Biological Classification

1. Historical Development of Classification Systems

1.1 Earliest System of Classification

Aristotle, known as the 'Father of Biology,' classified plants into herbs, shrubs, and
trees, and animals into those with red blood and those without and morphological
characters

1.2 Two-Kingdom Classification

● Proposed by Carolus Linnaeus.
● Divided organisms into Kingdom Plantae and Kingdom Animalia.
● Classified plants based on sex organs.
Merits:
● Easy study of morphological characters.
● Quick identification in the field.
Drawbacks:
● No distinction between eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and
multicellular organisms.
● Did not differentiate photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms.
● Many organisms did not fit into either category.
● Excluded other important characteristics like cell structure, nutrition, and
evolutionary relationships.

1.3 Three-Kingdom Classification

● Proposed by Haeckel.
● Placed all unicellular organisms in Kingdom Protista.
● Initially included algae, fungi, and protozoa.
Drawbacks:
● Not widely accepted.
● Mixed nucleated and anucleated organisms.
 ● Grouped heterotrophic bacteria and fungi with autotrophic algae.

1.4 Four-Kingdom Classification

● Proposed by Copeland.
● Created Kingdom Monera for prokaryotic protists.
● Retained eukaryotic protists under Kingdom Protista (Protoctista).
● Renamed Plantae and Animalia to Metaphyta and Metazoa.
Drawbacks:
Included fungi in Plantae despite being heterotrophic and having a chitinous cell wall.

2. Five-Kingdom Classification
● Proposed by: R. H. Whittaker (1969)
● Five kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia.

Influences on the Five-Kingdom Classification:

● Earlier systems grouped bacteria, blue-green algae, fungi, mosses, ferns,
gymnosperms, and angiosperms under ‘Plants’ due to the presence of a cell
wall.
● Eukaryotes and prokaryotes were kept together.
● Previous classifications did not differentiate between heterotrophic fungi and
autotrophic green plants.
● Fungi have chitinous cell walls, while green plants have cellulose cell walls.
● Fungi were eventually placed in a separate kingdom, Kingdom Fungi.
● Classification criteria evolved to reflect improved understanding of
characteristics and evolutionary relationships.
● Aimed to create a system reflecting morphological, physiological, reproductive,
and phylogenetic (evolutionary) similarities.

Merits of Five-Kingdom System:

● Prokaryotes are placed separately in Kingdom Monera due to their unique
cellular, physiological, and reproductive organisation.
 ● Unicellular eukaryotes are placed in Kingdom Protista, distinct from plants and
animals.
● Kingdom Fungi are recognized for their unique physiological, biochemical, and
structural characteristics, separate from plants.
● Based on levels of organisation and nutritional strategies, reflecting
evolutionary relationships.
● Makes animal and plant kingdoms more homogenous compared to the two-
kingdom system.
● Attempts to highlight phylogenetic relationships, appearing more natural.

Drawbacks of Five-Kingdom Classification:

● Difficult to distinguish between unicellular and multicellular algae; unicellular
green algae are not included in Protista.
● Each kingdom contains a wide diversity of organisms, making it challenging to
categorise them together (e.g., Monera and Protista have both walled and wall-
less, photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic organisms).
2.1 KINGDOM MONERA
● Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera and are the most
abundant microorganisms.
● They occur almost everywhere, including extreme habitats like hot springs,
deserts, snow, and deep oceans.
● Many bacteria live in or on other organisms as parasites.

● Bacteria are grouped into four categories based on their shape:

○ Spherical: Coccus (pl. cocci)

○ Rod-shaped: Bacillus (pl. bacilli)

○ Comma-shaped: Vibrio (pl. vibrio)

○ Spiral: Spirillum (pl. spirilla)

 ● Bacterial structure is simple, but their behaviour is complex.
● Bacteria show extensive metabolic diversity compared to many other
organisms.

● Types of Bacteria Based on Nutrition:

○ Autotrophic: Synthesise their own food from inorganic substances.
■ Photosynthetic autotrophs
■ Chemosynthetic autotrophs
○ Heterotrophic: Depend on other organisms or dead organic matter for
food.

2.1.1 Archaebacteria
● Archaebacteria are special bacteria that live in harsh habitats such as:
○ Extreme salty areas (halophiles)
○ Hot springs (thermoacidophiles)
○ Marshy areas (methanogens)

● They differ from other bacteria due to their unique cell wall structure, which
helps them survive in extreme conditions.

● Methanogens, a type of archaebacteria, are found in the gut of ruminant

animals like cows and buffaloes.
Ruminants are herbivorous grazing or browsing mammal
○ These bacteria are responsible for producing methane (biogas) from the
dung of these animals.
Biogas a renewable fuel that's produced when organic matter, such as food
or animal waste, is broken down by microorganisms in the absence of
oxygen

2.1.2 Eubacteria
● Eubacteria, or 'true bacteria,' are characterised by:
 ○ Presence of a rigid cell wall
○ If motile, presence of a flagellum
● Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae):
○ Contain chlorophyll a, similar to
green plants, and are
photosynthetic autotrophs
○ Can be unicellular, colonial, or
filamentous
filamentous form long, thread-
like chains of cells
○ Found in freshwater, marine, or
terrestrial habitats
○ Colonies are often surrounded
by a gelatinous sheath
A gelatinous sheath is a
protective, jelly-like covering that surrounds some bacterial cells
○ Can form blooms in polluted water bodies
○ Some can fix atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells called heterocysts
(e.g., Nostoc, Anabaena)

● Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria:

○ Oxidize inorganic substances like nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia
○ Use the released energy for ATP production
ATP production is a fundamental process in all living organisms, including
bacteria. ATP is often referred to as the "energy currency" of the cell because
it stores and releases energy required for various cellular processes.
○ Play a key role in recycling nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, iron,
and sulphur

● Heterotrophic bacteria:
○ Most abundant in nature
 ○ Important decomposers
○ Some have beneficial roles, such as in curd production, antibiotic
production, and nitrogen fixation in legume roots
○ Some are pathogens causing diseases like cholera, typhoid, tetanus, and
citrus canker
(Citrus canker symptoms include brown spots on leaves, often with an oily or water-
soaked appearance)
A pathogen is defined as an organism causing disease to its host
● Reproduction of Bacteria:
○ Mainly by fission

○ Sometimes produce spores under unfavourable conditions

○ Can engage in a primitive form of sexual reproduction via DNA transfer

● Mycoplasma:
○ Lack a cell wall entirely
○ Smallest known living cells
○ Can survive without oxygen
○ Many are pathogenic in animals and plants

2.2 KINGDOM PROTISTA

● Kingdom Protista encompasses single-celled eukaryotes.
● Boundaries of Protista are not precisely defined, leading to variations in
classification among biologists.
● Examples of organisms classified under Protista include Chrysophytes,
Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds, and Protozoans.
 ● Protists are predominantly aquatic organisms.
● Protists serve as a bridge between kingdoms dealing with plants, animals, and
fungi.
● Protistan cells are eukaryotic, possessing a well-defined nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.
● Some protists possess flagella or cilia for locomotion.
Locomotion means movement or the ability to move from one place to another
Flagella are microscopic hair-like structures involved in the locomotion of a cell
Cilia are small, slender, hair-like structures present on the surface of all
mammalian cells
● Reproduction in protists occurs through both asexual and sexual means,
involving processes like cell fusion and zygote formation.
A zygote, also called a fertilised egg, is the phase of conception where the egg and
sperm join to form a single cell

2.2.1 Chrysophytes
● Chrysophytes include diatoms and golden algae (desmids), found in freshwater
and marine environments.
● They are microscopic and passively float in water currents (plankton).
● Most chrysophytes are photosynthetic.
● Diatoms have unique cell walls composed of two thin overlapping shells
embedded with silica, making them indestructible.
● Accumulation of diatom cell wall deposits over billions of years forms
diatomaceous earth, used in polishing and filtration.
● Diatoms play a crucial role as primary producers in ocean ecosystems.

2.2.2 Dinoflagellates
● Mostly marine and photosynthetic organisms.
● Display various colours such as yellow, green, brown, blue, or red based on
their main pigments.
● Cell wall consists of stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface.
 ● Rapid multiplication of red dinoflagellates, like Gonyaulax, can cause red tides,
making the sea appear red.
● Toxins released during red tides may harm marine animals, including fish.

● Many dinoflagellates possess two flagella: one longitudinally and the other
transversely in a furrow between the wall plates.

2.2.3 Euglenoids
● Mostly found in freshwater, particularly in stagnant water.
● Lack a cell wall; instead, they have a protein-rich layer called a pellicle, giving
their body flexibility.
● Possess two flagella: one short and one long.
● Example: Euglena.
 ● Photosynthetic in sunlight, but act as heterotrophs and prey on smaller
organisms when sunlight is unavailable.
● Pigments in euglenoids are identical to those in higher plants.

2.2.4 Slime Moulds

● Saprophytic protists
● Move along decaying twigs and leaves, engulfing organic material.
● Form an aggregation called plasmodium under suitable conditions, which can
grow and spread over several feet.
● During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates into fruiting
bodies with spores at their tips.
● Spores have true walls, are extremely resistant, and can survive for many
years.
● Spores are dispersed by air currents.
2.2.5 Protozoans
● All protozoans are heterotrophs, living as predators or parasites, and are
considered primitive relatives of animals.
● Amoeboid Protozoans:
○ Found in freshwater, seawater, or moist soil.
○ Move and capture prey using pseudopodia (false feet), e.g., Amoeba.
○ Example: Euglena.forms have silica shells.
○ Some, like Entamoeba, are parasites.
● Flagellated Protozoans:
○ Free-living or parasitic.
○ Possess flagella for movement.
○ Parasitic forms can cause diseases like sleeping sickness, e.g.,
Trypanosoma.
● Ciliated Protozoans:
○ Aquatic and actively moving due to thousands of cilia.
○ Have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the cell surface.
○ Coordinated cilia movement steers food-laden water into the gullet, e.g.,
Paramoecium.
● Sporozoans:
○ Include diverse organisms with an infectious spore-like stage in their life
cycle.
○ Example: Plasmodium (malarial parasite) causing malaria.

2.3 KINGDOM FUNGI

● Fungi are a kingdom of heterotrophic organisms with diverse morphology and
habitats.
morphology structure of organisms
● Common examples include fungi on moist bread, rotten fruits, mushrooms,
toadstools, and parasitic fungi on mustard leaves.
● Some fungi, like yeast, are unicellular and used in bread and beer production.
● Fungi can cause diseases in plants and animals, such as Puccinia causing
wheat rust.
● Some fungi produce antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium.
● Fungi are found in air, water, soil, and on animals and plants, preferring warm
and humid environments.
● To prevent fungal and bacterial infections, food is kept in refrigerators.

● Fungal Structure:
○ Except for unicellular yeasts, fungi are filamentous [thin in diameter;
resembling a thread]
○ Bodies consist of thread-like structures called hyphae; the network of
hyphae is known as mycelium.
○ Hyphae can be coenocytic (multinucleated tubes) or septate (having
cross walls).
○ Fungal cell walls are made of chitin and polysaccharides.

● Nutrition and Symbiosis:

○ Most fungi are saprophytes, absorbing organic matter from dead
substrates.
○ Some fungi are parasites, depending on living plants and animals.
○ Fungi can live symbiotically with algae as lichens and with plant roots as
mycorrhiza.

● Reproduction in Fungi:
○ Vegetative reproduction occurs through fragmentation, fission, and
budding.
○ Asexual reproduction occurs through spores like conidia,
sporangiospores, or zoospores.
○ Sexual reproduction involves the formation of spores like oospores,
ascospores, and basidiospores in fruiting bodies.

● Sexual Cycle:
○ Plasmogamy: Fusion of protoplasms between gametes.
 ○ Karyogamy: Fusion of nuclei.
○ Meiosis: Formation of haploid spores in the zygote.
○ Some fungi have an immediate diploid stage after fusion, while others
(ascomycetes and basidiomycetes) have a dikaryotic stage (n + n) before
becoming diploid.
○ Reduction division in fruiting bodies leads to the formation of haploid
spores.

● Classification: Fungi are divided into various classes based on mycelium

morphology, spore formation, and fruiting bodies.