POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

(5023C)

(SCHEME 2021)

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ARIES POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

(Approved by AICTE & Affiliated to Board of Technical Education Kerala)

MATTATHUKAD, ATTAPPADI, PALAKKAD, KERALA – 678581

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INDEX

MODULE TOPIC PAGE NO:

Explain the power scenario of India,

1 Thermal power plants, fuels and 3-68

combustion
Describe the working of hydro power

2 plant, Diesel power plant and Gas 69-100

turbine power plant.
Describe the components and working
3 101-122
of Nuclear power plant.
Identify the issues and necessity of
4 125-149
safety in power plants.

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MODULE-I

CONTENTS: -
1. Introduction to Power plant:
Introduction to power plant; Energy scenario in India; Location of power plant;
Choice of Power plant; Classification of power plants. Elementary level idea on
load calculation.
2. Thermal power plants and Steam turbines.
Line diagram of thermal power plant. Modern steam turbines – reheating- bleeding
– regeneration.
3. Fuels & Combustion.
Fuels - types - Merits - Demerits - requirements of a good fuel- properties – flash-
fire – pour point-Octane number- Cetane number- calorific values- HCV – LCV-
Bomb Calorimeter - Junker's Gas Calorimeter..

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INTRODUCTION TO POWER PLANT

1.1. INTRODUCTION TO POWER PLANT

The whole world is in the grip of energy crisis and the pollution manifesting itself
in the spiraling cost of energy and uncomforted due to increase in pollution as well as the
depletion of conventional energy resources and increasing curve of pollution elements.
To meet these challenges one way is to check growing energy demand but that would
show down the economic growth as first step and to develop nonpolluting energy
conversion system as second step. It is commonly accepted that the standard of living
increases with increasing energy consumption per capita. Any consideration of energy
requirement and supply has to take into account the increase conservation measures. On
the industrial font, emphasis must be placed on the increased with constant effort to
reduce energy consumption. Fundamental changes in the process, production and services
can affect considerable energy saving without affecting the overall economy. It need not
be over emphasized that in house hold commercial and industrial use of energy has
considerable scope in energy saving. Attempt at understanding the integrated relationship
between environment and energy have given shape due to development of R-134a, (an
non pollutant refrigerant) to emerging discipline of environmental management. The
government of India has laid down the policy "it is imperative that we carefully utilize
our renewal (i.e., non-decaying) resources of soil water, plant and animal live to sustain
our economic development" our exploration or exploitation of these is reflected in soil
erosion, salutation, floods and rapid destruction of our forest, floral and wild life
resources. The depletion of these resources often tends to be irreversible since bulk of our
population depends on these natural resources Depletion of these natural resources such
as fuel, fodder, and housing power plant.
A power plant is assembly of systems or subsystems to generate electricity, i.e.,
power with economy and requirements. The power plant itself must be useful
economically and environmental friendly to the society. The present book is oriented to
conventional as well as non-conventional energy generation. While the stress is on

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energy efficient system regards conventional power systems viz., to increase the system
conversion efficiency the supreme goal is to develop, design, and manufacturer the non-
conventional power generating systems in coming decades preferably after 2050 AD
which are conducive to society as well as having feasible energy conversion efficiency
and non-friendly to pollution, keeping in view the pollution act. The subject as a whole
can be also stated as modern power plants for power viz electricity generation in 21st
century The word modern means pertaining to time. At present due to energy crisis the
first goal is to conserve energy for future while the second step is to develop alternative
energy systems including direct energy conversion devices, with the devotion, dedication
and determination remembering the phrase." Delve and Delve Again till wade into”.

1.2. ENERGY SCENARIO IN INDIA

Economic growth in India, being dependent on the power sector, has necessitated
an enormous growth in electricity demand over the last two decades. In 1947, the total
power generation capacity was only 1360 MW, and by 1991 it grew to 55,000 MW, of
which 69% (45,000 MW) was generated in thermal plants.

Hydro developments, as stated are not so environmentally benign as was earlier

believed. They can cause conflict over usage of lands and the damage to ecology. The
total Indian hydro-potential, as assessed by the Central Electricity Authority, is 84,000
MW. The installed capacity is 18,443 MW (March, 1991) compared to 200 kW in 1897
(Darjeeling) and 508 MW at the time of Independence. Most of the turbo machinery have
been indigenously produced by the Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., the largest unit being
165 MW. However, the pace of hydro development has considerably slowed down
recently for many reasons, and the focus is more on mini or small hydel plants in the
mountainous regions. Tentatively, in the order of 26,000 MW of hydro capacity would be
added by 2002 during the 9th five-year plan, as envisaged.

Nuclear power promotion has all but ceased in many areas of the world as a
consequence of growing public concern regarding safety and regulatory hurdles.

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Nonetheless, in India, there appears to be a comparatively energetic nuclear programme.

Presently, in India, about 2.3% of generating capacity is nuclear based.This corresponds
to about 1500 MW of the installed capacity comprising 8 units. An additional 1320 MW
is under construction, based on 220 MW units, and should be on line by 1997. According
to the development plan, the total installed capacity by 2002 will be 5700 MW, including
the first Indian 500 MW PHWR unit in Rajasthan. It is anticipated that following on the
tail of the natural uranium fuelled reactor programme, a fast breeder programme using
plutonium will be established, followed by a thorium based programme, thereby taking
advantage of a large indigenous resource of thorium. The state of the art technology for
the renewable energy utilization (i.e. solar, wind, biomass, tidal. OTEC, etc.) is such that
it will hardly make any contribution to the total energy production. However,
construction of 100 MW ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) project has
commenced in 1994, 40 km offshore from Kulasenkharapatnam in Tamil Nadu.

Coal-fired power plants are now getting maximum attention, since coal is
abundantly available and the implementation time is relatively short. Tentatively, the
additional thermal power generation capacity during the 8th Plan is 28,000 MW and
during the 9th Plan (by 2002) further 32.000 MW has been added as shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1.Indian generation capacity (in MW)

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It has been planned to generate an additional 73,000 MW of power by the end of

the 11th Plan (2007-2012) which excludes the proposed eight ultra megapower projects
with a capacity of 4000 MW each (i.c. 105,000 MW total). The per capita energy
consumption will be still 600 MW in India, while it is 12000 MW in China (in 2006).

As in other parts of the world, natural gas-based combined cycle power plant is
gaining prominence. Consequently, the 8th Plan envisages installation of 7500 MW
capacity, using indigenous gas reserves.

Table 1.2.gives the growth pattern in unit sizes and steam parameters in coal-based
power plants. In the 70s, the focus was on 100 and 200 MW units, while in the 80s it was
on 210 and 500 MW units. Consideration is now being given to increasing the size of
future units to 660,800 and 1000 MW to reduce installation cost per kW.

Table 1.2. Growth pattern in unit sizes and steam parameters

With the liberalization of Indian economy, the power sector has been made open
to the private sector, and it is expected that the rate of growth of generation capacity will
be faster than that envisaged in the five-year plans (Table 1.1).

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1.3. LOCATION OF POWER PLANT

The selection of the site for a power plant depends upon many factors such as cost
of transmission of energy, cost of fuel, cost of land and taxes, requirement of space,
availability of site for water power, storage space for fuel, transport facilities, availability
of cooling water, nature of load, degree of reliability, pollution and noise, interest and
depreciation etc.

1.3.1. Cost of Transmission of Energy:

A power plant should be located as near to the load centre as possible. This
reduces the transmission costs and losses in transmission.

Hydroelectric, steam (coal based) and nuclear power plants cannot be located near
the load centres and need transmission lines of larger, shorter and moderate length. Diesel
and gas turbine power plants can be located anywhere and so no transmission line is
required. However, the modern power plants are of large capacities and feed a grid which
supplies power to large areas. As such other considerations become more significant than
the consideration of location of plant near the load centre.

1.3.2. Cost of Fuel:

The cost of fuel is an important consideration in deciding the type of power plant
for a particular location. With hydroelectric power plants there is no cost of fuel as the
source of power is water but water should be available in huge quantity and at sufficient
head.

For steam plants, the cost of coal for the boilers and the availability of coal are
important considerations. If cheap oil is available, the boilers may be oil fired and steam
plants may complete other types of power plants. Steam power plants are most
economical near coal mines and by the side of river or canal.

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Fuel used in nuclear power plant is expensive and is difficult to recover. Diesel
engines need oil as fuel and cost of this depends on the location of the power plant. For
instance, if the plant is to be located near oil fields where oil is available in plenty and at
cheaper rates and the transportation cost is extremely small, it may be economical to
install a diesel power plant from the point of view of fuel cost.

1.3.3. Cost of Land and Taxes:

The costs of land as well as taxes on the land are dependent on the situation of the
proposed power plant. The cost of land near a load centre (in a big city) may be very high
as compared to that at remote place. The taxes also would be higher for land in the centre
of a commercial city. This is therefore, an important point to be considered in the
economic selection of site.

1.3.4. Requirement of Space:

The space and building requirements of the power plant is another point to be
considered. If the building and space required are both large, the cost of land as well as
building will be large. Thus, large power plants in the hearts of big cities and near the
centre of gravity of load are not economical.

A hydroelectric power plant requires a lot of space for civil engineering

construction works like dams etc., the building has to be much larger than required by
other types of power plants, and a number of arrangements have to be provided in the
building as special features which are quite different from those in other types of power
plants. The location, however, is suitable at site where water is available at enough head
and the cost of land is not excessive.

Steam power plants do not need so much space, but they require space more than
that required by other power plants (diesel, gas turbine, nuclear). Diesel power plant
needs minimum space. The space required for gas turbine power plant is more than that
for diesel power plant but less than that for hydro, steam and nuclear power plants.

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In case of nuclear power plants, the substrata must be strong enough to support the
heavy reactors which may weigh as high as 1,000,000 tonnes and impose bearing
pressures around 50 tonnes/m2. Area remote from coal fields and hydro site are preferable
so as to improve the reliability of supply over the area. The site selected for nuclear
power plants should have adequate space and arrangement for the disposal of radioactive
waste.

1.3.5. Availability of Site for Water Power:

In deciding the type of power plant for a given location, it is desirable to

investigate whether any suitable source of water and sites are available for the
development of hydroelectric power plant. Some of the considerations are topography of
land, rainfall during the year, catchment area, suitable site for storing water behind the
dam, huge quantity of water at sufficient head and cost of civil engineering works.

1.3.6. Storage Space for Fuel:

A steam (coal-based) power plant needs space for storage of coal in amounts
depending on the size of plant. A supply of coal for the next 2/3 weeks at least should
always be available on site. The amount of reserve stock required depends on the location
of power plant. If the plant is near a coal mine it may not be necessary to store a large
quantity, while if the coal has to be transported from a long distance over lake or rail etc.,
a large stock may be required.

For oil fuel the space required is comparatively small. The quantity required as
space depends to a great extent on the degree of security of oil supplies.

1.3.7. Transportation Facilities:

The location of a power plant is dependent to some extent on the availability of

transportation facilities. It is necessary to have a railway, line available and extended to
the yard for bringing in heavy machinery for installation in the beginning and for
bringing in fuel-coal or oil as well as material required for maintenance. Alternatively,

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the plant may be located on the bank of a river where facilities are available for transport
by barges or ships.

The machinery to be transported for a steam plant is rather heavy, as the plant will
in general be much larger than a diesel plant. For a diesel power plant the problem of
transport is not so acute, the plant is generally small, the machines and equipment to be
brought in are not very heavy, and large quantities of fuels are not required.

Road transport should, however, be available. For hydroelectric power plants,

remote from the normal available rail and other transport facilities, roads are to be built
leading to the site and arrangements made so that the equipment can be taken to site.
Heavy equipment may have to be transported in parts and assembled on site. As nuclear
power plant needs very little fuel, hence it does not require direct rail facilities for fuel
transport. However, transportation facilities are required during the construction stage.

1.3.8. Availability of Cooling Water:

A steam power plant needs larger quantities of cooling water than diesel and gas
turbine power plants. Water is circulated through condenser tubes to condense the steam
and to maintain a high vacuum in the turbine condenser for high efficiency. Thus, site
adjacent to larger bodies of water are preferable. Alternatively, tube-wells and cooling
towers have to be installed and their cost must be taken into account.

Availability of reasonable pure water as make up water is another requirement. A

diesel power plant requires water for cooling the cylinders of engines, and for this, water
is required to be circulated through the cylinder jackets. The quantity of water required is,
however, very small compared to the requirement of the steam power plant, and the
diesel power plant is much smaller.

The diesel power plant, therefore, can be located at a place that is suitable from
other points of view. Gas turbine power plants, also need little cooling water and can be
located anywhere if other requirements are met. Nuclear power plants need more than

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twice the water required for the steam plant of the same size for cooling etc. Hence, the
site selected for nuclear power plant should be near a river or lake or by sea side.

1.3.9. Disposal of Ash:

A steam power plant produces huge quantity of ash. A site where ash can be
disposed off easily will naturally be beneficial. In case of nuclear power plants, the
disposal of products (radioactive in nature) is a big problem. They have either to be
disposed off in a deep trench or in a sea away from the seashore.

1.3.10. Pollution and Noise:

A site for a power plant near a load centre may be objectionable from the point of
view of noise and pollution. Diesel engines are noisy and people in the vicinity are likely
to raise complaints. Similarly gas turbine power plants also produce noise. A steam
power plant in the centre of city may also cause noise, though not so much as a diesel
power plant. Smoke from the chimney of a steam power plant is undesirable in cities.

There is a danger of presence of radioactivity in the atmosphere near a nuclear

power plant. However, as a precautionary measure, a dome is used in the plant which
does not allow the radioactivity to spread by wind or underground water ways. Noise of
exhaust from diesel engines is objectionable, but may be reduced to some extent by
means of silencers.

1.3.11. Nature of Load:

The nature of load to be supplied affects the choice of the power plant to a certain
extent. If the load varies suddenly to a great extent; so that the load factor is poor, and if
the load is not very large, a diesel or a gas turbine plant will be chosen as they are more
adaptable than a steam/nuclear power plants as they can be started quickly and can be put
to share full load within few minutes.

With a steam plant the boilers have to keep banked and ready to pick up load any
time. The steam power plant also requires a longer time for starting and for taking load,
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as the necessary vacuum has to be created and maintained before the load can be shared.
Nuclear power plants are not well suited for varying load since the reactor does not
respond to the fluctuations of load efficiently.

Nuclear power plants also needs a longer time (2-3 hours) for starting and taking
load. If hydroelectric power plant of small or suitable capacity is available, it can be
started quickly and take up load, and thus can be employed for the varying loads.

1.3.12. Reliability of Supply:

In case all the big power plants are located on one side of a state, the reliability of
supply in remote areas would be poor. As such power plants should be located in
different areas of the state so that reliability of supply is good everywhere.

1.3.13. Equitable Growth of Different Areas:

It has been seen that availability of power from a nearby source in an area
encourages setting up of heavy industries in that area and consequently, the ancillary
industries are also to come up. This can improve the economy of a backward area
significantly. In a welfare state committed to growth of all regions, some power plants
should, therefore, be installed in backward areas. In such areas land and labour will also
be available at cheaper rates.

1.3.14. Interest and Depreciation:

The capital required initially depends on the total investment on the power plant,
power system layout and installation. The rate of interest on capital depends only on the
availability of money in the market, and not on the type of power plant. The depreciation
cost, however, varies with the type of power plant. The depreciation in case of
hydroelectric, steam, nuclear, diesel and turbine power plants may be taken as 1 -2%, 3
1/2 -4 %, 3-4%, 5-6% and 6 1/2% respectively.

In case of plant proposed for an industrial complex, the problems of selection of

the type of the plant and its location are quite simple. If the site is near a lake, river or sea
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the condensing steam power plant may prove economical. If there is a scarcity of water
supply, then the possibility of setting up of either a steam plant or a diesel plant using
spray ponds or cooling towers may be investigated. If the site is near a river with a
favourable hydro site, then the hydro plant can be set up. Anyhow before deciding the
type of plant, the total annual cost for each option must be worked out.

There can be no generalization in respect to the choice of the type of plant. Each
case will have to be studied individually and decided on its merits by working out the
economics involved. Whatever the choice, the power supply must be reliable and
available at cheaper rates.

1.4. CHOICE OF POWER PLANT

The choice of a particular power plant mainly depends upon the availability of a
source of energy. If the water is available with sufficient head then the hydropower
plant is going to be selected. When the coal is available in huge quantity and surrounding
is permitting against the pollution, then the thermal power plant is suitable.

The nuclear power plant can be selected to set up near the sea, river, lake, etc. So
that the nuclear disposal can be done very safely without creating pollution to the
environment.

When the load is smaller than the diesel power plant is preferred. If the wind
energy is available with sufficient hilly area then the wind power plant is preferred.
With the availability of solar energy, the solar power plant can be preferred. The choice
of a power plant further depends upon the availability of labour, accessibility and
transmission cost, etc.

While choosing the type of power plant following points are considered:

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1. The type of fuel available or availability of suitable sites for water power
generation.
2. Fuel transportation cost.
3. Land required.
4. Foundation cost.
5. The availability of cooling water.
6. The type of load to be taken by the power plant.
7. Reliability in operation.
8. Plant life.
9. Cost of transmitting energy.
1.5. CLASSIFICATION OF POWER PLANTS

1. According to the nature of the load:

1. Baseload power plant

2. Peak load power plant

2. According to the fuel used:

1. Hydropower plant

2. Steam power plant

a. Condensing power plant

b. Non-condensing power plant

3. Diesel power plant

4. Nuclear power plant

5. Gas-turbine power plant

3. According to the non-conventional power generation:

1. Geothermal power plant

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2. Tidal power plant

3. Solar power plant

4. Wind power plant

5. Biogas power plant

4. According to the service:

1. Fixed power plant

2. Mobile power plant

1. Base Load Plant

This is the power plant which works individually and supplies the power to the
whole load. This type of plant takes the load on the base portion of the load curve. The
load on the plant remains more or less constant throughout the operation period. Baseload
plants are large in capacity. The load factor of these types of power plants is high.

2. Peak Load Plant

The peak load plants are designed for taking care of the peak load of the demand
curve. These plants supply the power to the load premises when there is a peak load
period only. Rest of the time the power is supplied by main plants. In these types of
power plants, the main power plant is always required and hydropower plant works as
secondary plant and shares the load of two to three hours.

3. Hydro Power Plant

In hydro-power plants, the energy of water is used to move the turbines which in
turn run the electric generators. The energy of water used for power generation may be
kinetic or potential. Hydro-power is a conventional renewable source of energy which is
clean, free from pollution and has a good environmental effect.

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It requires a large investment and involves increased cost of power transmission.

The main aim of the hydro-electric power plant is to harnessing power from water
flowing under pressure. This power plant has a high useful life of about 100-125 years. It
requires low maintenance cost compared to the thermal power plant. It can be started
quickly and synchronize the plant.

4. Steam Power Plant

The steam power plant is also known as a thermal power plant. In which the heat
energy is converted into electrical power with the help of a steam turbine. The water is
heated, converted into steam and rotates a steam turbine which operates an electric
generator.

The fuel cost of the thermal power plant is relatively low. The heat production
system is very simple compared to the other system. We can produce thermal energy
almost everywhere in the world. These are located in a place where the movement of
people is minimum.

5. Diesel Power Plant

The diesel power plants are placed where the supply of coal and water is not
available. Or where power is to be generated in small quantity. Or where standby sets are
required for continuity of supply such as hospitals, telephone exchanges etc. These plants
in the range of 2 to 50 MW capacity are used as central stations for small supply
authorities and works.

The design and installation are very simple of these plants. It occupies less space
compared to other power plants. This plants can be easily started and put on a load
quickly. There is no problem with ash handling. It requires less quantity of water for
cooling purpose.

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6. Nuclear Power Plant

A nuclear power plant is a thermal power station in which the heat source is a
nuclear reactor. As in one of the thermal power stations, heat is used to produces steam
that drives a steam turbine attached to a generator that generates electricity.

7. Gas Turbine Plant

The gas turbine is the most satisfactory power developing unit among various
means of generating mechanical power. It is done due to its excellent reliability, freedom
from vibration, and capability to produce large power from units of small size and
weights.

8. Geothermal Power Plant

The geothermal power plants are related to other steam turbine thermal power
plants. In this heat from the fuel source is used to heat water or any other working fluid.
The working fluid is then used to rotate on the turbine of a generator, for producing
electricity.

9. Tidal Power Plant

Tidal power or tidal energy is a form of hydropower that converts energy derived
from tides primarily into useful forms of electricity. Although not yet generally used,
tidal energy has the potential to generate future electricity.

10. Solar Power Plant

A solar power plant is based on the conversion of sunlight into electricity either
directly photovoltaics or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Concentrated solar
power systems use lenses, mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight
into a small beam.

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11. Wind Power Plant

Wind power is a natural form of energy which is capable of creating electricity or

mechanical force. Windmills or wind turbine are the devices that are capable of turning
the kinetic energy of the wind into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is further
transformed into electric energy.

12. Biogas Power Plant

A biogas plant is a decentralized energy system, which can lead to self-sufficiency

in heat and electricity needs, and at the same time decrease the environmental pollutions.

1.6. ELEMENTARY LEVEL IDEA ON LOAD CALCULATION.

When planning a power plant, the two basic parameters to be decided are:

1. Total power output to be installed (kWinst)

2. Size of the generating units.

The total installed capacity required can be determined from:

1. First demand (kW) estimated.

2. Growth of demand anticipated.
3. Reserve capacity required

The size of the generating units will depend on

1. Variation of load (load curve) during 24 hours (summer, winter, week- days,
holidays).
2. Total capacity of units connected to the electric grid.
3. Minimum start-up and shut-down periods of the units.
4. Maintenance programme planned.
5. Plant efficiency vs. size of unit
6. Price and space demand per kW vs. size of unit.

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For estimating the expected maximum load, the most useful tool is the construction of
a hypothetical load curve. Figure 1.1 shows the typical hourly load curve in a
metropolitan area, from which the maximum demand can be estimated. Several factors
used in the electricity supply industry in this regard are defined below:

Thus, if a plant has a peak load of 1000 MW but the average annual load is 350
MW, its annual load factor would be only 0.35. Most of its capacity remains unutilized
for major part of the year, and so the cost would be high. The average load is estimated
by dividing the area under the daily load curve by the time period considered (Fig. 1.2).

If the rated capacity of the plant is equal to the peak load, then the load factor and
capacity factor will be numerically equal. The difference between load factor and
capacity factor is an indication of the reserve capacity.

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Fig. 1.1. Typical hourly variation in energy demand for different types of electrical
load and curves of total load in a metropolitan area

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Fig. 1.2.Load curve

Each consumer has a "connected load" which is the sum of the continuous ratings
of all the equipment and outlets on the consumer's circuits. The maximum demand is the
maximum load which a consumer uses at any time. It is always less than, or equal to, the
connected load.

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The time distribution of maximum demands for similar types of consumers is

measured by a term called "diversity factor". It is the ratio of the sum of the maximum
demands of the individual consumers and the simultaneous maximum demand of the
whole group during a particular time.

The diversity factor is illustrated in Fig. 1.3(a). It is given to be

Diversity helps to improve the load factor and economic operation of the power
plant. Figure 1.3(b) shows the load curves of an industrialized country, the annual peak
occurring in winter. The seasonal variation in the load influences the maintenance
programme of the power plants. Major maintenance work (cleaning, overhauling etc.) has
to be done during the off-peak season.

A high load factor is, in general, an indication of balanced load curve with
relatively small load changes.

High values of demand factor, load factor, diversity factor and capacity factor are
desired for economic operation of the plant and to produce electricity at less cost

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It is the ratio of energy produced in a given time to the maximum possible energy
that could have been produced during the same time of operation. If the operating time is
1 year or 8760 hrs, the plant use factor is equal to the capacity factor (i.c., u=n)

As the plant-use factor approaches 1, it indicates the need for additional capacity
of the plant. The plant capacity is always designed to be greater than the peak load to take
extra foads coming in future. The high value of the plant use factor indicates that the
plant is operating quite efficiently. In some inter- connected systems, the plant use factor
may exceed unity (e.g., 1.1 or 1.2) indicating that the loads carried are in excess of the
rated capacity since an equipment is always designed to take 10 to 20% more load than
rated. The different factors are indicated in Fig. 1.3 (c).

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It can be seen that

Load factor x Use factor = Capacity factor

Larger the unit size less is the cost of electricity produced. Therefore, larger units
are more economical than smaller units as regards investment per kW and operating
expenses per kWh. Investigations should be made in each individual case, considering all
operational, technical and economic factors involved, to determine the maximum unit
size admissible. A reserve factor of 1.2 to 1.25 is often found to be satisfactory. The unit
size must not exceed 20 to 25% of the total generating capacity of the plant.

In order to obtain a basis for economical operation of the various types of

generating units normally connected to a grid and also for planning of tarifs, it is useful to
construct load duration curves for typical days which indicate the power demands at
different intervals of time. There can be residential loads (domestic lights, heaters,
refrigerator, TV, audio and video cassette recorders, etc.), commercial loads (shops,
offices, advertisements, restaurants, etc.), industrial loads (various mills and factories),
municipal loads (street lighting, power for water supply and drainage), irrigation loads
and truction loads (railways, trams, trolleys, etc.). The construction of a load duration
curve for one day from the chronological load curve of this day is illustrated in Fig.

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1.4(b). It rearranges the load elements of a chronological curve in the descending order of
magnitude. The area under the curve is

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The load duration curve indicates for how many hours a certain load has been required in
the course of the day. By compiling the load hours on various days, the load duration
curves for one month (720 hr) or one year (8760 hr) can be obtained (Fig. 1.4). Daily,
monthly and yearly load duration curves aid better planning for economical utilization of
the power plants, existing or planned.

Figure 1.5 shows the construction of a load-duration curve using the daily load curve.
The area under the annual load duration curve represents the total energy supplied by the
utility's generating system during the year. It is usually divided into three parts:

1. Base load

2. Intermediate load

3. Peaking load

The base load is the load below which the demand never falls and is supplied
100% of the time. The peaking load occurs for about 15% of the time. The intermediate
load represents the remaining load region. Since peaking load plants are used only for a
small fraction of time, the fuel cost is not of major importance. Minimum capital cost
should be the criterion. The base load plants are plants which are loaded very heavily.
Operating costs of such plants are very important. A high capital cost is permissible if

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low operating costs can be maintained (e.g. new, large coal and nuclear power stations).
Intermediate load plant can be somewhat smaller than older units. By judicious
combination of all the tree types of generation-peak, intermediate and base maximum
economy can be achieved.

The variable load problem affects power plant design and operation as well as the
cost of generation. A careful study of the load duration curve helps to decide the capacity
of the base load plant and also of the peak load plant. The base load plant should be run at
high load factor. The peak load plant should be of smaller capacity to reduce the cost of
generation. It could be a gas turbine unit, pumped hydro-system, compressed air energy
storage system or a diesel engine depending on the size and scope of availability. If the
whole of load is to be supplied by the same power plant then the prime movers and
generators. should act fairly quickly and take up or shed load without variation of the
voltage or frequency of the system. It is the function of the governor to control the supply
of fuel to the prime mover according to load. The capacity of the generators should be so
chosen as to suit and fit into the portions of the predicted load curve. If the load
conditions differ too much from this capacity, the cost of energy increases.

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THERMAL POWER PLANTS AND STEAM TURBINES

1.7. THERMAL POWER PLANT.

The most common type of Thermal power plant in the world, accounting for about
60% of global electricity generation are Thermal Plants. A thermal power plant is a large
facility that converts heat energy into electric power. The heat energy is typically
generated by burning fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, or natural gas. The hot combustion
gases are used to heat water in a boiler, which produces steam. The steam is then used to
turn a turbine, which is connected to an electric generator. The generator converts the
mechanical energy of the turbine into electric power.

Fig 1.6.Layout and Working Principle Diagram of Power Plant

Thermal power plants are a major source of electricity in the world. They are
reliable and efficient, and they can be built on a large scale. However, they also have a
number of environmental drawbacks, including air pollution and greenhouse gas
emissions.

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One way to reduce the environmental impact of thermal power plants is to use
high-volume combustion technologies. These technologies allow for more efficient
combustion of fuel, which reduces emissions. High-volume combustion technologies are
also being used to develop new types of thermal power plants that use renewable energy
sources, such as biomass and solar thermal energy.

Thermal power plants can be classified into two main types:

1. Conventional thermal power plants: These plants use a steam turbine to

generate electricity. The steam is created by burning a fuel, such as coal, natural
gas, or oil, in a boiler.
2. Combined cycle Thermal power plants: These plants use a gas turbine and
a steam turbine to generate electricity. The gas turbine is used to generate
electricity in the first stage, and the steam turbine is used to generate electricity in
the second stage. The heat from the gas turbine is used to heat water and create
steam for the steam turbine.

Thermal power plants have a number of advantages, including:

 They are relatively inexpensive to build and operate.

 They can be built in a variety of sizes, from small thermal power plants that can
power a single community to large plants that can power an entire country
 They are reliable and can be operated for a long period of time without
interruption.

However, thermal power plants also have a number of disadvantages, including:

 They emit greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, that contributes to climate
change.
 They can pollute the air with pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides.

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 They consume large amounts of water,that can be a problem in areas with limited
water resources.

Despite these disadvantages, thermal power plants are still an important source of
electricity in many countries. As the world is transiting to a cleaner energy future,
thermal power plants need to be modified to reduce emissions and environmental impact.

1.8. THERMAL POWER PLANT COMPONENTS

A Thermal power plant is an electric-producing plant. Certain thermal power stations

are also designed to produce heat for industrial purposes, district heating, or desalination
of water, in addition to generating electrical power. Here are thermal power plant
components and working principles.

 River or Canal
 Heater
 Boiler
 Super heater
 Economizer
 Air pre-heater
 Turbine
 Condenser
 Cooling towers and ponds
 Alternator
 Feed water pump
Here are the main thermal power plant parts and functions.

1.8.1. River or Canal

As we know here a huge amount of water is present, and it is further used for the
generation of electricity.

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1.8.2. Heater

As the name indicates, a low or high-pressure heater means that it increases or

decreases the pressure of the water.

1.8.3. Boiler

In the boiler, there are two sections: one section refers to coal storage and coal
handling that store the coal and further used it when needed. The other section is the ash
handling and ash storage plant where the produced ash from the process of coal burning
goes to ash storage.

The mixture of pulverized coal and air is taken into the boiler and then burnt in the
combustion zone. On ignition of the fuel, a large fireball is formed at the center of the
boiler and a large amount of heat energy is radiated from it. The heat energy finds use to
convert the water into steam at high temperature and pressure. Steel tubes run along the
boiler walls in which water is converted into steam. The flue gases from the boiler make
their way through the superheater, economizer, air preheater, and finally, get exhausted to
the atmosphere from the chimney.

1.8.4. Superheater

The super heater tubes are hung at the hottest part of the boiler. The saturated
steam produced in the boiler tubes is superheated to about 540 °C in the superheater. The
superheated high-pressure steam is then fed to the steam turbine.

1.8.5. Economizer

An economizer is essentially a feedwater heater that heats the water before

supplying it to the boiler. When water pressure gets increased there some amount of heat
generates and that heat sends from the economizer to the boiler.

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1.8.6. Air pre-heater

The primary air fan takes air from the atmosphere, and it is then warmed in the air
pre-heater. Pre-heated air is injected with coal in the boiler. The advantage of pre-heating
the air is that it improves coal combustion.

1.8.7. Turbine

The main function of the turbine is that when steam strikes the turbine the blade
rotates and it converts the heat energy into mechanical energy. High-pressure superheated
steam is fed to the steam turbine which causes turbine blades to rotate. The energy in the
steam is converted into mechanical energy in the steam turbine which acts as the prime
mover. The pressure and temperature of the steam fall to a lower value and it expands in
volume as it passes through the turbine. The expanded low-pressure steam is exhausted in
the condenser.

1.8.8. Condenser

The condenser presents here to cool the working fluid or we can say to remove the
heat from the water. The exhaust steam is condensed in the condenser using cold water
circulation. Here, the steam loses its pressure as well as temperature and it is converted
back into water. Condensing is essential because compressing a fluid that is in a gaseous
state requires a huge amount of energy concerning the energy required in compressing
liquid. Thus, condensing increases the efficiency of the cycle.

1.8.9. Cooling towers and ponds

A condenser needs a huge quantity of water to condense the steam. Most plants
use a cooled cooling system where warm water coming from the condenser is cooled and
reused. A cooling tower is a steel or concrete hyperbolic structure with a height of 150m.

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1.8.10. Alternator

The steam turbine is coupled to an alternator. When the turbine rotates the
alternator, electrical energy is generated. This generated electrical voltage is then stepped
up with the help of a transformer and then transmitted where it is to be utilized.

1.8.11. Feedwater pump

The condensed water is again fed to the boiler by a feedwater pump. Some water
may be lost during the cycle, which is suitably supplied from an external water source.

1.9. THERMAL POWER PLANT OPERATION

According to the thermal power plant diagram, the generation of power in the
thermal power plant involves the following steps.

1. Coal and ash circuit

2. Air and flue gas circuit
3. Feed water and steam circuit
4. Cooling water circuit

The following circuits describe the working of the thermal power plant.

1.9.1. Coal and ash circuit

The coal is transported from coal supplying authorities to the coal storage yard of
the generating plant. From here the coal is delivered to the pulverized coal plants with the
help of a conveyor. After removing unwanted substances from the coal, it is pulverized in
coal dust. Pulverization makes coal more efficient for burning. After the combustion of
the coal, the ash is collected at the ash handling plant. Then the ash is finally collected in
the ash storage yard.

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1.9.2. Air and flue gas circuit

The systems involved in this circuit are the Air filter, Air Preheater, Dust
Collector, and Chimney. The air from the atmosphere is sent to Air Preheater. After that,
with the help air filter series dust from the air is removed. The chimney will serve as a
system to dispose of waste (exhaust gas). As the flue gas flow diagram of the thermal
power plant shows, after the combustion process, the flue gas which has a sufficient
quantity of heat is made to pass boiler tubes, dust collectors, economizers, and Preheater
before passing out through a chimney. The water and air get preheated by passing the flue
gas around the economizer and Preheater. All these things will happen before going to
the boiler.

1.9.3. Feedwater and steam circuit

The system involves the following boiler feed pump, boiler, turbine, and feedwater
heaters. The steam which was produced is passed through the superheater and then to the
steam turbine. The steam turbine is coupled to the condenser where the steam exits. In the
condenser, the steam is condensed. Then the condensate is heated through a high-pressure
and low-pressure heater. In the economizer, the steam is further heated. There would be a
loss of water and steam while passing through different components, to compensate for
those losses feed water is supplied.

1.9.4. Cooling water circuit

The cooling circuit consists of the cooling water pump, condenser, and cooling
tower. A massive amount of water is needed for condensing steam in the condenser. A
large supply of water can be from lakes or nearby rivers. If the enormous amount of
water supply is not available means, the water coming out from the condenser can be
cooled and reused.

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Fig 1.7. Diagram of thermal power plant.

1.10. APPLICATION OF THERMAL POWER PLANT

The thermal power plant produces electricity to put on the electrical grid.
Following are other uses of thermal power plants.

1. Producing power only for a private client.

2. Using extraction steam from a steam turbine to process heat at a plant nearby, such
as a paper manufacturer.

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3. Producing power using waste heat that occurs in processing, such as a chemical
plant that produces heat from a reaction. Waste heat is sent to a waste heat boiler,
producing steam that is used in a turbine generator set.
4. Producing electrical power from geothermal energy either using hot water
injection or using a chemical that turns to a gas which is then used to turn a turbine
generator set.
5. As a quick start back up to solar energy and or wind energy (combustion turbines)
which is the secondary means of power production.
6. Thermal plants can burn many different sources and types of fuel. Whatever is
cheapest or plentiful. Even burning trash instead of burying trash, then producing
power from the heat generated.

1.11. MODERN STEAM TURBINES

The scientist and engineers, working in research centers all over the world, concentrated
their attention to produce more power and to improve efficiencies of turbines. They have
listed a number of methods for this purpose as follows:
1. Reheating of steam,
2. Regenerative feed heating, and
3. Binary vapour plants.

1.11.1. Reheating of Steam

Efficiency of the ordinary Rankine cycle can be improved by increasing the

pressure and temperature of the steam entering into the turbine, A little consideration will
show, that the increase in the initial steam pressure will increase the expansion ratio, and
steam will become quite wet at the end of expansion. As a matter of fact, it is not
desirable that the steam may become wet at the end of expansion The wet steam causes
erosion of the turbine blades and increases internal losses. This will ultimately reduce the
blade efficiency of the turbine.

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The above mentioned difficulty may he overcome by reheating of the steam. In

this system, the steam is removed from the turbine when it becomes wet. It is then
reheated at a constant pressure by the flue gases, until it is again in the superheated state.
It is then returned to the next stage in the turbine.

Fig 1.8.Reheating of Steam

Advantages of Reheating of Steam

The reheating of steam in a turbine has the following advantages:

1. It increases the work done through the turbine.

2. It increases the efficiency of the turbine.
3. It reduces the erosion of the blades, because of increase in dryness fraction of
steam at exhaust.

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4. The amount of water required in the condenser of the turbine is reduced, due to
reduction in the specific steam consumption.

1.11.2. Reheat Cycle

In a reheat cycle, the steam enters the turbine in a superheated state at point A. The
steam then expands isentropically while flowing through the turbine as shown by the
vertical line AB. After expansion, the steam becomes wet, which is reheated at a
constant pressure generally up to the same temperature as that at A shown by the
point C, where it is again in superheated state. The steam again expands isentropically
while flowing through the next stage of the turbine as shown by the vertical line CD.

Now consider a steam turbine with a reheating system as shown in Fig.

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Let, hA = Enthalpy of steam at A,

hB, hC, hD = Corresponding values at B,C and D,

hfD = Enthalpy of water at D.

Total heat supplied = Total heat at A +Heat supplied between B and C

= hA +[(hC -hB )– hfD ]

Work done = Total heat drop = (hA - hB) + (hC - hD)

( ) ( )
Efficiency ,Ղ = =
[( )– ]

1.12. MULTI-STAGE TURBINE

In the two stage impulse steam turbine, steam after leaving the moving blade is
made to flow through a fixed ring and again in impinges on the blades fixed to the second
moving ring. If the steam from the second moving ring is made to flow into the
condenser, it is known as two-stage turbine. But sometimes, we make the stem to pass
through a number of stages in order to get more work for precisely to develop more
power. Such a turbine is known as multi-stage turbine.

1.12.1. Reheat Factor

It is an important term used for the multi-stage turbines, which may be broadly
defined as the ratio of cumulative heat drop to the isentropic heat drop. Now consider a
multi stage turbine (say three-stage turbine) whose reheat factor is required to be found
out.

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1.12.2. Efficiencies of a Multi-stage Turbine

1. Stage efficiency: It is the ratio of the work done on the rotor in a stage to the
isentropic heat drop for the same stage.

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2. Internal efficiency: It is the ratio of the total work done on the rotor to the total
isentropic heat drop.

3. Efficiency ratio: It is defined as the ratio of the total work produced at the driving
end of the shaft per kg of steam to the total isentropic heat drop across the turbine.

4. Overall thermal efficiency: It is the ratio of the work delivered at the turbine
shaft to the heat supplied.

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5. Rankin efficiency: It is the ratio of the isentropic heat drop to the heat supplied.

1.13. REGENERATIVE FEED HEATING

If the condensate, from the condenser, is pumped back and circulated around the
turbine casing, in the direction opposite to the steam flow in the turbine and the steam is
thus heated before entering into the boiler is known as regenerative heating, as the steam
is used to heat the steam itself.

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1.13.1. Bleeding

The process of draining steam from the turbine, at certain points during its expansion
and using this steam for heating the feed water and then supplying it to the boiler is
known as bleeding. The effects of bleeding are:

1. It increases the thermodynamic efficiency of the turbine.

2. The boiler is supplied with a hot water.
3. A small amount of work is lost by the turbine, which decreases the power
developed.

1.13.2. Regenerative cycle with single feed water heater

Consider a regenerative cycle with single feed water heater as shown in fig. The
steam (at pressure P1) enters the turbine at point A. Let a small amount(say m kg) after
partial expansion ( at pressure P2) be drained from the turbine at point B and enter the
feed water heater. The remaining steam(at pressure P3 ) is further expand in the turbine
and leaves at point C.

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Now consider 1 kg of steam entering the turbine at point A.

Let

h1 = Enthalpy of steam entering the turbine at A,

h2 = Enthalpy of bled steam,

h3 = Enthalpy of steam leaving the turbine at C,

hf2= Enthalpy of feed water leaving the feed water heater,

hf3 =Enthalpy of steam leaving the condenser,

m= Amount of bled steam per kg of steam supplied.

We know that heat lost by bled steam = Heat gained by feed water

m(h2 –hf2) = (1 - m)(hf2 – hf3)

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Work done in the turbine per kg of feed water between A and B

= h 1 – h2

Mass of steam in the turbine per kg of feed water between B and C

= (1 - m) kg

Work done in the turbine between B and C

= (1 - m)(h2 – h3)

Total work done = (h1 – h2 ) + (1-m)(h2 – h3)

and total heat supplied per kg of feed water

= h1 – hf2

Efficiency of the cycle including the effect of bleeding,

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1.13.3. Regenerative cycle with two feed water heater

In this case, the steam is removed from the turbine at two points B and B 1. It is
then fed into two open feed water heaters 1 and 2 as shown in fig. The steam(at pressure
P1) enters the turbine at point A. Let a small amount of steam (say m1 kg.) after partial
expansion (at pressure P2) be drained from the turbine at point B and enter the feed water
heater 1. Similarly, let another small amount of steam (say m2 kg.) after further expansion
( at pressure P3) be drained from the turbine at point B1 and enter the feed water heater 2.
The remaining steam equal to (1 - m1 - m2) kg. (At pressure P4) is further expanded in
turbine, and leaves it at point C.

1.14. BINARY VAPOUR PLANTS

The maximum possible efficiency of any steam engine is given by the equation

Where T1 is the higher Temperature at which heat is absorbed and

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T3 is the lower temperature at which heat is rejected

1.14.1. Binary Vapour Cycle

The binary vapour cycle on a T-s diagram is shown in fig. The line AB represents
the evaporation of liquid mercury plotted to the same temperature scale as that of steam .
But the scale for the corresponding pressure for the mercury is lower. The mercury
vapours at B has a much higher temperature than the steam at the same pressure. The
mercury vapours are now expanded isentropically in a mercury turbine as represented by
the line CD. During condensation the latent heat is utilized for evaporating a
corresponding amount of steam.

The steam cycle is represented by 1-2- 3-4-5 as shown in fig. The line 1-2
represents the evaporation by the condensing mercury. The line 2-3 represents the
superheating of steam by the flue gases. The steam expanded isentropically through
steam turbine represents by the line 3-4. The condensation of the exhaust steam is
represented by the line 4-5. The heating of feed water is represented by the line 5-1.

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FUELS & COMBUSTION

1.15. FUELS

A fuel, in general terms, may be defined as a substance (containing mostly carbon

and hydrogen) which, on burning with oxygen in the atmospheric air, produces a large
amount of heat. The amount of heat generated is known as calorific value of the fuel. As
the principal constituents of a fuel are carbon and hydrogen, therefore, it is also known as
hydrocarbon fuel. Sometimes, a few traces of sulphur are also present in it.

1.16. CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS

The fuels may be classified into the following three general forms:

1. Solid fuels,
2. Liquid fuels, and
3. Gaseous fuels.

Each of these fuels may be further subdivided into the following two types:

a) Natural fuels, and

b) Prepared fuels.

1.17. SOLID FUELS

The natural solid fuels are wood, peat, lignite or brown coal, bituminous coal and
anthracite coal. The prepared solid fuels are wood charcoal, coke, briquetted coal and
pulverised coal.

The following solid fuels are important from the subject point of view:

1.17.1. Wood.

At one time it was extensively used as a fuel. It consists of mainly carbon and
hydrogen. The wood is converted into coal when burnt in the absence of air. It is not

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considered as a commercial fuel, except in industries, where a large amount of waste

wood is available. The calorific value of wood varies with its kind and moisture content.
The average calorific value of the wood is 19 700 kJ/kg

1.17.2. Pear.

It is a spongy humid substance found in boggy land. It may be regarded as the

first stage in the formation of coal. It has a large amount of water contents (upto 30%)
and therefore has to be dried before use. It has a characteristic odour at the time of
burning, and has a smoky flame. Its average calorific value is 23 000 kJ/kg.

1.17.3. Lignite or brown coal.

It represents the next stage of peat in the coal formation, and is an intermediate
variety between bituminous coal and peat. It contains nearly 40% moisture and 60% of
carbon. When dried, it crumbles and hence does not store well. Due to its brittleness, it is
converted into briquettes, which can be handled easily. Its average calorific value is 25
000 kJ/kg.

1.17.4. Bituminous coal.

It represents the next stage of lignite in the coal formation and contains very little
moisture (4 to 6%) and 75 to 90% of carbon. It is weather-resistant and burns with a
yellow flame. The average calorific value of bituminous coal is 33 500 kJ/kg. The
bituminous coal is of the following two types:(a) Caking bituminous coal, and (b) Non-
caking bituminous coal.

1.17.5. Anthracite coal.

It represents the final stage in the coal formation, and contains 90% or more
carbon with a very little volatile matter. It is thus obvious, that the anthracite coal is
comparatively smokeless, and has very little flame. It possesses a high calorific value of
about 36 000 kJ/kg and is therefore, very valuable for steam raising and general power
purposes.
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1.17.6. Wood charcoal.

It is made by heating wood with a limited supply of air to a temperature not less
than 280° C. It is a good prepared solid fuel, and is used for various metallurgical
processes. 7. Coke. It is produced when coal is strongly heated continuously for 42 to 48
hours in the absence of air in a closed vessel. This process is known as carbonisation of
coal. Coke is dull black in colour, porous and smokeless. It has a high carbon content (85
to 90%) and has a higher calorific value than coal.

1.17.8. Briquetted coal.

It is produced from the finely ground coal by moulding under pressure with or
without a binding material. The binding materials usually used are pitch, coal tar, crude
oil and clay etc. The briquetted coal has the advantage of having, practically, no loss of
fuel through grate openings and thus it increases the heating value of the fuel.

1.17.9. Pulverised coal.

The low grade coal with a high ash content, is powdered to produce pulverised coal. The
coal is first dried and then crushed into a fine powder by pulverising machines. The
pulverised coal is widely used in the cement industry and also in metallurgical processes.
Note: Out of all the above mentioned types of solid fuels, anthracite coal is commonly
used in all types of heat engines.

1.18. LIQUID FUELS

Almost all the commercial liquid fuels are derived from natural petroleum (or
crude oil). The crude oil is obtained from bore-holes in the earth's crust in certain parts of
the world. The liquid fuels consist of hydrocarbons. The natural petroleum may be
separated into petrol or gasoline, paraffin oil or kerosene, fuel oils and lubricating oils by
boiling the crude oil at different temperatures and subsequent fractional distillation or by
a process such as cracking. The solid products like vaseline and paraffin wax are
recovered from the residue in the still.

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The following liquid fuels are important from the subject point of view:

1.18. 1. Petrol or gasoline.

It is the lightest and most volatile liquid fuel, mainly used for light petrol engines.
It is distilled at a temperature from 65° to 220° C.

1.18.2.Kerosene or paraffin oll.

It is heavier and less volatile fuel than the petrol, and is used as heating and lighting fuel.
It is distilled at a temperature from 220° to 345° C.

1.18.3. Heavy fuel oils.

The liquid fuels distilled after petrol and kerosene are known as heavy fuel oils.
These oils are used in diesel engines and in oil-fired boilers. These are distilled at a
temperature from 345° to 470° C.

1.19. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF LIQUID FUELS OVER SOLID FUELS

Following are the merits and demerits of liquid fuels over solid fuels

1.19.1. Merits

1. Higher calorific value.

2. Lower storage capacity required.
3. Better economy in handling.
4. Better control of consumption by using valves.
5. Better cleanliness and freedom from dust.
6. Practically no ashes.
7. Non-deterioration in storage.
8. Non-corrosion of boiler plates.
9. Higher efficiency.

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1.19.2. Demerits

1. Higher cost.
2. Greater risk of fire..
3. Costly containers are required for storage and transport.

1.20. GASEOUS FUELS

The natural gas is, usually, found in or near the petroleum fields, under the earth's
surface. It, essentially, consists of marsh gas or methane (CH) together with small
amounts of other gases such as ethane (CH), carbon dioxide (CO) and carbon monoxide
(CO). The following prepared gases, which are used as fuels, are important from the
subject point of view:

1.20.1. Coal gas.

It is also known as a town gas. It is obtained by the carbonisation of coal and

consists mainly of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and various hydrocarbons. The quality of
coal gas depends upon the quality of the coal used, temperature of the carbonisaiton and
the type of plant. It is very rich among combustible gases, and is largely used in towns for
street and domestic lighting and heating. It is also used in furnaces and for running gas
engines. Its calorific value is about 21 000 to 25 000 kJ/m.

1.20.2. Producer gas.

It is obtained by the partial combustion of coal, coke, anthracite coal or charcoal in

a mixed air-steam blast. It is, mostly, used for furnaces particularly for glass melting and
also for power generation. Its manufacturing cost is low, and has a calorific value of
about 5000 to 6700 kJ/m³.

1.20.3. Water gas.

It is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide and is made by passing steam

over incandescent coke. As it burns with a blue flame, it is also known as blue water gas.

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The water gas is usually converted into carburetted (enriched) water gas by passing it
through a carburetter into which a gas oil is sprayed. It is, usually, mixed with coal gas to
form town gas. The water gas is used in furnaces and for welding.

1.20.4. Mond gas.

It is produced by passing air and a large amount of steam over waste coal at about
650° C. It is used for power generation and heating. It is also suitable for use in gas
engines. Its calorific value is about 5850 kJ/m.

1.20.5. Blast furnace gas.

It is a by-product in the production of pig iron in the blast furnace. This gas serves
as a fuel in steel works, for power generation in gas engines, for steam raising in boilers
and for preheating the blast for furnace. It is extensively used as fuel for metallurgical
furnaces. The gas, leaving the blast furnace, has a high dust content the proportion of
which varies with the operation of the furnace. It has a low heating value of about 3750
kJ/m

1.20.6. Coke oven gas.

It is a by-product from coke oven, and is obtained by the carbonisation of

bituminous coal. Its calorific value varies from 14 500 to 18 500 kJ/m. It is used for
industrial heating and power generation

1.21. MERITS AND DEMERITS OF GASEOUS FUELS

Following are the merits and demerits of the gaseous fuels:

1.21.1. Merits

1. The supply of fuel gas, and hence the temperature of fumace is easily and
accurately controlled.
2. The high temperature is obtained at a moderate cost by pre-heating gas and air
with heat of waste gases of combustion.
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3. They are directly used in internal combustion engines.

4. They are free from solid and liquid impurities.
5. They do not produce ash or smoke.
6. They undergo complete combustion with minimum air supply.

1.21.2. Demerits

1. They are readily inflammable.

2. They require large storage capacity.

1.22. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF LIQUID AND

GASEOUS FUELS OVER SOLID FUELS.

Liquid and gaseous fuels are considered better fuels than the solid fuels because of the
following reasons:

1. Liquid and gaseous fuels are easier to handle than solid fuels.

2. Liquid and gaseous fuels can be transported easily through pipelines whereas solid
fuels cannot be transports in this way.

3. Liquid and gaseous fuels do not leave any residue after burning.

4. Liquid and gaseous fuels have higher calorific values than the solid fuels. In other
words, for a given mass of the fuel, liquid and gaseous fuels produce more heat.

5. Liquid and gaseous fuels produce little or no smoke, whereas most of the solid
fuels burn with smoke.

6. Liquid and gaseous fuels have relatively low ignition temperature and hence they
burn more easily than solid fuels.

Disadvantages of Gaseous Fuels

The main disadvantages of gaseous fuels are:

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1. Very large storage tanks are needed for storing gaseous fuels.

2. They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards are high in their use.

3. They are more costly than solid or liquid fuels.

1.23. REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD FUEL

Though there are many requirements of a good fuel, yet the following are
important from the subject point of view:

1. A good fuel should have a low ignition point.

2. It should have a high calorific value.
3. It should freely burn with a high efficiency, once it is ignited
4. It should not produce harmful gases.
5. It should produce least quantity of smoke and gases.
6. It should be economical, easy to store and convenient for transportation.

1.24. CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS

The calorific value (briefly written as C.V.) or heat value of a solid or liquid fuel
may be defined as the amount of heat given out by the complete combustion of 1 kg of
fuel. It is expressed in terms of kl/kg of fuel. The calorific value of gaseous fuels is,
however, expressed in terms of kJ/m at a specified temperature and pressure.

Following are the two types of the calorific value of fuels

1. Gross or higher calorific value, and

2. Net or lower calorific value.

1.25. GROSS OR HIGHER CALORIFIC VALUE

All fuels, usually, contain some percentage of hydrogen. When a given quantity of
a fuel is burnt, some heat is produced. Moreover, some hot flue gases are also produced.
The water, which takes up some of the heat evolved, is converted into steam. If the heat,
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taken away by the hot flue gases and the steam is taken into consideration, i.e. if the heat
is recovered from flue gases and steam is condensed back to water at room temperature
(15° C), then the amount of total heat produced per kg is known as gross or higher
calorific value of fuel. In other words, the amount of heat obtained by the complete
combustion of 1 kg of a fuel, when the products of its combustion are cooled down to the
temperature of supplied air (usually taken as 15° C), is called the gross or higher calorific
value of fuel. It is briefly written as H.C.V.

If the chemical analysis of a fuel is available, then the higher calorific value of the
fuel is determined by the following formula, known as Dulong's formula:

H.C.V. = 33 800 C+ 144 000 H₂+9270 S kJ/kg

where C. H, and S represent the mass of carbon, hydrogen and sulphur in 1 kg of fuel,
and the numerical values indicate their respective calorific values. If the fuel contains
oxygen (O), then it is assumed that the whole amount is combined with hydrogen having
mass equal to 1/8th of that of oxygen. Therefore, while finding the calorific value of fuel,
this amount of hydrogen should be subtracted

1.26. NET OR LOWER CALORIFIC VALUE

When the heat absorbed or carried away by the products of combustion is not
recovered (which is the case in actual practice), and the steam formed during combustion
is not condensed, then the amount of heat obtained per kg of the fuel is known as net or
lower calorific value. It is briefly written as LCV.

If the higher calorific value is known, then the lower calorific value may be
obtained by subtracting the amount of heat carried away by products of combustion
(especially steam) from HCV.

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L.C.V. H.C.V.-Heat of steam formed during combustion

Let , ms = Mass of steam formed in kg per kg of fuel = 9 H2

Since the amount of heat per kg of steam is the latent heat of vaporisation of water
corresponding to a standard temperature of 15° C, is 2466 kJ/kg, therefore

L.C.V = H.C.V.- ms x 2466 kJ/kg

= H.C.V - 9 H2 x 2466 kJ/kg (ms= 9H)

1.27. BOMB CALORIMETER

Bomb calorimeter is a type of constant-volume calorimeter used for measuring the

higher calorific value of solid and liquid fuels which can be burned in oxygen. Four
essential parts are required in any bomb calorimeter:
1. A bomb or vessel in which the combustible charges can be burned, and is capable
of withstanding high pressure(up to 100 bar)
2. A bucket or container for holding the bomb in a measured quantity of water,
together with a stirring mechanism,
3. An insulating jacket to protect the bucket from transient thermal stresses during
the combustion process, and
4. A thermometer or other sensor for measuring temperature changes within the
bucket.

There is an ignition wire of platinum or nichrome which dips into the crucible. It is
connected to a battery kept outside and can be heated by passing current through it.

Bomb is completely immersed in a measured quantity of water the heat liberated by

the combustion of fuel is absorbed by this water, the bomb and copper vessel the rise in
temperature is measured by a precise thermo meter known as Beckmann thermometer
which reads up to 0.010C.

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1. Crucible 2.Ignition rods 3.Bomb 4.Oxygen valve

5. Release valve 6.Fuse or Ignition wire 7.Copper vessel 8.Stirrer

9. Thermometer

Procedure:

A weighted sample of fuel (usually 1 gram) is placed in the crucible and it is

filled in the bomb in such a way that the fuse wire touches the fuel. The bomb is then
charged with oxygen admitted through the oxygen valve, till the pressure in the bomb
rises to 30 atmosphere (1atm = 760 mm of Hg). The bomb is then completely submerged
in a known quantity of water (about 2 x 10 m³) contained in a large copper vessel. This

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vessel is placed within a large insulated copper vessel to reduce the loss of heat radiation.
The water in the calorimeter is stirred and when the temperature remains steady say t°C
or T, K. When the bomb and its contents have reached a steady temperature, fuse wire is
heated up electrically. The fuel ignites and continues to burn till whole of it is burnt. The
heat released during combustion is absorbed by the surrounding water and the apparatus
itself. The maximum temperature of water is reached after the complete combustion is
noted say t°C or T, K.

Let m= Mass of fuel burnt

M1= Mass of water

M2= Water equivalent of calorimeter

= Mass of calorimeter × Specific heat of calorimeter

T1= Initial temperature of water

T2= Final temperature of water

ΔT= Rise in temperature = (T2- T1)

Heat liberated by the fuel = m × HCV KJ

Heat absorbed by the system = Heat gained by water + Heat gained by calorimeter

= M1×Cpw ×ΔT + M2×Cpw ×ΔT

= (M1 + M2)× C pw ×ΔT

Specific heat of water = 4.2 KJ/Kg K

We have m × HCV = (M1 + M2) × 4.2 × ΔT

( )× . ×
Hence HCV= KJ/Kg

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1.28. JUNKER’S CALORIMETER

Junker’s calorimeter also known as boys calorimeter. This is used to find out the HCV of
liquid and gaseous fuels. It consists of a cylindrical combustion chamber surrounded by
water jacket which absorbs heat of combustion. The metered quantity (measured) of fuel
and air burn to form combustion products. They rise through inner central portion and
then flow through tubes surrounded by circulating water and finally leave the meter.
Cooling water enters at the bottom of the jacket and move upwards and leaves at top.
Flow of water is regulated by a valve. Gas meter gives the volume of gas burnt in a given
time.

Working :

A measured quantity of gas whose calorific value is to be determined is filled to

the gas burner via a gas meter which reads the volume.A gas pressure regulator which
measures the pressure of the gas by means of a manometer.When the gas burns the hot
product of combustion travel upwards in the chamber and then downwards through the
flues and finally escape to the atmosphere through the outlet.The temperature of the
escaping gas is recorded by the thermometer fitted at the exit. This temperature should be
as close to the room temperature as possible so that entire heat of combustion is absorbed
by water. Cold water enters the calorimeter near the bottom and leaves near the top.
Water which is formed by condensation of steam is collected in a container.The quantity
of gas used during the experiment is accurately measured by the meter .The temperature
of incoming and outgoing waters are indicated by the thermometers.From the data
calorific value of gas can be determined.

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1. Combustion chamber 2.Water jacket 3.Valve (W)

4. Gas meter 5.Pressure regulator

Let,

T1 = Cooling water inlet temp:

T2 = Cooling water outlet temp:

Tg = Exit gas temperature

mw = Mass flow rate of cooling Water

m = Rate of mass of condensate collected in a pot.

hfg = Latent heat of water at atmospheric pressure

Vg = Volume flow rate of gas converted into STP condition

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Standard temp is 25 0C, 298 K and standard pressure is 1.01325 bar.

Heat released by combustion of gas

= Heat gained by cooling water + Latent heat released from condensate.

= Vg x Cv = mw.cw (T2-T1)+m×hfg
. ( )
CV =

From this equation CV of fuel can be calculated

1.29. PROPERTIES OF FUELS

1.29.1. Flash point

Flash point and fire point are the two important properties of petroleum fractions.
Flash point is defined as the minimum temperature at which the fuel upon heating
evolves vapour which after mixing with the air give a sudden flash when a source of fire
is brought in contact with it.

1.29.2. Fire point

Fire point is the minimum temperature at which the fuel vapour in admixture with
air will produce a continuous fire when a fire source is brought in contact with the
vapour. So, the fire point is more than the flash point for a particular petroleum fraction.
Hence, flash point is more important than fire point in view of any fire hazard.

1.29.3. Pour Point and Cloud Point

During the transportation of heavy oil fractions in pipelines, there is a possibility

of freezing the oil within the pipe when it is transported at cold climate. Here pour point
and cloud point are the two properties of these oils which play important role. Pour point
is the maximum temperature, at which oil ceases to flow when it is cooled at specified
condition. Pour point is reported by adding 2.80 C or 50 F to this temperature, which is a

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caution to technical people. Cloud point is the temperature at which oil becomes cloudy,
when it is cooled at a specified condition.

The Cloud Point is the temperature at which paraffin, which is naturally present
in diesel fuel, begins to form cloudy wax crystals.

1.29.4. Viscosity index

Viscosity index is a property of petroleum fractions, which is defined as the rate of

change of viscosity with temperature. This is indicated by a number in an arbitrary scale
ranging from 0 to 100, higher the number more is the viscosity index.

1.29.5. Knocking (detonation,)

In spark-ignition engines is the pre ignition of air fuel mixture before the spark
given by the spark plug ,due to this one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture explode
outside the envelope of the normal combustion front.

1.29.6. Octane number

Octane number determines the quality of gasoline or petrol. Octane number is the
measure of the resistance of gasoline against detonation or preignition of the fuel in the
engine. It is measured relative to the mixture of iso octane (2,2,4 trimethylpentane) and n-
heptane.

Every fuel is rated between 0 to 100. (0 is for n-heptane and 100 is for iso octane)
Higher octane fuel has a greater resistance to auto ignition under higher pressure and
heat.

If you use a lower octane no. fuel in your engine, then there are chances of engine
knocking in your engine, which in severe cases, damage your engine.

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1.29.7. Cetane number

Cetane rating or CN is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel fuel and

compression needed for ignition. It is an inverse of the similar octane rating for gasoline.
The CN is an important factor in determining the quality of diesel fuel.

Generally, diesel engines operate well with a CN from 40 to 55. Fuels with lower
cetane number have longer ignition delays, providing more time for the fuel combustion
process to be completed. Hence, higher speed diesel engines operate more effectively
with higher cetane number fuels. “Premium" or "Super unleaded" gasoline in US 85-87

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