MODULE 1

Developmental Theories and Other Relevant Theories

Theories of Human Development

 Provide a framework for thinking about human growth, development and learning.
Types of Theories
1. Psychoanalytic theories are those influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, who believed in the
importance of the unconscious mind and childhood experiences. Freud's contribution to developmental
theory was his proposal that development occurs through a series of psychosexual stages.

 Theorist Erik Erikson expanded upon Freud's ideas by proposing a stage theory of psychosocial
development. Erikson's theory focused on conflicts that arise at different stages of development
and, unlike Freud's theory, Erikson described development throughout the lifespan.
2. Learning theories focus on how the environment impacts behavior. Important learning processes
include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning. In each case, behavior is
shaped by the interaction between the individual and the environment.
3. Cognitive theories focus on the development of mental processes, skills, and abilities.

 Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

4. Abnormal Behavior vs. Individual Differences- One of the biggest concerns of many parents is
whether or not their child is developing normally. Developmental milestones offer guidelines for the ages
at which certain skills and abilities typically emerge, but can create concern when a child falls slightly
behind the norm. While developmental theories have historically focused upon deficits in behavior, focus
on individual differences in development is becoming more common.
5. Psychoanalytic theories are traditionally focused upon abnormal behavior, so developmental theories
in this area tend to describe deficits in behavior. Learning theories rely more on the environment's unique
impact on an individual, so individual differences are an important component of these theories. Today,
psychologists look at both norms and individual differences when describing child development

Most Popular Developmental Theories

1. Sigmund Freud : 5 Stages of Psychosexual Development

2. Alfred Adler : Individual Psychology, Personality and Inferiority
3. Arnold Gesell : Maturational Theory of Child Development
4. Jean Piaget : 4 cognitive Development Stages
5. Lev Vgostsky : Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
6. Erik Erickson : Stages of Psychosocial Development
7. B.F. Skinner : Behavioral Development and Verbal Behaviors
8. Harry Harlow : Mother-child Attachment Theory
9. John Bowlby : Attachment Theory
10. Abraham Maslow : Hierarchy of Needs
11. Mary Ainsworth : Mother –Infant Attachment theory
12. Urie Bronfenbrenner : Ecological System Theory

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13. Albert Bandura : Psychosocial Theory
14. Lawrence Kohlberg : 6 Stages of Moral Development
15. Paul Baltes : Lifelong Development Theory

A. FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

SIGMUND FREUD
• Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese doctor who
came to believe that the way parents dealt with children's
basic sexual and aggressive desires would determine how
their personalities developed and whether or not they would
end up well-adjusted as adults.
• Freud described children as going through multiple stages
of sexual development, which he labeled Oral, Anal,
Phallic, Latency, and Genital.

STAGES OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

The Role of Conflict

 Each of the psychosexual stages is associated with a particular conflict that must be resolved
before the individual can successfully advance to the next stage. The resolution of each of these
conflicts requires the expenditure of sexual energy and the more energy that is expended at a
particular stage, the more the important characteristics of that stage remain with the individual as
he/she matures psychologically.

Frustration, Overindulgence, and Fixation

 One reason for this may be that the needs of the developing individual at any particular stage may
not have been adequately met in which case there is frustration. Or possibly the person's needs
may have been so well satisfied that he/she is reluctant to leave the psychological benefits of a
particular stage in which there is overindulgence.
 Both frustration and overindulgence (or any combination of the two) may lead to what
psychoanalysts call fixation at a particular psychosexual stage. Fixation refers to the theoretical
notion that a portion of the individual's libido has been permanently 'invested' in a particular stage
of his development

Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year)

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  In the first stage of personality development, the libido is centered in a baby's mouth. It gets much
satisfaction from putting all sorts of things in its mouth to satisfy the libido, and thus its id
demands. Which at this stage in life are oral, or mouth orientated, such as sucking, biting, and
breastfeeding.
 Oral Stage Fixation:
Overeating or Pessimism Suspicion
Smoking Dependency
Envy Passivity

Anal Stage (1 to 3 years) – Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder control

 The primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major
conflict at this stage is toilet training- the child has to learn to control his or her body bodily
needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
Types of Child Personality

If parents are too strict or begin toilet training:

a) Anal –Retentive Personality which develops in which the individual is
1. Orderly and tidiness

If the parents take an approach that is too lenient:

b) Anal-Expulsive Personality which develop in which the individual
1. Messy and careless

Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years)- erogenous Zone : Genitals

 Sensitivity now becomes concentrated in the genitals and masturbation (in both sexes) becomes a
new source of pleasure. The child becomes aware of anatomical sex differences, which sets in
motion the conflict between erotic attraction, resentment, rivalry, jealousy and fear which Freud
called the Oedipus complex (in boys) and the Electra complex (in girls).
 Oedipus Complex-
 A psychoanalytic term that refers to a mother-son relationship.
 In this complex boys become much attached to their mother and develop negative
attitude and feeling of jealousy towards his father.
 The child also fears that will be punished by the father for these feelings. It called
Castration Anxiety

 Electra Complex
 The state of a young girl being attracted to the parent of the opposite sex during
the phallic developmental stage while also developing a sense of competition
with her mother.
 the girl desires the father, but realizes that she does not have a penis. This leads
to the development of penis envy and the wish to be a boy. The girl resolves this
by repressing her desire for her father and substituting the wish for a penis with
the wish for a baby. The girl blames her mother for her 'castrated state,' and this
creates great tension.
 The girl then represses her feelings (to remove the tension) and identifies with
the
mother to take on the female gender role.

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 Electra Complex in Adults

o avoiding or being hostile toward your mother.

o disliking your mother for no obvious reason.
o fixating on only what your father does.
o seeking out romantic partners that resemble or have characteristics of
your father.
o wanting to be overly involved in everything your father is doing.

Fixation at this Stage

o Reckless or Afraid to Love Poor opposite sex relationship
o Narcissistic Self-Assured or Selfish

Latency Stage (6 years to puberty)- Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings are Inactive
 During the Latent period, the libido are suppressed. The stage begins around the time that
children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and other
interests.
 A time of exploration in which sexual energy is still present.

Genital Stage (Puberty to Death)- Erogenous zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

 The individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex.
 This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person’s life.
 The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

FREUD’S PERSONALITY STRUCTURES

Three Structures of Personality

1.) ID
2.) Ego
3) Superego

1) The id
 It contains innate biological instincts and desires
 Governed by “Pleasure Principles” and basic needs
 Selfish, irrational, seek instant gratification
2) The ego
 Develops during infancy ( 6 months)
 Governed by “ Reality Principle” or conscious part of the mind
 Mediates between the demands of the Id , the superego and reality
3) The Superego
 Develop during childhood ( 6 years)
 Governed by “ judicial “ or “Moral Principle”
 Internalizes parent
 Seeks to do what is right and good ( conscience)
 Causes us to feel guilty for our desires/id impulses

Freud’s Theory applied to teaching and learning

o It emphasize the teacher-student learning relationship
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 o Transfer of experiences from early childhood to educational setting.
o Helping individuals to be open to new interpretations of their past and current experiences.

B. PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

JEAN PIAGET
 One of the 20th century’s most influential researchers in
the area of developmental psychology
 He was originally trained in the area of biology
and philosophy. Considered himself as
“Genetic Epistemologist”
 Piaget’s theory is based on the idea that the developing
child builds cognitive structures. He believes that the child’s
cognitive structure increases with the development.
 Piaget’s theory of infant development were based on his
observations of his own three children.

COGNITION
 The term cognition is derived from the Latin word ”cognoscere” which means “ to
know” or “ to recognize” or “to conceptualize”.
 Cognition is “the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding
through thought, experience and the senses.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
 Cognitive Development is the emergence of the ability to think , reason ,problem solve
and understand.
 It is the process by which people’s thinking changes across the life span.

Schema ― is a cognitive framework that organizes information about the world around us. A packet of
information in our brain easier for us to identify new objects and try to define them based on
our exiting knowledge similar objects and concepts.

Types of Schema

1. Person Schema- learning about other people’s personalities, roles and preferences
2. Event Schema- differentiating between seasons
3. Social Schema- Learned gender roles
4. Self Schema – Personal aptitudes

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Assimilation- cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt too and organize their
environment. It is an individual‘s way to understand or create meaning about a thing
experience.

Accomodation- Amending existing knowledge of something to new information that contradicts

previous thinking

Equilibration- Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.

When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) cognitive structures, we
experience cognitive disequilibrium this means there is a discrepancy between what is
perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and
accommodation to establish equilibrium.
o As a children progress it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous
knowledge(assimilation ) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
( accommodation)
o It helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought into the next.

Cognitive Development
Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage
(Birth to 2 years)- Infancy
 Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences ( seeing,
hearing) with motor actions ( reaching, touching)
 Goal: Object Permanence
 Learns about the world through their senses and their actions
 Object Prominence ( memory) : knowing that an object still exist, even it it’s hidden
 Language starts to develop: Realise words can be used to represent objects and feelings
 The child able to store information that it knows about the world, recall and label it.

Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage

( 2-7 years) Toddler and Early Childhood
 This stage begins when the child starts to use symbols and language.
 This a period of developing language and concepts
 Key features of this stage:

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  Symbolic Function
 This is the ability to represent object and events
 Egocentrism /Self-centered
 This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that
everyone also has his same point of view.
 Concentration
 This refers to the tendency of the child only focus on one aspect of a thing or
event and include other aspects
 Irreversibility
 Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking.
 Animism
 This is the tendency of children to attribute human lie traits or characteristics to
inanimate object.

o Goal: Symbolic Thought

o Can think about things symbolically
o Emergence of language takes place
o Children becomes more skilled

Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage

(8 -12 years) – Childhood and Early Adolescence
 Key feature of Concrete Operational Stage
 Seriation : the ability to sort objects in an order according to size, shape or any other
characteristics
 Transitivity- the ability to recognize logical relationships among elements in a serial
order.
 Classification – the ability to group objects together on the basis of common features
 Decentering- the ability to take multiple aspects of a situation into account.
 Reversibility- the child understand that numbers or objects can be changed, then
returned to their original state.
 Conservation – Understanding that the quantity, length or number of items is unrelated
to the arrangement or appearance of the object or item.
 The child performs operation: combining, separating, multiplying , repeating and
dividing

o Goal: Logical thought

o Thinking becomes more logical and organized
o Understanding improves
o Children become better at thinking and how people might view a situation.
o Children begin to think how other people might think and feel

Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage

( 13 years and above) Adolescence and Adulthood
 Thinking becomes more logical
 They can now solve in general ideas or specific problems can educated guess

 Key features of Formal Operational Stage

 Hypothetical Reasoning- this is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a
problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final revision or judgment. This

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 can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now deal with “ What
if” question.
 Analogical Reasoning – ability to perceive the relationship one instance and then use
that relationship to narrow down possible answer in another similar situation or problem.
 Deductive Reasoning – This is the ability to think logically by applying general rule to a
particular instance or situation .

o Goal: Scientific Reasoning

o Understanding of abstract ideas
o Increase in logic and reasoning
o Capable of seeing multiple potential solutions
o Formation of theories, hypothesis and scientific thinking.

C. Erik Erikson’s Psycho- Social Theory of Development

Erik Homburger Erikson

 The Father of Psychosocial Development

• Nationality American/ German
• Fields Developmental Psychology Influences Sigmund Freud/
Anna Freud Coined the term Lifespan Development
• He was an artist and a teacher in the late 1920s when he
met Anna Freud,
• An Austrian psychoanalyst. With Anna‘s encouragement, he began
to study child psychoanalysis at the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute.
• He studied groups of Aboriginal children to learn about the
influence of society and culture on child development. From this,
he developed a number of theories, the most famous being his
psychosocial development.
• He believed that humans have to resolve different conflicts as they progress
through each stage of development in the life cycle.
• Erikson‘s theory consists of eight stages of development. Each stage is characterized by a different
conflict that must be resolved by the individual. If a person is unable to resolve a conflict at a
particular stage, they will be confront and struggle with it later in life.

 It is a theory that examines how personality was formed and believe that the earlier stages
served as a foundation for the later stages. Also influence of one’s environment,
particularly on how earlier experiences gradually build upon.
 THE EPIGENETIC PRINCIPLE
A people grow in a sequences that occurs over time and in the context of a larger
community.
Psychosocial Development

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  Refers to the emotional and psychological changes across the life cycle that occurs
in the context of the individual‘s social environment.
 Erickson believed that personality develops in a series of stages and describe the impact
of social experience across the whole lifespan.

Personality
 consists of all the relatively stable and distinctive styles of thought, behavior and
emotional responses that characterize a person‘s adaptations to surrounding situations.

Psychosocial Crisis ( two opposing emotional forces)

o Contrary Dispositions
A. Syntonic ( positive disposition) Ex. TRUST
B. Dystonic ( negative disposition) Ex. Mistrust

 If a stage is managed well , it carry away a certain virtue or psychosocial strength (

outcomes) which will help through the rest of the stages of our lives.
 Successfully passing through each crisis involves “achieving” a healthy ratio or balance
between two opposing dispositions that represent each crisis.
 If don’t do so well, it may develop maladaptation and malignancies which endanger all
future development
o Malignancy – It involves too little of the positive and too much of the negative
aspect of the task. Like a person who can’t trust others
o Maladaptation – Involve too much positive and too little of the negative. Lioke a
person who trust so much.

Erickson’s theory of Psychosocial Development

 Elements
Ego Identity- Ego identity is developed by human interaction and how an individual
becomes more conscious of themselves and their surroundings.
Ego Strength- Ego strength deals with an individual becoming competent in different
areas life, by becoming competent in life they feel more important.
Conflict- Conflict is a turning point during which an individual struggles to attain some
psychological quality. Sometimes referred to as a psychosocial crisis, this can be a
time of both vulnerability and strength, as the individual works toward success or
failure.

Psychosocial Stage

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Stage 1 : Trust vs. Mistrust
 The first stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage,
the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary
caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
OUTCOME:
o Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability , care and affection.
o Lack of this will lead to mistrust.

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

 This stage occurs between the ages of 18 months to approximately 3 years. The children focused
on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence.
 Role of Independence- children starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple
decisions about they prefer. Allowing kids to make choices and gain control develop a sense of
autonomy.
OUTCOME:
o Success in this stage development leads to feeling of autonomy
o Failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

 The children assert their power and control over the world through directing play and other social
interactions themselves more frequently. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a
child‘s life. According to Bee (1992), it is a
―time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive."
OUTCOME:
o When an ideal of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved,
the ego quality known as purpose emerges.

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

 Occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage where
they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own.
 Teachers begin to take an important role in the child‘s life as they teach the child specific skills
 Children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
OUTCOME:
o Successfully finding a balance that leads to the strength known as competence, in which
children develop a belief in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

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Stage 5: . Identity vs. Role Confusion
 it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage, adolescents search for a
sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs, and
goals.
 Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of Fidelity.
Fidelity involves being able to commit one’s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even
when there may be ideological differences.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

 This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs.
During this period, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other
people.

OUTCOME:
o Success will lead to the virtue of love

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

 . This stage takes place during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).

GENERATIVITY
This stage where individual acquire a genuine concern for the welfare of the future
generation, which providing unselfish guidance to younger people.
 "making your mark" on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast
an individual like established a careers
 Settled down in a relationship
 Developed a sense of being part of the bigger picture of the society
 Raising children
 Becoming involved in home and community activities
 Willingness to engage in acts ( care for other)
 Promotes well-being of younger generations ( legacy)
 Satisfied in life- happy

STAGNATION
Failure to find way to contribute , the state of not flowing or moving, lack of activity , growth
or development
 Feeling of uninvolved /disconnected in the society
 They have done nothing for the next generation
 One is only concern with one’s own needs and comfort
 Self-centered , lack of interest to young people
 No effort to improve the self

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

 This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death.
INTEGRITY
 It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity
if we see ourselves as leading a successful life ( proud and happy)
 Retired Individuals
 Take a look back in our lives

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 DESPAIR
 The complete loss or absence of hope
 The feeling of life has been wasted ( many regrets)
 Feeling of depression and bitterness as they approached death.

Psychosocial Theory used in Classroom

 Teachers who apply psychosocial development in the classroom create an environment where
each child feels appreciated and is comfortable with learning new things and building
relationships with peers.
 Find out what students are interested in and create projects that incorporate their area of interest.

D. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg
 Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory; proposed that moral
development is a continual process that occurs throughout the
lifespan.
• Used Piaget‘s story-telling technique to tell people stories involving moral dilemmas.
• He based his theory upon research and interviews with groups of young children.
• A series of moral dilemmas were presented to these participants and
they were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their
judgments of each scenario.
• One of the best known stories of Kohlberg‘s (1958) concerns a man
called Heinz who lived somewhere in Europe.

Level 1 - Pre-conventional Morality

At the pre-conventional level (0-7 years), Our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults
and the consequences of following or breaking their rules.

Authority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of
actions.
• Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to
avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong.

• Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage, children recognize that there is not just
one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have
different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional Morality &-12 years)

At the conventional level, we begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models.

Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the norms of the
group to which the person belongs

• Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to

be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval
of others.

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 • Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider
rules of society, so judgments concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the
law and to avoid guilt.
Level 3 - Post-conventional Morality ( Adolescents/Adults)
Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on
individual rights and justice. This level of moral reasoning is as far as most people get.

Only 10-15% are capable of the kind of abstract thinking necessary for stage 5 or 6 (post-
conventional morality). That is to say, most people take their moral views from those around them
and only a minority think through ethical principles for themselves.

• Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights.

o The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the
greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular
individuals.
o Everybody should agree upon the rules

The issues are not always clear-cut. For example, in Heinz‘s dilemma, the protection of life is
more important than breaking the law against stealing.

• Stage 6. Universal Principles.

o People at this stage have developed their own set of
moral guidelines , own principles and reasoning which may or may not fit the law.
o The principles apply to everyone.

E.g., human rights, justice, and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend
these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and
having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted
few people reached this stage.

E. Vygotsky’s Socio- Cultural Theory

Lev Semonovich Vygotsky

• “ The Mozart of Psychology”
• Born in Western Russia on November 5, 1986.

 His father, Semi L‘vovich, founded the ―Society of

Education in Gomelǁ, and held a wide range of active interest
including foreign language, history, literature, theater and
arts.
 His mother was educated as teacher.
 His work began when he was studying learning and
development to improve his own teaching.
 He wrote on language, thought, psychology of art, learning
and development and educating students with special needs.

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