝟐𝒈𝒉
Where h – difference in the liquid surface elevations

The actual discharge is computed as,

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈𝒉
Properties of Orifice Flow: Submerged
Type
The coefficient of discharge C for sharp-edged orifice are slightly smaller than the values of C for the
free flow type.
Unsteady flow problem in a submerged orifice usually requires the determination of the time for the
“equalization” of the surfaces of two tanks.
𝒉𝒐 ⅆ(𝑽𝒐𝒍)
𝒕= ‫׬‬
𝟎 𝑪𝑨𝒐 𝟐𝒈𝒉
Where ℎ𝑜 = ℎ1 − ℎ2 is the initial head at time t=0 and elementary volume is
𝑨𝟏𝑨𝟐
ⅆ 𝑽𝒐𝒍 = ⅆ𝒉
𝑨𝟏+𝑨𝟐
𝐴1 and 𝐴2 being the cross-sectional area of the chambers A and B respectively.
Gates
Gates
The term gate is used to denote an opening in a dam or other hydraulics structure for the
purpose of controlling the passage of water.
It possess the hydraulic properties of an orifice.

Sluice Gate: Free Flow

Gates
The energy equation between points A and B in the contracted section of the stream is
𝒗𝟐𝑨 𝑷𝑨 𝟐
𝒗𝑩 𝑷𝑩
+ + 𝒛𝑨 = + + 𝒛𝑩 + 𝑯𝑳
𝟐𝒈 𝜸 𝟐𝒈 𝜸
𝑣𝐴2
If HL is neglected and the velocity head is assumed to be negligible, the theoretical velocity in
2𝑔
the issuing stream becomes

𝒗𝒕 = 𝒗𝑩 = 𝟐𝒈 ⅆ𝟏 − ⅆ𝟐
and the actual velocity is
𝒗𝒂 = 𝒄𝒗𝒗𝒕
Gates
For a rectangular opening of width b, the area of flow at the opening of the gate is b x d, so that
the coefficient of contraction obtained as
𝒃ⅆ ⅆ𝟐
𝒄𝒄 = 𝟐 or
𝒃ⅆ ⅆ
The actual flow may be computed as

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑨 𝟐𝒈 ⅆ𝟏 − ⅆ𝟐

Where C = 𝐶𝑐𝐶𝑣 and A = bd

Short Tubes
Short Tubes
A short tube is an opening with downstream extensions not sufficiently long to be classified as
pipes.
A standard short tube is a smooth tube with a sharp internal corner and a length equal to about
2.5 diameters.

Standard Short Tubes

Short Tubes
The loss of head is
𝑣𝑎2
𝐻𝑜 = 0.49 or 𝐻𝑜 = 0.33ℎ
2𝑔
Re-entrant Tubes: Borda Mouthpiece
Opening in the form of cylindrical tubes which extend inwardly from the wall of the container
are called re-entrant tubes.
A re-entrant tube with a sharp internal edge and a length equal to about 2.5 diameters is called
Borda mouthpiece
Re-entrant Tubes: Borda Mouthpiece
Because of the pressure of the opening, there is an excess force on the projection of the tube
area along the section of the opposite wall. This static force can be expressed as

𝑭𝒔 = 𝜸ħ
This static force is balanced by the dynamic force effected by a change in the momentum of the
mass per second passing through the mouthpiece
𝑸𝜸
𝑭ⅆ = 𝑴𝒗𝒂 = 𝒗𝒂 or
𝒈
𝒂γ 𝟐 𝒂γ𝒄𝟐𝒗𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝑭ⅆ = 𝒗𝒂 =
𝒈 𝒈
Re-entrant Tubes: Borda Mouthpiece
For equilibrium of the system, Fs=Fd, so
𝒂𝜸𝒄𝟐𝒗𝟐𝒈𝒉
𝜸ħ𝐀 =
𝒈
and
𝒂 𝟏
= = 𝒄𝒄
𝑨 𝟐𝒄𝟐𝒗
Re-entrant Tubes: Borda Mouthpiece
The head loss is
𝟏−𝒄𝒄 𝟐 𝒗𝟐𝒂
𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 = 𝒄𝟐𝒄 𝟐𝒈

The actual velocity is

𝒄𝟐𝒄
𝒗𝒂 = 𝟐𝒈𝒉 𝒄𝟐+ 𝟏−𝒄𝟐
𝒄 𝒄
Diverging Tube
Diverging Tube
The sides of the diverging tube do not diverge rapidly and the total divergence is not too large,
the outgoing stream expands and fills the tube completely.
Diverging Tube
The absolute pressure head at m, corrected for losses is
𝑷𝒎 𝒗𝟐𝒎 𝒗𝟐𝒂 𝒗𝟐𝒂
= 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒎 − − + 𝟏
−𝟏
𝑾 𝑾 𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈 𝒄𝟐𝒗 𝟐𝒈

The flow rate is

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑨 𝟐𝒈𝒉
Where A is the area at the discharge end
Converging Tube
Converging Tube
Unlike the diverging tube, the conical converging tube where the larger end is connected to the
reservoir, causes the outgoing mass of liquid to slightly contract beyond the point of connection,
the conical nozzle.
An adaptation of the nozzle for measuring fluid flow in a pipe where free discharge into the
atmosphere is not possible is known as flow nozzle.
Converging Tube
The nozzle is so shaped that Cc = 1.0
The head loss is
𝟏 𝒗𝟐𝒂
𝑯𝒏 = 𝒄𝟐𝒗
−𝟏
𝟐𝒈
Weirs
 Weirs
The weirs is an overflow structure which are built across an open channel normal to the direction of
flow and widely used for the purpose of flow metering band control.

Classification of weirs according to their shapes:

1. Suppressed and contracted rectangular weirs
2. Triangular or V-notch weirs
3. Trapezoidal weirs
4. Circular
5. Parabolic
Weirs
Weirs
Classification of weirs according to the form of crest:
1. Sharp-crested has thin upstream edge so fashioned that the passing mass of liquid simply
touches a line
Weirs
Classification of weirs according to the form of crest:
2. Broad crested may either be rounded or square upstream corner so that the liquid passing
over the crest comes in contact with a surface
Weirs
The flow over a weir may be
1. Free – when the liquid surface downstream is sufficiently below the crest
2. Submerged – if the surface downstream is above the crest but below the upstream liquid
surface
Weirs
Definition of Terms
• Nappe – the overflowing stream in a weir
• Crest of weir – the edge or top surface of a weir with which the flowing liquid comes in contact
• Contracted Weir – weirs having sides sharp-edged, so that the nappe is contracted in width or having
end contractions, either one end or two ends
• Suppressed Weir or full-width weir – weirs having its length L being equal to the width of the
channel so that the nappe suffers no end contractions
• Drop-down curve – the downward curvature of the liquid surface before the weir
• Head, H – the distance between the liquid surface and the crest of the weir measured before the
drop –down curve
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
𝟑 𝟑
𝟐
𝑸 = 𝑪 𝟐𝒈𝑳 𝑯 + 𝒉𝒗 𝟐 − 𝒉𝒗ൗ
𝟑 ൗ 𝟐

It is common practice to combine

𝟐
𝑪 𝟐𝒈
𝟑
into a single coefficient 𝐶𝑤 the weir factor. The general formula for a discharge through the
rectangular weir becomes:
𝟑 𝟑
𝑸 = 𝑪𝒘𝑳 𝑯 + 𝒉𝒗 ൗ
𝟐 − 𝒉𝒗ൗ 𝟐
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
If the ratio H/P is sufficiently small, the velocity of approach becomes very small and the term
𝟑ൗ
𝒉𝒗 𝟐 may be neglected. The discharge formula becomes
𝟑
𝑸 = 𝑪𝒘𝑳𝑯 ൗ 𝟐

In situations, where the discharge is required

𝟑 𝑯 𝟐
𝑸 = 𝑪𝒘𝑳𝑯 ൗ 𝟐 𝟏 + 𝑪𝟏 ⅆ
𝟑 𝑪𝟐
𝑪𝟏 = 𝒙
𝟐 𝟐𝒈
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Remarks:
1. If the ratio H/P is sufficiently small and the velocity head of approach is negligible, that is
𝑽𝑨𝟐
≈𝟎
𝟐𝒈
Reduces
𝑸𝒂 = 𝑪𝑳𝑯𝟑/𝟐
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
2. Francis suggested a correction factor C’ = 0.622. When this is applied to the equation, it
becomes:
𝟑ൗ
𝟐
𝑽𝟐𝑨 𝑽𝟐𝑨 𝟑ൗ
𝑸𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑳 𝑯+ −
𝟐𝒈 𝟐𝒈
𝟑
𝑸𝒂 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒𝑳𝑯
ൗ 𝟐

This equations are known as Francis formula.

Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Specifications of a Standard Weir (suppressed rectangular weir)
1. Weir plate is vertical and upstream face is smooth
2. The crest is horizontal and normal to the direction of flow. It must be sharp so that the liquid
in passing over the crest will spring free from the edge.
3. The pressure of the upper and the lower nappes is atmospheric.
4. The approach channel is uniform in section and the free surface is free from waves
5. The sides of the channel are vertical and smooth, and shall extend a short distance
downstream of the weir crest.
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Standard Weir Factor Formula
1. Francis Formula
Based upon experiments on a rectangular weirs from 1.07 m to 5.18 m long under heads from
180 mm to 490 m.
𝑯 𝟐
𝒄𝒘 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟔 (SI units)
ⅆ

For H/P < 0.4, the following value of Cw may be used

𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑐𝑤 = 1.84
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑐𝑤 = 3.33
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Standard Weir Factor Formula
2. Rehbock and Chow Formula

𝐻
𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑐𝑤 = 1.8 + 0.22
𝑃

𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡, 𝑐𝑤 = 3.27 + 0.4 𝐻

𝑃
Standard Weir (Suppressed Rectangular)
Standard Weir Factor Formula
3. Bazin Formula
For rectangular weirs of length from 0.5 m to 2 m under heads from 50 mm to 600 mm
𝟐
𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟏𝟔𝟏 𝑯
𝒄𝒘 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟏𝟖 𝟑. 𝟐𝟒𝟖 + 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓
𝑯 ⅆ
Standard Weir (Contracted Rectangular)
When the end of the weir opening have upstream vertical edges, the effect is to reduce the
amount of flow from that which would occur over a standard weir under the same head and
with the same length.
The effective length of L of a contracted weir
𝑳 ′ = 𝑳 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝑵𝑯
Where L – measure of length of the weir
N – number of end contractions (1 or 2)
H – measured head
Triangular or V-notch weir
General triangular (even if the side inclinations are unequal)
𝟒 𝟑
𝑸= 𝑪 𝟐𝒈𝑳𝑯
𝟏𝟓 ൗ 𝟐
Triangular V-notch,
𝟖 𝜃 𝟓
𝑸= 𝑪 𝟐𝒈 tan 𝑯ൗ
𝟏𝟓 2 𝟐
For standard 90° weir,
𝟓
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟓𝑯 ൗ 𝟐,𝑺𝑰 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕
𝟓
𝑸 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝑯 ൗ 𝟐,𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕
Triangular or V-notch weir
Trapezoidal Sharp Crested Weir
𝟑 𝟓
𝑸 = 𝑪𝒘𝟏𝑳𝑯 ൗ 𝟐+ 𝑪𝒘𝟐𝒁𝑯
ൗ 𝟐

Where Z = b/H
Cipolletti Weir
Cipolletti weir are trapezoidal weirs with slope of 1
horizontal to 4 verticals
𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝟓𝟗𝑳𝑯 ൗ 𝟐,𝑺𝑰 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝟑
𝑸 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟕𝑳𝑯 ൗ 𝟐,𝑬𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒔𝒉 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
Suttro Weir or Proportional Flow Weir

𝟏
𝑸= 𝑪𝝅𝑲 𝟐𝒈𝑯
𝟐
𝑲 = 𝟐𝒙 𝒚
Submerged Sharp Weir
The discharge over a submerged sharp-crested weir is affected not only by the head on the
upstream side 𝐻1 but by the head downstream 𝐻2.
There are two (2) types of the submerged weir:
1. The plunging nappe type: when the nappe is similar to that of the free flow type
2. The surface nappe type: when the nappe remains on or near the surface leaving the liquid
below undisturbed.
Submerged Sharp Weir
The discharge for a submerged weir is related to the free or unsubmerged discharge.

Villemonte came up with the empirical formula

𝑸𝒂 = 𝑸′(𝟏 − 𝑺𝒏)𝟎.𝟑𝟖𝟓
Where n – 1.5 for rectangular weir and 2.5 for triangular weir
Q’ – the flow which would result when the head is 𝐻1 and the weir is not submerged
S – H2/H1 known as the submergence ratio
Unsteady Flow Weir (Variable Head)
𝑯𝟏 𝑨𝒔ⅆ𝑯
𝒕= ‫𝑸 𝟐𝑯׬‬
𝒐
If the flow is through a suppressed rectangular weir:
𝟐𝑨𝒔 𝟏 𝟏
𝒕= −
𝑪𝒘𝑳 𝑯𝟐 𝑯𝟏
Where Cw – weir factor
L – Crest length
As – constant water surface area of reservoir or tank
H1 – initial head
H2 – final head
Thank you!
END OF LECTURE - 06