BONE:
General Features:
1- Bone is special types of dense connective tissue which is mesenchymal in origin.
2- Bone consists mainly of intercellular substance (matrix), which is calcified as it is
formed. Bone cells are present in lacunae within the matrix.
3- The outer and inner surface of the bone is covered with connective tissue layers is
called periosteum and endosteum respectively.
4- Bone cells receive their nutrition and oxygen from blood vessels in the canaliculi
that are found within the avascular tissue.
5- Bone grows by appositional mechanism only.
6- It has the ability of remodeling according to the stress.
7- The end of long bone and flat bones filled by a meshwork of tiny rods or plates of
bone and contains numerous spaces, the whole appearance resembling that of a
sponge. This kind of bone is called spongy or cancellous bone.
8- With the exception of the areas covered by articular cartilage, the entire outer
surface of bone is covered by periosteum. The wall of the marrow cavity is lined by
endosteum.
9- The marrow cavity and the spaces of spongy bone (present at the bone ends) are
filled by a highly vascular tissue called bone marrow. At the bone ends, the marrow is
red in colour. Apart from blood vessels this red marrow contains numerous masses of
blood forming cells (haemopoietic tissue). In the shaft of the bone of an adult the
marrow is yellow.
10- The term osteoid is applied to the mixture of ground substance and collagen fibers
(before it is mineralized).
General Functions:
1-It forms the main part of skeleton.
2- It gives mechanical protection to the vital viscera as brain, heart and lungs.
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3- It store for calcium which is important for:
-The enzyme systems.
-The muscular contraction.
-The transmission of nerves impulses.
-The blood coagulation.
-The cell adhesion.
4-It is site for bone marrow.
Types of bone:
A- Based on Histology:
- Compact bone
- Spongy bone
B- Based on maturity:
- Mature/ Lamellar bone
- Immature/ Woven bone
C- Based on manner of development:
- Cartilage bone.
- Membrane bone.
- Woven bone: Newly formed bone does not have a lamellar structure. The collagen
fibers are present in bundles that appear to run randomly in different directions,
interlacing with each other. All newly formed bone is woven bone. It is later replaced
by lamellar bone.
Constituent elements:
Cells, fibers, matrix.
A-Bone Cell: They are:
1-Osteogenic cells.
2-Osteoblasts.
3-Osteocytes.
4-Osteoclasts
1-Osteoprogenitor cells or stem cells of bone:
Site: present in osteogenic layers of periosteum and endosteum.
Function: those possess mitotic potential and ability to differentiate into osteoblasts
when needed (during growth and repair).
2- Osteoblasts (young bone cells):
Origin: They arise from activated osteogenic cells
Site: They are located at bone surfaces, side by side as in way resembling simple
epithelium, and applied to bone spicules.
Structure: small irregular round cells with cytoplasmic processes.
The cytoplasm: is a deeply basophilic.
Nucleus: is single, large, oval and eccentric with prominent nucleolus.
Function: is bone builder through:
1-Synthesis and secretion of the organic component of bone matrix (osteoid, i.e.
collagen type I and glycoprotein).
2-Osteoblasts secrete an alkaline phosphate which stimulates deposition of calcium
salts in matrix
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When the osteoblasts are trapped inside lacunae and processes are in narrow canals
called canaliculi, they are called osteocytes.
3- Osteocytes (mature cells):
Origin: imprisoned mature osteoblast
Site: They are present inside lacunae, and are connected with one another by means of
cellular processes passing through bone canaliculi which connect adjacent lacunae
together.
Structure:
LM: They are branched, ovoid cells, with an oval
dark nucleus and basophilic cytoplasm, which is
rich in alkaline phosphatase.
Function:
1-They preserve the integrity of the bone matrix
and help to maintain its mineral content.
2-They are probably related to mobilization of
calcium from the bone to the blood in times of need under hormonal effect
(parathormone) through osteolysis
Osteoclasts (bone destruction cells)
Site: Are found on surfaces of bone where resorption is taking place, (i.e. in bone
marrow spaces and in the medullary cavity).
Each cell resides on a shallow cavity on the bone surface called “ Howship’s lacuna”
Structure:
LM: The osteoclast is large, irregular in shape (20-30um) multinucleated cells
Cytoplasm: acidophilic duo to presence of acid phosphates, foamy and with striated
or brush border facing the bone surface
Function:
They may be responsible for bone destruction or resorption
N.B: It is not phagocytic cells. There are two types of bone:
A- Compact bone
B- Spongy or cancellous bone
PERIOSTEUM
It is a vascular connective tissue membrane
covering the bone from outside. It is formed of
two layers:
1-Outer fibrous layer: rich in blood vessels and
nerves.
2-Inner osteogenic layer: this (in the resting
condition) is formed of osteogenic cells). When
stimulated (e.g. during growth, or fracture) these
cells can change to osteoblasts.
In situation where very firm attachment of a
tendon to bone is necessary, the fibers of the
tendon continue into the outer layers of bone as
the perforating fibers of sharpey. This fibers that lie within the bone are ossified.
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Function:
1- Its fibrous layer:
a- provides attachment to tendon, ligaments, and muscles,
b- Supplies blood vessels which carry the oxygen and nourishment to the bone.
2- Its osteogenic layer: contains the osteogenic cells which (when activated) can
proliferate and differentiate into osteoblasts to lay down bone. This layer is, therefore,
responsible for:
a- growth of bone by apposition (i.e. subperiosteal deposition of bone which causes
growth of the bone in width),
b- Healing and regeneration of bone after injury or fractures.
ENDOSTEUM
The endosteum is a loose layer of C.T. membrane and rich in osteogenic cells which
lines bone cavities and covers bone trabeculae.
Function:
a- it is supplied bone with blood and nutrition.
b- Its osteogenic cells, osteoblast cells and osteoclast cells are concerned with bone
formation during growth of bone
Lamellar (mature) bone or compact bone:
Compact bone is a solid mass in the shafts of long bones. It is also found as a thin
plate covering flat irregular bones.
Bone lamellae are regularly arranged:
1- Haversian systems or osteons.
2- Interstitial lamellae: between Haversian systems.
3- Outer and inner circumferential lamellae under periosteum and endosteum.
Osteons (Haversian Systems):
Are cylindrical structures of compact bone, which in transverse section are seen to be
formed of 4-20 regular concentric lamella surrounding a central vascular channel
(Haversian canal).
At the periphery of each osteon, and separating it from adjacent osteons
Or interstitial systems, is a cement line.
The cement lines do not calcify, have
Relatively little collagen, but are rich in
Glycoproteins and stain differently from
The matrix of lamella
OSTEONS represent the main
morphofunctional unit of compact bone.
The blood vessels of the Haversian canals
are supplied with blood from vessels from
the periosteum. These blood vessels
penetrate the osteons in a transverse
direction and are known as Volkmann’s
canals. Volkmann's canals can be
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identified as they do not have concentric lamella surrounding them.
Circumferential Systems:
Immediately below the periosteum, at the periphery of compact bone of the diaphysis,
the lamellae surround the bone in a continuous manner. These are known as the outer
circumferential lamellae. A similar system of continuous lamellae adjacent to the
endosteum is also found and is known as the inner circumferential lamellae.
Interstitial lamellae Systems:
Interstitial systems of compact bone represent the remnants of osteons after
remodeling. They are present between regular osteons and can be identified as
irregular lamellar structures that lack a central Haversian canal.
Spongy or cancellous bone:
Spongy or cancellous bone is found at the ends of long bones and in the center of flat
and irregular bones .it is made up of branching trabeculae, each of which is composed
of irregular lamellae.
