Eddy Current Inspection
ECT
Principle
Based on “electromagnetism” as the basis for conducting
examinations.
Eddy currents are induced electrical currents that flow in
a circular path.
They get their name from “eddies” that are formed when
a liquid or gas flows in a circular path around obstacles
when conditions are right.
Eddy currents are created through a process
called electromagnetic induction
When alternating current is applied to the conductor, such as
copper wire, a magnetic field develops in and around the
conductor.
This magnetic field expands as the alternating current rises to
maximum and collapses as the current is reduced to zero.
If another electrical conductor is brought into the close
proximity to this changing magnetic field, current will be
induced in this second conductor.
This interaction between fields causes a back e.m.f in the
coil and, hence, a change in the coil impedance value.
•Impedance- measured in ohms
•Includes- resistance (R), inductive reactance
(XL), and capacitive reactance (XC).
•Eddy current circuits usually have only R and
(XL) components.
Measuring this coil impedance variation from Z0 to Zc, by
monitoring either the voltage or the current signal, can
reveal specific information such as conductivity and
chemical composition of the test piece
Properties of Eddy Current
Flows in closed loops
Flows in plane parallel to the coil winding
Lag in phase with depth
Skin Effect
Definition:
NDT based on the principles of electromagnetic
induction, used to identify or differentiate among a wide
variety of physical, structural, and metallurgical conditions
in electrically conductive metals and metal parts.
Does not require direct electrical contact with the part
being inspected.
The eddy current method is adaptable to high-speed
inspection
History of Eddy Current Testing
Michael Faraday's discovery of electromagnetic induction in 1831.
In 1879, another scientist named Hughes recorded changes in the properties of
a coil when placed in contact with metals of
different conductivity and permeability
An eddy current instrument for measuring wall thickness was developed by Kranz
in the mid-1920s.
Much work was done in the 1950's and 60's, particularly in the aircraft and nuclear
industries.
Eddy current testing is now a widely used and well-understood inspection
technique.
The most basic eddy current
testing instrument consists of
an alternating current source,
a coil of wire connected to this
source, and a voltmeter to
measure the voltage change
across the coil
Eddy current inspection can be used to:
Crack Sample Coating
Conductivity
Detection Thickness Thickness Measurement
Measurement Measure-
ment
Sensors 2011, 11, 2525-2565; doi:10.3390/s110302525 s
Factors Affecting Eddy Current Response
Electro-
Geometric
magnetic Factors
- Coil -Coil
Factors
Impedance Parameters
-Electrical -Sample
Conductivity Geometry
-Magnetic -Lift Off
Permeability
-Frequency -Edge Factor
Impedance
Inductive reactance, XL, is
the combined effect of coil
inductance and test
frequency and is expressed
in ohms
Impedance Plane Diagram
Conductivity
In eddy current inspection, frequent use is made of
measurement based on the International Annealed
Copper Standard.
In this system, the conductivity of annealed, unalloyed
copper is arbitrarily rated at 100%, and the conductivities
of other metals and alloys are expressed as a percentage
of this standard.
Ferro- and Non-Ferromagnetic Materials
Magnetic permeability of the material being inspected
strongly influences the eddy current response
Not Constant- depends on external field
High magnetic permeability makes the standard
penetration depth decrease.
In order to compensate for this effect and explore the
material internally, ferromagnetic materials are inspected
at lower frequencies than non-ferromagnetic ones.
Lift-Off
The lift-off is the impedance change that occurs when
there is variation in the distance between the inspection
coil probe and the test piece.
The lift-off variations can be caused by varying coating
thicknesses, irregular sample surfaces or the operator’s
movements
The magnetic field is stronger close to the coil, so lift-off
is stronger near the probe.
In many applications, eddy current measurements are
adversely affected by lift-off
Lift-off is considered a noise source and it is undesirable
in defect detection.
Therefore, the distance between the probe and metal
must be as constant as possible in order to avoid lift-off.
Calculate the skin depth of a Cu conductor, having a
conductivity of 200 S/m. The wave frequency is 10 GHz in
air.
Calculate the skin depth of a carbon steel, having a
conductivity of 10 mho/m. The wave frequency is 10 MHz
in air.
Edge Factor
As an inspection coil approaches the edge of a part being
inspected, the eddy currents are distorted as they cannot
flow beyond the edges of the test-piece. This results in a
non-relevant indication known as the edge effect,
Fill-Off
This is a term used with encircling and internal coils and
is based on how well the component being tested fills the
encircling coil or how well the internal coil fills the
hollow component it is inspecting
Variation in outside diameter
Inspection Coils
Encircling coil: The test-piece is passed through an encircling
coil, which obviously has a larger outside diameter than the
part. Typically, bar, wire, tubes, etc., are tested using encircling
coils. Circumferential discontinuities are difficult to detect;
however, longitudinal discontinuities and outside diameter
variations (due to changing fill factor) can be detected. As you
can imagine, accurate centering is essential.
Internal coils are used to inspect the inside diameter of tubular
objects. These should still be accurately centered and work in
a similar way to encircling coils.
Probe coils, sometimes called surface coils, are fitted into a
probe, which scans the surface of the test-piece. Probe coils
are very sensitive to small discontinuities and can be shaped to
fit irregular shapes. However, one disadvantage is a slow
scanning speed and only a small area can be tested, as opposed
to encircling and internal coils.
Readout Instrumentation
An important part of an eddy current inspection system
is the instrument used for a readout.
The readout instrument should be of adequate speed,
accuracy, and range to meet the inspection requirements
of the system.
Alarm lights
Sound alarms
Kick-out relays activate a mechanism that automatically
rejects or marks a part when a test parameter has been
exceeded.
Analog meters give a continuous reading over an
extended range.
Digital meters provide much greater accuracy and range
than analog meters.
Plotters can be used to display impedance-plane plots of
the eddy current response.
Strip chart recorders furnish a fairly accurate ( 1% of full
scale) recording at reasonably high speed ( 200 Hz).
Magnetic tape recorders are fairly accurate and capable of
recording at very high speed (1 kHz).
Computers
Reference Sample
The type of reference discontinuities that must be used
for a particular application are specified
Some of the major considerations in selecting reference
discontinuities are that they:
· Must meet the required specification
· Should be easy to fabricate
· Should be reproducible
· Should be producible in precisely graduated sizes
· Should produce an indication on the eddy current tester
that closely resembles those reduced by the natural
discontinuities
Advantages
Sensitive to small cracks and other defects
Detects surface and near surface defects
Inspection gives immediate results
Equipment is very portable
Method can be used for much more than flaw detection
Minimum part preparation is required
Test probe does not need to contact the part
Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive materials
Disadvantages
Only conductive materials can be inspected
Surface must be accessible to the probe
Skill and training required is more extensive than other
techniques
Surface finish and and roughness may interfere
Reference standards needed for setup
Depth of penetration is limited
Flaws such as delaminations that lie parallel to
the probe coil winding and probe scan direction are
undetectable
ECT versus MPT
ECT doesn’t require as much preparation as MPT, as operators
can apply eddy current techniques with minimal setup and
cleanup time.
Excellent PoD even with dirty surface
Rapid
Green
The magnetic sprays and liquids are messy and toxic.
MPT only applies to ferromagnetic materials.
MPT may require the removal of paint and coatings.
Can be time consuming and dependent on inspectors skill.
MPT has less non-relevant indications
Case Studies
Eddy Current Inspection to Detect Shallow Surface
Defects in Zircaloy-2 Plates.
Eddy Current Inspection of Titanium Alloy Jet Aircraft
Engine Blades for Cracks Resulting From Low-Cycle
Fatigue
Galvanic Exfoliation Corrosion of Aluminum Wing Skins
