Review Notes in Personal Identification

By
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim.

Revised Syllabi and Tables of Specification for Personal Identification as per

Board of Criminology Resolution No. 01 Series of 2010.

SYLLABI

Personal Identification
1.1 Ancient and modern methods of personal identification;
1.2 Dactyloscopy, Orthodontology, and Palmistry
1.3 Identification, illustration, and comparison of fingerprint patterns and ridge
characteristics;
1.4 Scientific methods of recognition, development, preservation of latent prints;
1.5 Taking, classifying, and storing fingerprint records;
1.6 DNA Fingerprinting

TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS

Personal Identification (3%)

1.1 Know the historical background and basic principles and significance of
fingerprint identification as one of the methods of identifying persons. (.4%)
1.2 Explain/analyze the different ordinary and scientific methods of personal
identification in relation to crime detection and investigation. (1.0%)
1.3 Identify/classify/illustrate the various ridge characteristics and patterns
including DNA fingerprinting. (1.0%)
1.4 Describe the recognition, development, and lifting and preservation of latent
prints and fingerprint impressions. (.6%)

PART I
Early and Modern Methods of Personal Identification

A. Defining identification

Identification is defined as “the act of identifying, the state of being identified [or]
something that identifies one”. Founded in Europe the word identity became
noticeable in the English-speaking world around 1915 through Freud.

The preferred definition for identity is the “condition, character, or distinguishing

features of person or things effective as a means of identification”

B. Early identification techniques

Before the introduction of computer technology the various means of external

identification were greatly limited. The most commonly used method was relying
on one’s memory to identify the distinguishing features and characteristics of
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other humans, such as their outward appearance or the sound of their voice.
However, relying solely on one’s memory had many pitfalls and thus other methods of
identification were introduced.

These included:

1. Marks, stamps, brands, cuts or imprints engraved directly onto the

skin, which were to be later collectively referred to as tattooing (Branding).

A tattoo is defined as “...permanent marks or designs made on the body by the

introduction of pigment through ruptures in the skin...”

Tattooing is considered by some to be the human’s first form of expression in

written form.

2. Anthropometry (Bertillonage) Introduced in France in 1883 by Alphonse

Bertillon. (Greek άνθρωπος, man, and μέτρον, measure, literally meaning
measurement of humans), in physical anthropology, refers to the measurement of the
human individual for the purposes of understanding human physical variation.

A chart from Bertillon's Identification anthropométrique (1893), demonstrating how to

take measurements for his identification system.

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There were ten measurements:

1. Height
2. Stretch: Length of body from left shoulder to right middle finger when arm is
raised
3. Bust: Length of torso from head to seat, taken when seated
4. Length of head: Crown to forehead
5. Width of head: Temple to temple
6. Length of right ear
7. Length of left foot
8. Length of left middle finger
9. Length of left cubit: Elbow to tip of middle finger
10. Width of cheeks

Anthropometrics was first used in the 19th and early 20th century
in criminalistics, in identifying criminals by facial characteristics.

C. Modern identification systems

Biometric identification systems can be grouped based on the main physical

characteristic that lends itself to biometric identification:

1. Fingerprint identification

Fingerprint ridges are formed in the womb; you have fingerprints by the fourth
month of fetal development. Once formed, fingerprint ridges are like a picture on the
surface of a balloon. As the person ages, the fingers get do get larger. However, the
relationship between the ridges stays the same.

2. Hand Geometry

Hand geometry is the measurement and comparison of the different physical

characteristics of the hand. Although hand geometry does not have the same degree
of permanence or individuality as some other characteristics, it is still a popular means
of biometric authentication.

3. Palm Vein Authentication

This system uses an infrared beam to penetrate the users hand as it is waved
over the system; the veins within the palm of the user are returned as black lines.

Palm vein authentication has a high level of authentication accuracy due to the
complexity of vein patterns of the palm. Because the palm vein patterns are internal to
the body, this would be a difficult system to counterfeit. Also, the system is contactless
and therefore hygienic for use in public areas.
4. Retina scan

A retina scan provides an analysis of the capillary blood vessels located in the

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back of the eye; the pattern remains the same throughout life. A scan uses a low-
intensity light to take an image of the pattern formed by the blood vessels. Retina
scans were first suggested in the 1930's.

5. Iris scan

An iris scan provides an analysis of the rings, furrows and freckles in the
colored ring that surrounds the pupil of the eye. More than 200 points are used for
comparison. Iris scans were proposed in 1936, but it was not until the early 1990's that
algorithms for iris recognition were created (and patented). All current iris recognition
systems use these basic patents, held by Iridian Technologies.

6. Face recognition

Facial characteristics (the size and shape of facial characteristics, and their
relationship to each other). Although this method is the one that human beings have
always used with each other, it is not easy to automate it. Typically, this method uses
relative distances between common landmarks on the face to generate a unique
"faceprint. “

7. Signature

Although the way you sign your name does change over time, and can be
consciously changed to some extent, it provides a basic means of identification.

8. Voice analysis

The analysis of the pitch, tone, cadence and frequency of a person's voice.

9. ID system

Use of identification cards.

10. Forensic Serology

Serology – term used to describe a broad range of laboratory tests using

reactions of blood serum and body fluid. Serology is also defined as the study of
blood serum, along with saliva, semen and other bodily fluids. Forensic serology
studies in relation to crimes and other legal matters.

The serology section of a forensic laboratory may deal with any or all of
the following:
• blood typing
• characterization of unknown blood
• stain patterns for crime reconstruction
• paternity testing
• semen identification in rape cases
• DNA techniques used for identification

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 11. Forensic Odontology/Orthodontology (Dentistry)

 Forensic odontology is a branch of forensic medicine and, in the interests of

justice, deals with the proper examination, handling and presentation of dental
evidence in a court of law.

 Forensic odontology is the study of dental applications in legal proceedings.

The subject covers a wide variety of topics including individual identification,

mass identification, and bite mark analysis. The study of odontology in a legal case
can be a piece of incriminating evidence or an aspect of wide controversy. There have
been many cases throughout history which have made use of bite marks as evidence.
Bite marks are usually seen in cases involving sexual assault, murder, and child abuse
and can be a major factor in leading to a conviction.

 Forensic odontologists are highly experienced, specially trained dentists who

use their expertise to help identify unknown remains and trace bite marks to a
specific individual.

The work of a forensic odontologist covers:

 analysis and identification of bite marks left in crime scenes especially on

the victims of attack
 comparison of bite marks with the teeth of a suspect and presentation of
this evidence in court as an expert witness
 identification of bite marks in other substances such as wood, leather
and foodstuffs
 identification of unknown bodies or found human remains through dental
records
 age estimations of skeletal remains
 identification of bodies in mass fatalities, such as plane crashes and
natural disasters
 determination of the source of bite mark injuries, in cases of assault or
suspected abuse
 testify in cases of dental malpractice

Case Study
The victims of this particular murder were Billy Craig and his father who
were both shot by an IRA hitman. The hitman left very little evidence, including
a partly-eaten apple and a few empty cartridges with the use of forensic
odontology, the apple proved to be an extremely important peice of evidence.
By examining the bite marks found in the apple, a professor of orthodontics
found that the killer had a deformed jaw. Upon finding this the professor made a
prediction about the killers appearance, saying that he or she would have a
large nose, a high forehead and a long thin face, they would be tall and thin
with a lantern jaw and may also have breathing difficulties. During their
investigation the police happened upon a possible supect who was a very close

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 match to the descriptions given by the professor. A cast was taken of the
suspects teeth and, when compared to the bite marks in the apple, it was found
that there was a nearly impossible chance that any other man had bitten the
apple. The IRA hitman was then punished with seven life sentences for his role
in the murder of Billy Craig and his father as well as many others.

12. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid - the substance that gives the human
chromosome its shape.

DNA Fingerprinting, also known as Genetic Fingerprinting has recently come

into vogue as a means of establishing personal identification. DNA is the blueprint of
the body of every human being. It is used to establish personal identification in
criminal matters and court paternity suits.

DNA fingerprinting dates back to 1985 when it was first developed in England
by Sir Alec Jeffreys, and it has been considered the greatest achievement in forensic
science since the development of fingerprinting as a means of personal identification
more than one hundred years ago.

DNA 101 - What is it?

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a chemical structure that

forms chromosomes. A piece of a chromosome that dictates a particular trait is
called a gene.

Structurally, DNA is a double helix: two strands of genetic material spiraled

around each other. Each strand contains a sequence of bases (also called
nucleotides). A base is one of four chemicals (adenine, guanine, cytosine and
thymine).

The two strands of DNA are connected at each base. Each base will only bond
with one other base, as follows: Adenine (A) will only bond with thymine (T), and
guanine (G) will only bond with cytosine (C). Suppose one strand of DNA looks like
this:

A-A-C-T-G-A-T-A-G-G-T-C-T-A-G

The DNA strand bound to it will look like this:

T-T-G-A-C-T-A-T-C-C-A-G-A-T-C

Together, the section of DNA would be represented like this:

T-T-G-A-C-T-A-T-C-C-A-G-A-T-C
A-A-C-T-G-A-T-A-G-G-T-C-T-A-G

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DNA strands are read in a particular direction, from the top (called the 5' or "five prime"
end) to the bottom (called the 3' or "three prime" end). In a double helix, the strands go
opposite ways:

5' T-T-G-A-C-T-A-T-C-C-A-G-A-T-C 3'

3' A-A-C-T-G-A-T-A-G-G-T-C-T-A-G 5'

The chemical structure of DNA is as follows:

What is DNA Fingerprinting?

The chemical structure of everyone's DNA is the same. The only difference
between people (or any animal) is the order of the base pairs. There are so many

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millions of base pairs in each person's DNA that every person has a different
sequence.

Using these sequences, every person could be identified solely by the

sequence of their base pairs. However, because there are so many millions of base
pairs, the task would be very time-consuming. Instead, scientists are able to use a
shorter method, because of repeating patterns in DNA.

These patterns do not, however, give an individual "fingerprint," but they are
able to determine whether two DNA samples are from the same person, related
people, or non-related people.

Scientists use a small number of sequences of DNA that are known to vary
among individuals a great deal, and analyze those to get a certain probability of a
match.

DNA Fingerprinting Methods

In 1984, Sir Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester in England was able to
distinguish differences among individuals based solely on their DNA composition.
Since this advancement in forensic science was announced in 1985, there has been
tremendous progress made in the methodology of extracting the DNA samples from
such things as blood, saliva, personal items and in the identification of human remains.

The main types of DNA fingerprinting methods in use at this time are:

1. RFLP

Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analyzes the length of

the strands of the DNA molecules with repeating base pair patterns. DNA molecules
are long strands found tightly wound in chromosomes which are contained in the
nucleus of each human cell. Within each DNA strand are numbers of genes that
determine the particular characteristics of an individual. While about 5% of the gene
compositions on DNA contain this type of genetic information, the other 95% do not.
However, of the 95%, these non-coding genes contain identifiable repetitive
sequences of base pairs, which are called Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTR).

To extract a DNA fingerprint, a Southern blot is performed and the DNA is

analyzed via a radioactive probe. The restriction fragment length polymorphism
analysis is used to detect the repeated sequences by determining a specific pattern to
the VNTR, which becomes the person's DNA fingerprint. The drawback with this
system is that it requires a considerable amount of DNA in order to be used.

2. PCR

The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed by Karry Mullis of the
Cetus Corporation in 1983 for use in research laboratories for establishing hereditary
authentication. The PCR analysis amplifies the DNA molecules using a smaller

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sample. On the forensic front, the PCR found to be useful in identifying DNA
fingerprints in criminal matters and in paternity tests because it requires less amounts
of DNA because it makes identical copies of the DNA sample. The PCR analysis
amplified isolated regions on the strands of the DNA under examination. The
drawback was that it was not as discriminating as the RFLP.

3. AmpFLP

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AmpFLP) came into vogue in the

90's and is still popular in the smaller countries involved in the process of DNA
fingerprinting. It remains attractive because of its relatively less complicated operation
and the cost-effectiveness of the procedure. By using the PCR analysis to amplify the
minisatellite loci of the human cell, this method proved quicker in recovery than the
RFLP. However, due to the use of gel in its analysis phase, there are issues of
bunching of the VTRN's, causing misidentifications in the process.

4. STR

The short tandem repeat (STR) methodology for extracting DNA is the system
most widely used form of DNA fingerprinting. This system is based on the features of
PCR, as it utilizes specific areas that have short sequential repeat DNA. The STR
analyzes how many times base pairs repeat themselves on a particular location on a
strand of DNA. The big advantage in this method is that the DNA comparisons can
match the possibilities into an almost endless range.

Techniques for DNA Testing

Two conceptually different types of fingerprinting are commonly performed for

either VNTR or RFLP analyses:

1. Single locus DNA fingerprinting: Polymorphism at a single locus is characterized,

usually through use of a specific probe or specific PCR primers. Because the single
loci detected by this method are characterized, one obtains a DNA genotype from
single locus methods.

2. Multilocus DNA fingerprinting: Polymorphism at multiple loci is simultaneously

identified. This can be performed by application of a mixture of single locus probes or
application of a single probe that identifies multiple similar sequence polymorphisms.
In the latter case, one is detecting unidentified fragments of DNA and the result is
therefore a DNA phenotype rather than a genotype.

Each of these methods has advantages over the other in specific

situations. For example, single locus but not multilocus methods are useful when the
DNA is degraded and for mixed (i.e. victim and pertetrator) samples. On the other
hand, multilocus fingerprinting typically provides more information per sample than
single locus fingerprints.

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Examples of both types of fingerprinting follow.

Example 1: Single Locus Fingerprinting

Minisatellite fingerprinting to demonstrate kinship using mixtures of two

or three single locus probes (probe sets 1 and 2). The loci detected in the child (C)
are clearly a composite of those present in the mother (M) and father (F).

Example 2: Multilocus Fingerprinting

Microsatellite fingerprinting to establish parentage. The probe, (CAG)5,

recognizes a large number of loci. Examine the bands detected in DNA from the child
that are not detected with DNA from the mother. Which male is the biologic father of
the child?

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Answer: Male 1 is the father – notice the bands shared between his DNA and the
DNA from the child (marked by small triangles on the left). There is no band sharing
between the child and male 2.

Example 3: Multilocus Fingerprinting

Multilocus fingerprinting to match trace evidence from a crime with
suspects. Which suspect matches the specimen?

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Answer: Suspect 1. Note that the bands detected with his DNA match those in the
specimen, while those from suspects 2 and 3 clearly do not.

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 PART II

The Science of Fingerprint Identification

(Dactyloscopy)

Chapter 1
About Fingerprint

A. What is Fingerprint?

 A fingerprint is an impression of the friction ridges of all or any part of the

finger.
 The term fingerprint normally refers to impressions transferred from the pad on
the last joint of fingers and thumbs, though fingerprint cards also typically
record portions of lower joint areas of the fingers (which are also used to make
identifications).
 A fingerprint is the unique pattern that is created by the friction ridges on the
fingers. This pattern may be transferred from the fingers to other items in the
form of a known print, a latent print or a patent print.

The tip of a finger showing the friction ridge structure.

The fingerprint created by that friction ridge structure.

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B. Friction Ridge and Furrows defined;

A friction ridge is a raised portion of the epidermis on the palmar (palm and
fingers) or plantar (sole and toes) skin, consisting of one or more connected ridge units
of friction ridge skin. Sometimes referred to as Ruga or Rugae (a fold or wrinkle)

Furrows refers to the valleys/canals or depressions between friction ridges.

Also referred to a Sulcus (plural: sulci).

C. How Fingerprint is deposited?

Fingerprints may be deposited in natural secretions from the eccrine glands
present in friction ridge skin (secretions consisting primarily of water) or they may be
made by ink or other contaminants transferred from the peaks of friction skin ridges to
a relatively smooth surface such as a fingerprint card.

D. Fingerprint identification defined –

Fingerprint identification AKA Friction Ridge Identification or Friction Skin

Identification (sometimes referred to as dactyloscopy) is the process of comparing
questioned and known friction skin ridge impressions (see Minutiae) from fingers,
palms, and toes to determine if the impressions are from the same finger (or palm, toe,
etc.).
The flexibility of friction ridge skin means that no two finger or palm prints are
ever exactly alike (never identical in every detail), even two impressions recorded
immediately after each other.
Fingerprint identification (also referred to as individualization) occurs when an
expert (or an expert computer system operating under threshold scoring rules)
determines that two friction ridge impressions originated from the same finger or palm
(or toe, sole) to the exclusion of all others.

E. Dactyloscopy and Dactylography distinguished;

Dactyloscopy is the practical application of fingerprints or the process of identification

by fingerprint comparison and the classification of fingerprints. (Tubid)
• It is the art of identification by comparison of fingerprints. It is the study and
utilization of fingerprints. ( Solis, p 56)
• It is the identification of person through the examination and comparison of
fingerprints. It is also the classification of fingerprints. (Depayso)
Dactylography is the scientific study of fingerprints as a means of identification.
(Tubid)
• It is the art and study of recording fingerprints as a means of identification.
(Solis, p 56)
• It is the process of analyzing fingerprints. (Depayso)

F. Three (3) Allied Sciences related in the study of Fingerprint

Poroscopy –A study of the size, shape and arrangement of pores. Established by Dr.
Edmond Locard in France in 1912.

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 • The scientific study of pores or science of identification by means of the pores.
(Tubid)
• It is the study of the pores found on the papillary or friction ridges of the skin for
purposes of identification. (Solis, p 56)
Podoscopy - the science of identification through friction ridge characteristics existing
on the sole of the human foot. (Tubid)
• This term was coined by Wentworth and Wilder.
Chiroscopy- The science of identification through friction ridge characterisitics
existing on palms or hands.

G. Other Related Sciences (Tubid)

Ridgeology –the study of poroscopy, edgeoscopy, and ridge characteristics for the
purpose of the positive identification of fingerprints.
• The study of the uniqueness of friction ridge skin and its use for personal
identification (individualization).
This term was developed by Sgt. David Ashbaugh in 1982.
Edgeoscopy – the study of the characteristics formed by the sides or edges of
papillary ridges as a means of identification.
• Study of the morphological characteristics of friction ridges.
• Contour or shape of the edges of friction ridges.
Edgeoscopy was established by Sri Salil Kumar Chattergee of India in 1962.
Other related studies:
Cheiloscopy. The study of lip prints.
Pelmatoscopy. The science which studies the friction ridges of the soles.

H. Why Fingerprint Identification?

Fingerprints offer an infallible means of personal identification. That is the

essential explanation for their having supplanted other methods of establishing the
identities of criminals reluctant to admit previous arrests. The reliability of fingerprint
as a means of identification is anchored on the following dogmatic principles:
1. Principle of Individuality – no two fingerprints are exactly alike
2. Principle of Permanency – configuration and details of individual ridges remain
constant and unchanging.
3. Principle of Infallibility – fingerprint is incapable of error as a means of
identification.

The science of fingerprint Identification stands out among all other forensic
sciences for many reasons, including the following:
 Has served all governments worldwide during the past 100 years to provide
accurate identification of criminals. No two fingerprints have ever been found
alike in many billions of human and automated computer comparisons.
Fingerprints are the very basis for criminal history foundation at every police
agency.
 Established the first forensic professional organization, the International
Association for Identification (IAI), in 1915.

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  Established the first professional certification program for forensic scientists, the
IAI's Certified Latent Print Examiner program (in 1977), issuing certification to
those meeting stringent criteria and revoking certification for serious errors such
as erroneous identifications.
 Remains the most commonly used forensic evidence worldwide - in most
jurisdictions fingerprint examination cases match or outnumber all other forensic
examination casework combined.
 Continues to expand as the premier method for identifying persons, with tens of
thousands of persons added to fingerprint repositories daily in America alone -
far outdistancing similar databases in growth.
 Outperforms DNA and all other human identification systems to identify more
murderers, rapists and other serious offenders (fingerprints solve ten times
more unknown suspect cases than DNA in most jurisdictions).
Other visible human characteristics change - fingerprints do not. In earlier
civilizations, branding and even maiming were used to mark the criminal for what he
was. The thief was deprived of the hand which committed the thievery. The Romans
employed the tattoo needle to identify and prevent desertion of mercenary soldiers.
Before the mid-1800s, law enforcement officers with extraordinary visual memories,
so-called "camera eyes," identified previously arrested offenders by sight.
Photography lessened the burden on memory but was not the answer to the criminal
identification problem. Personal appearances change.
Around 1870, a French anthropologist devised a system to measure and record
the dimensions of certain bony parts of the body. These measurements were reduced
to a formula which, theoretically, would apply only to one person and would not
change during his/her adult life.
This Bertillon System, named after its inventor, Alphonse Bertillon, was
generally accepted for thirty years. But it never recovered from the events of 1903,
when a man named Will West was sentenced to the U.S. Penitentiary at Leavenworth,
Kansas. It was discovered that there was already a prisoner at the penitentiary at the
time, whose Bertillon measurements were nearly the same, and his name was William
West.
Upon investigation, there were indeed two men who looked exactly alike. Their
names were Will and William West respectively. Their Bertillon measurements were
close enough to identify them as the same person. However, a fingerprint comparison
quickly and correctly identified them as two different people. (Per prison records
discovered later, the West men were apparently identical twin brothers and each had a
record of correspondence with the same immediate family relatives.)

I. The History of Fingerprints and its Development as a Means of Identification

1000-2000 B.C. - Fingerprints were used on clay tablets for business transactions in
ancient Babylon.
3rd Century B.C. - Thumbprints begin to be used on clay seals in China to “sign”
documents.

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610-907 A.D. - During the T’ang Dynasty, a time when imperial China was one of the
most powerful and wealthy regions of the world, fingerprints are reportedly used on
official documents.
1st Century A.D. - A petroglyph located on a cliff face in Nova Scotia depicts a hand
with exaggerated ridges and finger whorls, presumably left by the Mi'kmaq people.
14th Century A.D. - Many official government documents in Persia have fingerprint
impressions. One government physician makes the observation that no two
fingerprints were an exact match.

Marcello Malpighi1686 - Malpighi

In 1686, Marcello Malpighi, a professor of anatomy
at the University of Bologna, noted in his treatise;
ridges, spirals and loops in fingerprints. He made no
mention of their value as a tool for individual
identification. A layer of skin was named after him;
"Malpighi" layer, which is approximately 1.8mm
thick. He was known as the ‘Grandfather of
Dactyloscopy”

1628 - 1694

Dr. Nehemiah Grew (1641 - 1712)

Dr. Grew was a Fellow of the Royal Society
and of the College of Physicians, he described the
"innumerable little ridges" in Philosophical
Transactions for 1684:
“For if anyone will but take the pains, with an
indifferent glass to survey the palm o f his hand, he
may perceive ... innumerable little ridges, of equal
bigness and distance,
Dr. Nehemiah Grew
1641 – 1712
and everywhere running parallel one with another. And especially, upon
the hands and first joints of the fingers and thumb. They are very regularly
disposed into spherical triangles and elliptics.”
Dr. Grew published extremely accurate drawings of finger
patterns and areas of palm.

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Thomas Bewick (1753-1828)
A British author, naturalist and engraver became England’s finest engraver who
made fingerprint stamps. He made wooden engravings of fingerprints and
published their images in his books where he used an engraving of his fingerprints as
a signature. The engravings demonstrate familiarity with the construction of skin
ridge. In two of the books he added “Thomas Bewick, his mark” under the
impressions.

1788 – Mayers
In 1788, J.C. Mayers wrote in his illustrated textbook Anatomical Copper-plates
with Appropriate Explanations that "the arrangement of
skin ridges is never duplicated in two persons".
Mayers was one of the first scientists to recognize that
friction ridges are unique.

1823 - Purkinje
In 1823, John Evangelist Purkinje, a professor
of anatomy at the University of Breslau, published
his thesis discussing 9 fingerprint patterns, but
he too made no mention of the value of
fingerprints for personal identification. He was
known as the “Father of Dactyloscopy.”

Jan Purkinje (1787 - 1869)

A Czechoslovakian physiologist who, in 1823 discovered the following:

“After innumerable observations, I have found nine important varieties of

patterns of rugae and sulci, though the lines of demarcation between the types are
often obscure:”

1. Transverse curve 2. Central longitudinal stria 3. Oblique stripe

4. Oblique loop 5. Almond whorl 6. Spiral whorl

7. Ellipse 8. Circle 9. Double whorl

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 1858 - Hershel
The English first began using fingerprints in
July of 1858, when Sir William Herschel, Chief
Magistrate of the Hooghly district in Jungipoor,
India, first used fingerprints on native contracts.
On a whim, and with no thought toward personal
identification, Herschel had Rajyadhar Konai, a
local businessman, impress his hand print on a
contract. Herschel is credited with being the
first European to recognize the value of
fingerprints for identification purposes.

William Herschel
1833 – 1918

The idea was merely "... to frighten [him] out of all thought of repudiating his
signature." The native was suitably impressed, and Herschel made a habit of requiring
palm prints--and later, simply the prints of the right Index and Middle fingers--on every
contract made with the locals. Personal contact with the document, they believed,
made the contract more binding than if they simply signed it. Thus, the first wide-scale,
modern-day use of fingerprints was predicated, not upon scientific evidence, but upon
superstitious beliefs.

As his fingerprint collection grew, however, Herschel began to note that the
inked impressions could, indeed, prove or disprove identity. While his experience with
fingerprinting was admittedly limited, Sir Herschel's private conviction that all
fingerprints were unique to the individual, as well as permanent throughout that
individual's life, inspired him to expand their use.

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 Herschel's fingerprints recorded over a period of
57 years

1880 - Faulds

During the 1870's, Dr. Henry Faulds, the British Surgeon-

Superintendent of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo, Japan, took up
the study of "skin-furrows" after noticing finger marks on
specimens of "prehistoric" pottery. A learned and
industrious man, Dr. Faulds not only recognized the
importance of fingerprints as a means of identification, but
devised a method of classification as well.

Dr. Henry Faulds

1843 - 1930

In 1880, Faulds forwarded an explanation of his classification system and a

sample of the forms he had designed for recording inked impressions, to Sir Charles
Darwin. Darwin, in advanced age and ill health, informed Dr. Faulds that he could be
of no assistance to him, but promised to pass the materials on to his cousin, Francis
Galton.
Also in 1880, Dr. Faulds published an article in the Scientific Journal,
"Nature" (nature). He discussed fingerprints as a means of personal
identification, and the use of printers ink as a method for obtaining such
fingerprints. He is also credited with the first fingerprint identification of a
greasy fingerprint left on an alcohol bottle.

1877 - Thomas Taylor

A microscopist of the Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC who also

suggested that fingerprints could be used to solve crime.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 20

 “Had Marks Under the Microscope-exhibited on a screen view of the markings
of the palms of the hands, and the tips of the fingers, and called attention to the
possibility of identifying criminals, especially murderers, by comparing the marks on
the hands left upon any object within impressions in wax taken from the hands
of suspected persons. In the case of murderers, the marks of the bloody hands
would present a very favorable opportunity. This is a new system of palmistry.”

1882 - Thompson
In 1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey in New
Mexico, used his own thumb print on a document to prevent forgery. This is
the first known use of fingerprints in the United States. Click the image
below to see a larger image of an 1882 receipt issued by Gilbert Thompson
to "Lying Bob" in the amount of 75 dollars.

1882-Bertillon
Alphonse Bertillon, a Clerk in the
Prefecture of Police of at Paris, France,
devised a system of classification, known as
Anthropometry or the Bertillon System, using
measurements of parts of the body.
Bertillon's system included measurements
such as head length, head width, length of the
middle finger, length of the left foot; and
length of the forearm from the elbow to the tip
of the middle finger.

Alphonse Bertillon
1853 - 1913

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 21

 In 1888 Bertillon was made Chief of
the newly created Department of Judicial
Identity where he used anthropometry as
the main means of identification. He later
introduced Fingerprints but relegated them
to a secondary role in the category of special
marks.

1883 - Mark Twain (Samuel L.

Clemens)
In Mark Twain's book, "Life
on the Mississippi", a murderer
was identified by the use of
fingerprint identification. In a
later book by Mark Twain,
"Pudd'n Head Wilson", there was
a dramatic court trial on
fingerprint identification. A more
recent movie was made from this
book.

Twain (Clemens)

1883 - Arthur Kollman

The first researcher to address the formation of friction ridges in embryos and
the topographical physical stressors that may have been part of their growth. He
identified the presence and locations of the valor pads of the human hand and
foot.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 22

 1888 - Galton

Sir Francis Galton, a British

anthropologist and a cousin of Charles
Darwin, began his observations of
fingerprints as a means of identification
in the 1880's.

Sir Francis Galton

1822 - 1911

1891 - Vucetich
Juan Vucetich, an Argentine Police
Official, began the first fingerprint files based
on Galton pattern types. At first, Vucetich
included the Bertillon System with the files.

Vucetich

Right Thumb Impression

and Signature of Juan
Vucetich

1892 - Vucetich & Galton

Juan Vucetich made the first
criminal fingerprint identification
using fingerprint in 1892. He was
able to identify Francis Rojas, a woman
who murdered her two sons and cut
her own throat in an attempt to place
blame on another. Her bloody print
was left on a door post, proving her
identity as the murderer.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 23

 Francis Rojas' Inked Fingerprints

In June 1892 at Necochea, Francisca Rojas claimed that she had been brutally
attacked and her two children murdered by a neighbouring ranch worker named
Velasquez. Velasquez was arrested but refused to confess to the murder of the two
children. Nine days after the crime, a search of the crime scene was carried out and
Inspector Alvarez, a colleague of Vucetich, found a bloody thumb mark on a door post
of the woman's hut. The post was taken to the fingerprint bureau for comparison with
the inked fingerprint impressions of Velasquez. They were not identical, but the blood
impressions were found to be identical with those of Rojas. When confronted with this
evidence, Rojas confessed to the murder of her children, and in July 1892 she was
found guilty of their murder and sentenced to life imprisonment.

On the same year, Sir Francis Galton published his book, "Fingerprints",
establishing the individuality and permanence of fingerprints. The book included the
first classification system for fingerprints.

Galton's primary interest in fingerprints was as an aid in determining heredity

and racial background. While he soon discovered that fingerprints offered no firm clues
to an individual's intelligence or genetic history, he was able to scientifically prove what
Herschel and Faulds already suspected: that fingerprints do not change over the
course of an individual's lifetime, and that no two fingerprints are exactly the same.
According to his calculations, the odds of two individual fingerprints being the same
were 1 in 64 billion.

Galton identified the characteristics by which fingerprints can be identified.

These same characteristics (minutia) are basically still in use today, and are often
referred to as Galton's Details.

1897 - Haque & Bose

On 12 June 1897, the Council of the Governor General of India approved a

committee report that fingerprints should be used for classification of criminal records.
Later that year, the Calcutta (now Kolkata) Anthropometric Bureau became the
world's first Fingerprint Bureau. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau
(before it became the Fingerprint Bureau) were Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra
Bose. Haque and Bose are the two Indian fingerprint experts credited with primary
development of the Henry System of fingerprint classification (named for their
supervisor, Edward Richard Henry). The Henry classification system is still used in all
English-speaking countries (primarily as the manual filing system for accessing paper
archive files that have not been scanned and computerized).

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 24

 1900 - Henry
The United Kingdom Home Secretary Office
conducted an inquiry into "Identification of
Criminals by Measurement and Fingerprints."
Mr. Edward Richard Henry (later Sir E.R. Henry)
appeared before the inquiry committee to
explain the system published in his recent book
"The Classification and Use of Fingerprints."
The committee recommended adoption of
fingerprinting as a replacement for the
relatively inaccurate Bertillon system of
anthropometric measurement, which only
partially relied on fingerprints for identification.

1901 - Henry
The Fingerprint Branch at New Scotland Yard (London Metropolitan
Police) was created in July 1901 using the Henry System of Classification.

1902 - Dr. Henry P. De Forrest

He utilized the first official municipal use of fingerprints for non-criminal

registration on December 19, 1902 in the Municipal Civil Service Commission in the
City of New York. He required civil service applicants to be fingerprinted to prevent
them from having better qualified persons take test for them and put the system into
practice.

Dr. Henry P. De Forrest pioneers U.S. fingerprinting.

1903 - Capt. James I. Parke

He advocated the first state and penal use of fingerprint which was officially
adopted in Sing-sing prison on June 5, 1903 and later at Auburn, Napanoch and
Clinton Penitentiaries.

1903
The New York State Prison system began the first systematic use of fingerprints
in U.S. for criminals.

1904
The use of fingerprints began in Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary in Kansas,
and the St. Louis Police Department. They were assisted by a Sergeant from Scotland
Yard who had been on duty at the St. Louis World's Fair Exposition guarding the
British Display. Sometime after the St. Louis World's Fair, the International
Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) created America's first national fingerprint
repository, called the National Bureau of Criminal Identification.

1905
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 25
 U.S. Army begins using fingerprints.
U.S. Department of Justice forms the Bureau of Criminal Identification in
Washington, DC to provide a centralized reference collection of fingerprint cards.
Two years later the U.S. Navy started, and was joined the next year by the
Marine Corp. During the next 25 years more and more law enforcement agencies join
in the use of fingerprints as a means of personal identification. Many of these agencies
began sending copies of their fingerprint cards to the National Bureau of Criminal
Identification, which was established by the International Association of Police Chiefs.

1907
U.S. Navy begins using fingerprints.
U.S. Department of Justice's Bureau of Criminal Identification moves to
Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary where it is staffed at least partially by inmates.

1908
U.S. Marine Corps begins using fingerprints.

1915
Inspector Harry H. Caldwell of the Oakland, California Police Department's
Bureau of Identification wrote numerous letters to "Criminal Identification Operators" in
August 1915, asking them to meet in Oakland for the purpose of forming an
organization to further the aims of the identification profession. In October 1915, a
group of twenty-two identification personnel met and initiated the "International
Association for Criminal Identification" In 1918, the organization was renamed the
International Association for Identification (IAI) due to the volume of non-criminal
identification work performed by members. Sir Francis Galton's right index finger
appears in the IAI logo. The IAI's official publication is the Journal of Forensic
Identification.
1918
Edmond Locard wrote that if 12 points
(Galton's Details) were the same between two
fingerprints, it would suffice as a positive
identification. Locard's 12 points seems to
have been based on an unscientific
"improvement" over the eleven anthropometric
measurements (arm length, height, etc.) used
to "identify" criminals before the adoption of
fingerprints.

Edmund Locard

1920 - Locard
 1920 saw the publication of the landmark book "E’enquete criminelle et les
methodes scientifique" by Edmund Locard, director of the first crime laboratory,

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 26

 in Lyon, France. The book followed on from his success two years previously in
1918 when he became the first person to suggest 12 matching points as
positive fingerprint identification.
In the book, Locard stated his "Exchange Principle," the idea that when contact
is made between two items there will always be an exchange. Locard argued that the
perpetrator of a crime will bring something into the crime scene and leave with
something from the crime scene:
"Wherever he steps, whatever he touches, whatever he leaves will serve as a
silent witness against him."
"E’enquete criminelle et les methodes scientifique" 1920
Hence the forensic precept: Every contact leaves a trace.

1924
In 1924, an act of congress established the Identification Division of the FBI.
The IACP's National Bureau of Criminal Identification and the US Justice Department's
Bureau of Criminal Identification consolidated to form the nucleus of the FBI fingerprint
files.

Mary K. Holland
She was the first American Instructor in Dactyloscopy.

1925 - Harry Mayers II

In 1925, he installed the first official foot and fingerprint system for infants
at the Jewish Maternity Hospital, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, the first system in
the state.

1946
By 1946, the FBI had processed 100 million fingerprint cards in manually
maintained files; and by 1971, 200 million cards.
With the introduction of automated fingerprint identification system (AFIS) technology,
the files were split into computerized criminal files and manually maintained civil files.
Many of the manual files were duplicates though, the records actually represented
somewhere in the neighborhood of 25 to 30 million criminals, and an unknown number
of individuals in the civil files.

1974
In 1974, four employees of the Hertfordshire (United Kingdom)
Fingerprint Bureau contacted fingerprint experts throughout the UK and
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 27
began organization of that country's first professional fingerprint
organization, the National Society of Fingerprint Officers. The organization
initially consisted of only UK experts, but quickly expanded to international
scope and was renamed The Fingerprint Society in 1977. F.F.S. used
behind a fingerprint expert's name indicates they are recognized as a
Fellow of the Fingerprint Society. The Society hosts annual educational
conferences with speakers and delegates attending from many countries.

The Fingerprint Society

1977
At New Orleans, Louisiana on 1 August
1977, delegates to the 62nd Annual Conference
of the International Association for Identification
(IAI) voted to establish the world's first
certification program for fingerprint experts.
Since 1977, the IAI's Latent Print Certification
Board has proficiency tested thousands of
applicants, and periodically proficiency tests all
IAI Certified Latent Print Examiners (CLPEs).

IAI CLPE status is considered by many identification professionals to be a

measurement of excellence. During the past three decades, CLPE status has become
a prerequisite for journeyman fingerprint expert positions in many US state and federal
government forensic laboratories.
2007
The largest AFIS repository in America is
operated by the Department of Homeland
Security's US Visit Program, containing over 74
million persons' fingerprints, primarily in the form
of two-finger records. The index finger records
are non-compliant with FBI and Interpol standards,
but sufficient for positive identification and
valuable for forensics because index fingers are
the most commonly identified crime scene
fingerprints. The US Visit Program is migrating
from two flat (not rolled) fingerprints to ten flat
fingerprints during 2007. "Fast capture" research
funded by the US government will enable
implementation of ten "rolled print equivalent"
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 28
fingerprint recording (within 15 seconds per
person fingerprinted) in future years.
 The FBI's Integrated AFIS (IAFIS) in Clarksburg, WV has more than 54 million
individual computerized fingerprint records for known criminals. Old paper fingerprint
cards for the civil files are still manually maintained in a warehouse facility (rented
shopping center space) in Fairmont, WV, though most enlisted military service
member fingerprint cards received after 1990, and all military-related fingerprint cards
received after 19 May 2000, have now been computerized and can be searched
internally by the FBI. In the "Next Generation" of IAFIS, the FBI may make civil file
AFIS searches available to US law enforcement agencies through remote interface.
The FBI is also planning to expand their automated identification activities to include
other biometrics such as palm, iris and face.
All US states and many large cities have their own AFIS databases, each with a
subset of fingerprint records that is not stored in any other database. Thus, law
enforcement fingerprint interface standards are very important to enable sharing
records and reciprocal searches for identifying criminals.

Historical Background – Philippine Setting

Mr. Jones was the first to teach fingerprints in the Philippine Constabulary sometime
in the year 1900.

The Bureau of Prisons in the year 1918, records show that the fingerprints already
existed in the “carpetas”

L. Asa N. Darby, under his management during the re-occupation of the Philippines
by the American Forces, a modern and complete Fingerprint File has been
establishment in the Philippine Commonwealth.

Mr. Genoroso Reyes was the first Filipino Fingerprint Technician employed by the
Philippine Constabulary.

Capt. Thomas Dugan of New York City Police Department and Mr. Flaviano G.
Guerrero of the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, gave the first
examinations for fingerprint in 1937.

People of the Philippines vs. Medina, 59, Phil. 330 of December 23, 1933 were the
first conviction based on fingerprint and led to the judicial decision in the Philippine
jurisprudence.

Plaridel Educational Institution (PEI), now the Philippine College of Criminology

(PCCr), Manila is the first governmental recognized school to teach the science of
fingerprints and other police sciences.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 29

Chapter 2
Legality of Fingerprints

A. Legality of fingerprinting

It is a universal knowledge that fingerprint is the most positive means of

personal identification. As such, fingerprint as evidence is accepted in every court of
justice in any part of the globe.
Although nobody has ever examined and compared fingerprints of the entire
population of the world, yet it is universally accepted that there is no possibility of
finding two individual possessing identical fingerprints. The reason for this is the fact
that it is an accepted principle by scientists that nature never duplicates itself in its
smallest details.
Some pictures in the science of fingerprints like Galton and Locard believe in
the (although very remote like in 1 in 64 billion or 1 in 3 trillion) law of probability in the
duplication of fingerprints in two individuals. This view is disputable, considering the
fact that fingerprint is as old as mankind and that there is no known record that will
show that Adam and Eve, the first man and woman, have no fingerprints. If we
consider the number of people who populated the earth from the time of Adam to the
present time not only billions but trillions of people have already occupied the earth. So
if the probability is once in every three trillions, duplication in fingerprints of different
individuals is already a possibility. But up to the present time, in spite of the fact that
every police department in every part of the world used fingerprints as a means of
personal identification, nobody has ever found two in individuals possessing identical
fingerprints as yet.

1. First Fingerprint Evidence in England, 1902

The first fingerprint evidence involving a scene of crime mark in England was
heard at the Central Criminal Court on 13th September 1902. Henry Jackson pleased
not guilty to a charge of burglary of a house at Denmark Hill, South London and
stealing billiard balls on 27th June 1902. Detective Sergeant Collins examined the
scene and an imprint of Jackson’s left thumb was found in dirt on a newly painted
window-sill.
A famous barrister of the time, Richard Muir, was appointed to conduct the
prosecution case. Collins explained the system and produced photographic
enlargements and tracings of both mark and print. Jackson was found guilty and
sentenced to seven years penal servitude.

2. First Use of Fingerprinting Evidence in a Murder Trial in England, 1905

Fingerprinting evidence was first used in a case of murder in 1905 at the
Central Criminal Court. Alfred and Albert Stratton pleaded not guilty to the murder of
Mr and Mrs Farrow at their shop in Deptford.
During examination of the scene an impression was found on a cash box.
Inspector Collins gave evidence in this case and explained the identification system

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 30

with the aid of a blackboard and photographic enlargements of the impression from the
cash box and the right thumb of Alfred Stratton. The prosecution was again conducted
by Richard Muir, and the jury found the Strattons guilty. They were later hanged.

3. In 1911, an Illinois court, in the case of the People vs. Jennings [252 III.
534, 96 NE 1077 (1911)] pass upon the admissibility of fingerprint evidence.
In that case, fingerprint evidence was admitted as a means of identification. It
was also held that persons experienced in the matter of fingerprint identification may
give their opinions as to whether the fingerprints found at the scene of the crime
correspond with those of the accused. The court’s conclusion were based on a
comparison of the photographs of such prints with the impressions made by the
accused, there being no questions as to the accuracy or authenticity of the
photographs. It was stated that the weight to be given to the testimony of experts in
the fingerprint identification as a question for the jury.
Other cases have supported the value of fingerprint evidence since the
Jennings’s case.

4. Following the Illinois case was one in New Jersey, State vs. Cerciello, in
which fingerprint evidence was permitted to be introduced.
In the Cerciello case, the defendant argued that it was an error to allow the
testimony by experts explaining the comparison of fingerprints obtained from the
defendant voluntarily with those fingerprints found upon a hatchet near the body of the
deceased when the body was discovered. The New Jersey Court of Errors and
Appeals held, “in principle, its admission as legal evidence is based upon the theory
that the evolution in practical affairs of fife, whereby the progressive and scientific
tenderness of the age are manifested in every other department of human endeavor,
cannot be ignored in legal procedure. But, that the law it its effort to enforce justice by
demonstrating a fact in issue, will allow evidence of those scientific processes which
are the work of educated and skillful men in their various departments, and apply them
to the demonstrations of fact, leaving the weight and effect to be given to the effort and
its results entirely to the consideration of the jury”, [State vs. Cerciello, 86 NJL 309, 90
Atl. (1914)].

5. In the case of State Vs. Conners [87 N.T.L. 419, 94 Atl.812 (1915)] it was held
competent to show by a photograph the fingerprints upon the balcony post of a house
entered, without producing that post in court, and to show by expert testimony that the
fingerprints found on the post were similar to the fingerprints of the defendant.

6. In the case of Lamble vs. State [Lamble v. State, 96 N.T.L. 231; 114 ATL. (N.J)
346 (1921)] which involved the discovery of fingerprints on the door of an automobile,
the court was of the opinion that it was not necessary to produce the door as evidence.
The court stated that a photograph of the fingerprints noted on the door should be
sufficient along with the identification of the fingerprints by an expert to show these of
the defendant. The court referred to the previous decided case of States v. Conners
(Supra).

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 31

7. In the case of Commonwealth v. Albright, [101 Pa. Sup. C.L.317 (1931)] a
fingerprint expert testified that the fingerprint on a piece of glass, established to be
from a pane in a door that had been broken to effect entrance to the house was the
same as the impression of the defendant’s left index finger and he explained in detail
the points of identity which led him to that judgment. In the Albright case, the court
stated, “it is well settled that the papillary lines and marks on the fingers of every man,
woman and child posses an individual character different from those of any other
person and that the chances that the fingerprints of two different persons may be
identified are infinitesimally remote.

8. In a California case, People v. Corral [224 cal. 2d 300 (1964)], the court stated, “
it is completely settled law that fingerprints are the strongest evidence of the identity of
a person”. This Doctrine was reasserted in another California case, People v. Riser [47
cal. 2d. 566 (1956)] in which the court stated, “fingerprint evidence is the strongest
evidence of identity and is ordinarily sufficient alone to identify the defendant”.

9. The US Supreme Court in the Schmerber v California [Schmerber v.

California,384 us,757,767(1966)],held that the introduction into evidence of fingerprint
impressions taken without consent of the defendant was not an infringement of the
constitutional privileged against self incrimination. The high court held that it is
constitutional to obtain real or physical evidence even if the suspect is compelled to
give blood in a hospital environment, submit to fingerprinting, photographing or
measurement, write or speak for identification, appears in court, stand or walk,
assume a stance or make a particular gesture, put on cloth that fits him, or exhibit his
body as evidence when it is material. The Schmerber case points out the fact that the
privilege against self-incrimination is related primarily to “TESTIMONIAL
COMPULSION”.

10. In the Philippines, several decided cases could be cited where fingerprint
evidence was admitted, considered and appreciated by the appellate courts with even
lesser number of ridge similarities. In the BILANGAWA v. AMADOR case, (Court of
Appeals No.37320-b) a fingerprint expert and constabulary sergeant testified and
successfully defended fingerprint evidence based on eight identical ridge points.

11. People v. Medina (59 Phil.330)

N.B. The first leading judicial in the Philippine jurisprudence on the science of
fingerprinting.
Facts:

On the night of February 12, 1932, Mariano Medina broke into and entered
through the window of the house of one James C. Rockwell. Once inside, Medina took
several properties of Rockwell and one among them was a box which was later on
recovered by the Intelligence Division by Constabulary Officer Agripino Ruiz. The latter
saw a fingerprint on the top of the box. Ruiz took the fingerprint of the accused and
found similarities when he compared them with his records. Further investigation
revealed that the accused had served 3 terms in Bilibid Prison. Ruiz then compared a

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 32

photograph of the impression of the middle finger of defendant’s right hand with the
photograph of the fingerprint on top of the silver box stolen from the bedroom of
Rockwell, and found that they coincided in ten points. He concluded that the two
impressions were from the same person. And that the fingerprint on the box was of the
defendant.
The accused deny the accusation contending that the print recovered was not
clear, hence, it is inadmissible. The CFI convicted the accused. Hence, this appeal:
Issue: Whether or not the fingerprint should be admitted as evidence?
Held:
It is now well settled that evidence as to the correspondence of fingerprint is
admissible for the purpose of identity. And although a portion of the Impression on the
box was somewhat blurred, it did not seriously interfere with the comparison of the two
fingerprints (Moon vs. State of Arizona Supreme Court, June 7, 1921 198 pag., 188;
16 A-1-R; 362, and the authorities there cited).

B. The number of ridge characteristics as basis for absolute identity

There are no national or international rules or laws that fix the number of ridge
characteristics that must be present in both the questioned and standard prints that
should be used as a basis for establishing absolute identity. Experts of different
countries differ in the requirements of the minimum number. In England, the
minimum is 16 and USA, the minimum requirement is 12.
However fingerprint experts in these countries believe that identity can be
established in lower number of guidelines laid down by the famous French Criminalist
Dr. Edmond Locard:

a) Clearness of the pattern

b) Rarity of the type
c) Presence of core or delta in the decipherable part
d) Presence of pores
e) The perfect and clear identity of the width of ridges and furrows, of the direction of
the lines, and the angular value of the furrows.
In the Philippines, the educational background, training and experience of
the examiner is more important than the number of ridge details. Only those
who have special training and a considerable experience in the examination and
comparison of fingerprint may render opinion in the absolute identity of
fingerprints.
Actual comparison of fingerprint requires skill acquired through long experience
in working with latent and inked impressions.

C. Can fingerprint be effaced?

John Dellinger, a notorious gangster and a police character, attempted to
erase his fingerprints by burning them with acid but as time went by the ridges were
again restored to their ”natural” feature. The acid he applied temporarily destroyed the
epidermis of the bulbs of this finger.

Robert James Pitts (Known as Roscoe Pitts), who gained some fame as “the
man without fingerprints” among identification personnel, is another fingerprint
figure because of his unsuccessful attempt to alter his fingerprint. This man, who got

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 33

the idea of destroying his fingerprint from a fellow inmate, contacted a doctor who
wanted to experiment with the alteration of his fingerprints. The doctor removed the
skin from the first joint of each finger down through the generative layer and sewed
this into incisions on each side of Pitt’s chest. This was apparently an attempt to graft
the skin into the fingers. After six weeks, the fingers were removed and the excess
skin trimmed off, but instead of a skin graft, only a scar tissue remained and this
showed no pattern of any kind. This very painful surgery left Pitts with a hard scar
tissue on each of his ten fingers and with a loss of the sense of touch on his finger
ends.
Almost a year later, he was picked up as a hitch-hiker during a routine round-up
of possible conscript evaders and when fingerprinted, the police were amazed to find
that he had no fingerprints. The Texas Department of Public Safety was instrumental
in bringing about an identification of this subject. The second joints of Pitt’s fingers
were carefully recorded, and these were matched against the second joint prints of all
persons listed as wanted in the FBI identification files. Pitts identity was definitely
established by the very prints he sought to alter, and he became a marked man from
that time. In this case, the absence of fingerprints served only to arouse suspicion and
marked him as a unique individual. No one has yet been able to change fingers so that
it will make a different fingerprint after it has fully healed.
As long as the dermis of the bulbs of the fingers is not completely destroyed,
the fingerprints will always remain unchanged and indestructible.
Locard and Witkowsji of Lyons, who performed rather painful experiments on
themselves by burning their fingertips with boiling water, hot oil and hot metal had
shown that after the healing of the epidermis (outer skin), the original patterns of
fingerprints reappeared.

Chapter 3
Friction ridges

A. Human’s FRICTION RIDGE formation started during the embryo growth stage
and perfected within around 4 months. Various protuberant (or rising), and formation of
the ridges composed the fingerprint, characteristics. Each individual difference is
distinctively observed on how these friction points ridge designs ends, joints, separate,
and cross each other.
And what to emphasize is, those individualized characteristics are never
affected by physical growth, aging of human body.
These factors were firmly proven scientifically through various
experimentation’s and research known as the theory of “Everybody differ each other”
during the lifetime of individual.

B. Organization and functions of friction ridges

Human skin consists of two layers the epidermis and the dermis, though
there are some tissue differences between the hairless skin (the palm side of fingers,
palm and sole with friction ridges but without hair) and the hairy skin (hairy portion
without friction ridges).

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 34

 On the surface of the hairless skin, we see patterns formed by uneven lines of
ridges and valleys. These ridges are not only formed by the unevenness of the
epidermis but are also pushed up by the rising tissue of the dermis.
The friction ridge has sweat pores, which, while always perspiring, perform such
physiological functions become causes of latent fingerprint impression.
Ridges can also be observe on the surface of the hairy skin, they are, however,
irregular, slender and intermittent, and do not form any pattern. These minor ridges
have sweat glands and excreta glands, which, while secreting sweat and excreta,
perform the same physiological functions as in hairy skin. These excretes are closely
related, though indirectly, with latent fingerprint impressions.

Phalanges or joints of fingers and thumbs where Friction

ridges exist:
1. Proximate (Proximal) or Baslar phalange/phalanx
2. Middle or medial phalange/phalanx
3. Terminal phalange or distal phalanx or end joint – point of
study

Friction ridges exist not only on the end phalange of the fingers but also the baslar and
middle phalanges of fingers, palms, toes and soles. Patterns formed by friction ridges
on these portions are distinguished from finger-prints and are called baslar phalange
prints, middle phalange prints, palm prints, foot prints, etc., whose nature and value
are just the same as those finger-prints. Together these patterns, including
fingerprints, are called skin patterns.

Ingredients of the sweat consist of 98% of water, and the inorganic compound
of sodium chloride (Nacl), Kalium (K), Magnesium (Mg), organic compound of Amino
acid. Therefore the fingerprint samples from the crime scene found on the
material/object suspected to have been touched by the fingers of the suspect. Upon
touching the surface of the material, the adhesion of sweat secreted from the finger,
along with the pattern of protuberant line on the fingertips surface forming the pattern
as fingerprint.

C. The Papillary Structure

The papillary structure is composed of ridge surface, pore, duct, the sweat
gland, as well as the epidermis, stratum mucosum, nerve and the dermis. The
epidermis is seen as the outer layer of the skin structure showing the ridge and
furrows. It is composed of several layers having different structural characteristics. Its
innermost layer is the generating layer. Since cells in the deep layers are very active
and multiply rapidly, they become confide as they neared the surface. Ridges are quite
rough in appearance; they are constantly being worn off or slough off like scales from
the exposed surface. This sloughing process is the result of the constant activities of
the living cells which continuously multiply to replace the dead skin in the stratum
corneum.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 35

D. Ridge Formation

Since the ridges are the basis for fingerprint identification they seemed to
appear as continuous lines – some short and curved, others long and straight, and a
few like islands containing a single pore structure. During the process of growth and
development these ridge formations are not continuous lines but consist of a series of
islands, each containing a small opening or pore. As they grow, they fuse together and
eventually the round contours flatten and straighten out to form a continuous straight
or short line.

The dermis or true skin is the layer containing blood vessels, various glands
and nerves. It is in the dermis where the dermal papillae are found. These dermal
papillae are irregular blunt pegs composed of delicate connective tissues protruding
and forming the ridges of the skin on the fingers, palms, toes, and soles of the feet.
The ridges on these parts of the human body are formed into patterns by virtue of the
fact that the epidermis is penetrated and molded by the dermal papillae.

The pore is a small opening anywhere across the ridge surface but is usually
found near the center. A duct serves as a passage way for the watery substance
(sweat) that exits at its mouth, the pore. The sweat gland is where perspiration is
discharged. It must be mentioned here that pores – in number, size, and arrangement
are as individual as the fingerprints.

Relative to the appearance of ridges, we take notice of the depression found

between them. These spaces are called furrows. We know that when perspiration
comes out of the pore, it courses over the ridges down into the furrows where it acts
as lubricant to prevent drying and cracking of the skin.

The ridges appearing in a fingerprint are commonly referred to as papillary or

friction ridges. The ridges have a definite contour and appear in definite individual
details by which positive identification can be made. Ridge characteristics are formed
prior to birth and remain constant through life except for growth and deep scarification.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 36

 Skin condition such as warts and blisters of temporary impairments caused by
certain occupation, e.g Bricklayers, Carpenters, have no permanent effect and the
individual characteristics revert to their natural alignment once the temporary skin
condition has been corrected.In ordinary usage, the skin surface is inked and the

Two (2) Major layers of Human Skin

1. Epidermis. The cuticle or outer layer of the skin formed from the ectoderm in
an embryo. It is where epidermal or friction ridges is observed.

Five layers of the epidermis from top to bottom:

a. Stratum Corneum epidermidis. Horny layer; the outermost layer consisting of

cells that are dead and desquamatting.
b. Stratum Lucidum epidermidis (Hyalin layer). The clear translucent layer.
c. Stratum Granulosum epidermidis. Granular layer.
d. Stratum Spinosum epidermidis (prickle cell layer). Spinous layer
characterized by presence of prickle cells.
e. Stratum Basale epidermidis (aka: Stratum Mocusom, Stratum Malpighi or
Stratum Germinativum). The germinative/generating or inner layer that contains
melanocyte cells, Merkel cells and keratinocyte cells.

2. Dermis layer. The true skin under or beneath the epidermis. It provides
nutrients to the epidermis.

Two sub-layers from top to bottom:

a. papillary layer
b. reticular layer

Related Terms:

Dermal Papillae (aka dermal pegs or papillary pegs). Peg-like formation

on the surface of the dermis.

Dermal Ridges/ papillary ridges. The ridges in the papillary layer that
connect to the bottom ridges of the epidermis.

ridges outlines are transferred to a standard 8 by 8 inch card then serves as the basic
document utilized in the maintenance of the fingerprint files.

From a law enforcement viewpoint, fingerprint serves and additional purpose

since the ridges on the skin surface emit a film of perspiration or oily matter; there is a
tendency for the ridge impression to adhere to non porous objects that a person may
touch.
Such fingerprints may be rendered visible by various powder and chemicals use
for the purpose. When latent impressions discovered at the crime scene during an

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 37

investigation are searched against the fingerprints of a suspect, a positive identification
is made. These latent fingerprints are admissible as evidence in a court of law.
Permanency of ridge characteristics, plus their unique distribution by type,
location and direction provide the basis for the premise that no two persons have the
same fingerprint. Generally, the courts set twelve (12) characteristic as the minimum
number of matching characteristic required to establish identity.
The actual determination as to whether exist is dependent upon the matching of
the individual minute ridge characteristic. If a fingerprint is clear, it is not unusual to be
able to find thirty (30) or more ridge characteristic which can be used for identification
purposes.

E. Ridge Characteristics (Minutiae or Galton details)

1. Recurving ridge (looping ridge) – Is the ridge that curves back in the direction in
which it started. It looks like a hair pin.
2) Converging Ridges – Two or more lines forming an angle, a ridge whose closed
end is angular and serves as a point of convergent.
3) Diverging ridges – Two ridges running side by side and suddenly separating, one
ridge going one way and the other ridge in another way. Example is the type lines.
4) Bifurcating ridge (forking ridge) – A single ridge which splits into two forming a “Y”
shape, formation or structure. It looks like a fork.
5) Enclosure (Island, Eyelet, lake or Eye) – It is a single ridge which bifurcates
where the bifurcating ridges converge at a certain point to form again into a single
ridge. A bifurcation which does not remain open but which the legs of the bifurcation,
after running along side by side for a short distance, come together again to form a
single ridge once more.
6) Dot – An isolated friction ridge unit whose length approximates its width in size.
7) Short or Series of Short Ridges – They are fragmentary ridges formed by short or
series of short ridges. They consist of disconnected sequences of short ridges
embodied intensely. These ridges are considered in the classification of fingerprints if
they appear as dark and as thick as the surrounded ridges within the pattern area
8) Ridge-ending – It is a termination or ending of ridge or ridges.
9). Ridge Hook or Spur – It is a ridge that divides to form two ridges which are shorter
in length than the main ridge.
10). Ridge Bridge – This is a connecting ridge between two ridges.
11) Incipient or Nascent Ridge – This is a kind of ridge which is madly formed, thin,
short or broken which appear or appears in the depressions between two well formed
ridges.
12) Sufficient recurve – The space between shoulders of a loop, free of any
appendage abutting upon the outside of the recurve at a right angle.
13) Appendage- a short ridge at the top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle.
14) Envelop – Is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more rods or bars.
15) Rod or bar – Is a single ending ridge at the center of a recurving ridge of a loop
pattern.
16) Upthrust – Is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from a
horizontal place.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 38

17) Dissociated ridges – Are unusual ridge structures having no well defined
patterns; the ridges are extremely short, appear like a series of “patches” caused by a
disturbance of developmental process at early fetal life of the individual.
18) Shoulder of a loop - It is that point at which the recurving ridge definitely turns or
curve.
19) Creases - Are thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely or
formed side to side, across the print, causing the puckering of the ridges.
20) Puckering - As growth ceases at several ends, the ends curls slightly.
21) Staple - Single recurving ridge at the center of the pattern area.

Chapter 4
Types of Fingerprint Patterns and Their Interpretation

A. Standard Fingerprint Patterns (FBI)

Fingerprints may be resolved into three large general groups of patterns, each
group bearing the same general characteristics or family resemblance. These divisions
are as follows:

I. Loops (65 % in appearance)

1) Ulnar
2) Radial
II. Arches (5 % in appearance)
1) Tented
2) Plain

III. Whorl (30 % in appearance)

1) Plain whorl
2) Central pocket loop whorl
3) Double loop whorl
4) Accidental whorl

B. Interpretation

Before pattern definition can be understood, it is necessary to understand the

meaning of a few technical terms used in fingerprint work:

1. Pattern area

The pattern area is the only part of the finger impression with which we are
concerned in regard to interpretation and classification. It is present in all patterns, of
course, but in many arches and tented arches it is impossible to define. However the
only patterns in which we need to define the pattern area for classification purposes
are loops and whorls. In these two pattern types the pattern area may be defined as
follows:
 The pattern area is that part of a loop or whorl in which appear the cores,
deltas, and ridges with which we are concerned in classifying.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 39

  The part of the fingerprint which lies within the area surrounded or enclosed by
the type lines.

2. Type lines

 It may be defined as the two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge, and
surround or tend to surround the pattern area.
 Basic boundaries of most fingerprints formed by ridges which run parallel
starting from the lower corner of the pattern and flowing inward and upward the
edge of the pattern area, where they diverge or separate, then surround or tend
to surround the pattern area.

Type lines are not always two continuous ridges. In fact, they are more often
found to be broken. When there is a definite break in a type line, the ridge immediately
outside of it is considered as its continuation.

Sometimes type lines may be very short.

When locating type lines it is necessary to keep in mind the distinction between
a divergence and a bifurcation.

11
A bifurcation is the forking or dividing of one line into two or more branches.
A divergence is the spreading apart of two lines which have been running
parallel or nearly parallel.

According to the narrow meaning of the words in fingerprint parlance, a single

ridge may bifurcate, but it may be said to diverge. Therefore, with one exception, the
two forks of a bifurcation may never constitute type lines. The exception is when the
forks run parallel after bifurcating and then diverge. In such a case the two forks
become the two innermost ridges required by the definition.

Angles are never formed by a single ridge but abutting of one ridge against
another. Therefore, an angular formation cannot be used as a type line.

3. Focal Points

Within the pattern areas of loops and whorls are enclosed the focal points which
are used to classify them. These points are called delta and core.

a. Delta or Outer Terminus/Triradial Point – Is a point on the first ridge formation

directly at or in front or nearest the center of the divergence of the type lines.
It may be:
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 40
  a bifurcation
 an abrupt ending ridge
 a dot
 a short ridge
 a meeting of two ridges
 a point on the first recurving ridge located nearest to the center and in front of
the divergence of the type lines.

The concept of the delta may perhaps be clarified by further exposition.

Webster furnishes the following definition:

 Delta is the name of the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet (equivalent to the
English D) from the Phoenician name for the corresponding letter. The Greeks
called the alluvial deposit at the mouth of the Nile, from its shape, the Delta of
the Nile.

 A tract of land shape like the letter “delta,” especially when the land is alluvial,
and enclosed within two or more mouths of a river, as the Delta of the Ganges,
of the Nile, of the Mississippi.

There is a similarity between the use of the word “delta” in physical geography
and in fingerprints. The island formed in front of the diverging sides of the banks where
the stream empties at its mouth corresponds to the delta in fingerprints, which is the
first obstruction of any nature at the point of divergence of the type lines in front of or
nearest the center of the divergence.

a.1 Rules in Delta location

When there is a choice between two or more possible deltas, the following rules
govern:

a) The delta may not be located at a bifurcation which does not open towards the
core.

b) When there is a choice between a bifurcation and another type of delta equally
close to the point of divergence, the bifurcation is selected.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 41

3. When there is a series of bifurcations opening towards the point of divergence of
the type lines, the bifurcation nearest to the core is chosen as the delta.

4. The delta may not be located in the middle of the ridge running between the type
lines toward the core but at the nearer end only.

5. If the ridge enters the pattern area from a point below the divergence of the type
lines, the delta must be located at the end nearer to the core.

The delta is the point from which to start in ridge counting. In the loop type
pattern the ridges intervening between the delta and the core are counted. The core is
the second of the two focal points.

b) Core or Inner Terminus – It is s a point on a ridge formation usually located at the

center or heart of a pattern.

b.1 Rules in core location

It will be necessary to concern ourselves with the core of the loop type only.
The following rules govern the selection of the core of a loop:

1) The core is placed upon or within the sufficient recurving ridge.

2) When the innermost sufficient recurve contains no ending ridge or rod rising as high
as the shoulders of the loop, the core is placed on the shoulder of the loop farther from
the delta.

3) When the innermost sufficient recurve contains uneven number of rods rising as
high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the center rod whether it
touches the looping ridge or not.

4) When the innermost sufficient recurve contains an even number of rods rising as
high as the shoulders, the core is placed upon the end of the farther one of the two
center rods being treated as though they were connected by a recurving ridge.

The shoulders of a loop are the points at which the recurving ridge definitely
turns inward or curves.

Note: A recurve must have no appendage abutting upon it at a right angle between
shoulders and on the outside. If such an appendage is present between the shoulders
of a loop, that loop is considered spoiled and the next loop outside will be considered
to locate the core.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 42

 What is ridge counting and ridge count?
Ridge Counting is the process of counting the ridges that touch or
cross an imaginary line drawn between the core and delta of a loop.
Ridge Count is the number of ridges intervening between the delta
and the core. Neither delta nor core is counted.

A white space must intervene between the delta and the first ridge count.
If no such interval exists, the first ridge count must be disregarded.

4. The Loop

A loop is that type of fingerprint pattern in which one or more of the ridges
enters on either side of the impression, recurve, touch or pass an imaginary line drawn
from the delta to the core, and terminate or tend to terminate on or toward the same
side of the impression from whence such ridge or ridges entered.

• One or more ridges enter on either side, recurves and terminate or tend to
terminate on the same side from which it entered. (Solis)
• A pattern in which one or more ridges start at one side of the pattern and run
toward the upper corner on the opposite side, then turn around and start back
toward the side from which they came originally, forming a loop with a core in
the center and a delta at the edge of the pattern area. (Tubid)

Essentials of a loop
 a core
 a delta
 a sufficient recurve
 it must have a ridge count of a minimum of at least one (1) across a looping
ridge.

A sufficient recurve may be defined as that part of a recurving ridge between

the shoulders of a loop. It must be free of any appendage abutting upon the outside of
the recurve at a right angle.

Kinds of Loop pattern

a) Radial Loop (R) – loops which flow or recurve towards the radius bone of the
forearm or thumb.

b) Ulnar Loop (U) - loops which flow in the direction of the ulna bone or towards the
little finger.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 43

 The classification of loops is based on the way the loops flow on the hand (not
the card), so that on the fingerprint card for the left hand, loops flowing toward the
thumb impression are ulnar, and loops flowing toward the little finger impression are
radial.

Ridge Counting for Loops

The number of ridges intervening between the delta and the core is known as
the ridge count. We count each ridge which crosses or touches an imaginary line
drawn from the delta to the core. Neither the delta nor core is counted. A red line upon
the reticule of the fingerprint glass is used to insure absolute accuracy. In the event
there is bifurcation of a ridge exactly at the point where the imaginary line would be
drawn, two ridges are counted. Where the line crosses an island, both sides are
counted. Fragments, incipient and dots are counted as ridges only if they appear to be
as thick and heavy as the other ridges in the immediate pattern. Variations in inking
and pressure must, of course, be considered. See illustration on the next page.

Note: Incipient or nascent ridges should not be counted EXCEPT if they are as thick
as the main ridges. Tiny dots also are not counted.
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 44
5. The Arches

In arch pattern, the ridges go from one side of the pattern to another, never
turning back to make a loop. (Solis, p 59)

Two Kinds of Arch Pattern

a) Plain Arch (A)

 A pattern in which the ridges enter on one side of the pattern, then flow or tend
to flow towards the other side, with a rise or wave in the center, with no angular
ridge formation and no upthrust.
 It is the most simple of all fingerprint patterns, and it is easily distinguished.

b) Tented Arch (T)

 In the tented arch, most of the ridges enter upon one side of the impression and
flow or tend to flow out upon the other side, as in the plain arch type; however,
the ridge or ridges at the center do not.
 A pattern similar to a loop, but lacking at least one of the essential elements of
a loop. This is a type of fingerprint pattern where majority of the ridges form an
arch and one or more of the ridges at the center form a tent in outline, giving an
angle of 90 degrees or less; or one with un upward thrust having an angle of 45
degrees or more; (an incomplete loop)

There are three types of tented arches:

 The type in which ridges at the center form a definite angle; i.e., 90° or
less.
 The type in which one or more ridges at the center form an upthrust. An
upthrust is an ending ridge of any length rising at a sufficient degree from
the horizontal plane; i.e., 45° or more.
 The type approaching the loop type, possessing two of the basic or
essential characteristics of the loop, but lacking the third.

6. The Whorl

The patterns to which numerical values are assigned in deriving the “primary” in
the extension of the Henry System of fingerprint classification used by the Federal
Bureau of Investigation are the whorl-type patterns, which occur in about 30 percent of
all fingerprints.

The whorl is that type of pattern in which at least two deltas are present with a
recurve in front in each.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 45

 It is important to note that the above definition is very general; however, this
pattern may be subdivided for extension purposes in large groups where whorls are
predominant.

The aforementioned subdivisions are as follows: The Plain Whorl, The Central
Pocket Loop Whorl, The Double Loop Whorl, and the Accidental Whorl.

a) Plain Whorl (W)

Plain whorl (simple whorls Solis, p59), defined: It is a fingerprint pattern

which there are two (2) deltas and in which at least one (1) ridge makes a turn
through one complete circuit. An imaginary line drawn between the two (2) deltas must
touch or cross at least one (1) of the recurving or circuiting whorl ridges within the
inner pattern area. A recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage connected
with it in the line of flow, cannot be construed as a circuit. An appendage connected at
that point is considered to spoil the recurve on that side.

 Consists of two deltas with a core consisting of circles, ellipses, or spiral

turning to the right or left. (Solis)

b) Central Pocket Loop Whorl (C)

It is a fingerprint pattern which for the most part of a loop, but which has a small
whorl inside the loop ridges, sometimes called a composite pattern, which means that
is made up of two (2) pattern in one, a whorl inside a loop .

 It is like simple loop but in the core, one may find one ridge which forms a
convex towards the opening of the loop. (Solis, p 59)

It has two deltas, one which appears at the edge of the pattern area, as in plain
loop and one show inside the pattern area, as just below the counterpart ridges. To
make it more distinctive from plain whorl, an imaginary line drawn between the two
deltas must not touch or cross any of the recurving ridges within the inner pattern area.
A recurving ridge, however, which has an appendage connected with it in the line of
flow and on the delta side cannot be construed as a circuit. An appendage connected
at that point is considered to spoil the recurve on that side.

Because the center pocket loop whorl combines the characteristics of the both
plain loop and plain whorl, it is sometimes referred to the TRANSITIONAL PATTERN.
That is, it is a pattern in between the other two. It has all the features of a plain loop
with the additional characteristics of having a whorl or whorl type ridges around the
core.

c) Double Loop Whorl (D)

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 46

 The double loop consists of two separate loop formations, with two separate
and distinct sets of shoulders, and two deltas.
The word “separate,” as used here, does not mean unconnected. The two loops
may be connected by an appending ridge provided that it does not abut at right angles
between the shoulders of the loop formation. The appendage rule for loop applies also
to the double loop. An appendage abutting upon a loop at right angles between the
shoulders is considered to spoil the loop, while an appendage which flows off smoothly
is considered to leave the recurve intact.

The fact that there must be two separate loop formations eliminates from
consideration as a double loop the “S” type core, the interlocking type core, and the
formation with one loop inside another.

The loops of a double loop do not have to conform to the requirements of the
loop. In other words, no ridge count is necessary.

It is not essential that both sides of a loop be of equal length, nor that the two
loops be of the same size. Neither is it material from which side the loops enter. All
that is required is that there be two (2) separate and distinct loop formations, two sets
of shoulders and two (2) deltas.

The distinction between twinned loops and lateral pocket loops made by Henry
and adopted by other authors has been abandoned by the Federal Bureau of
Investigation because of the difficulty in locating and tracing the loops. Both types
have been consolidated under the classification “double loop.”
.

d) Accidental Whorl (X)

The accidental whorl is a pattern consisting of a combination of two different

types of pattern, with the exception of the plain arch, with two or more deltas; or a
pattern which possesses some of the requirements for two or more different types; or
a pattern which conforms to none of the definitions.

It may be a combination of loop and tented arch, loop and whorl, loop and
central pocket loop, double loop and central pocket loop, or other such combinations.
The plain arch is excluded as it is rather the absence of pattern than a pattern.
Underneath every pattern there are ridges running from one side to the other, so that if
it were not excluded every pattern but the plain arch would be an accidental whorl.

Whenever you find any two deltas in a fingerprint pattern which does not
confirm to the rules for the plain whorl, central pocket loop whorl or double loop whorl,
the chances are, that you are dealing with an accidental whorl.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 47

 7.
What is ridge tracing?
Ridge Tracing is the process of tracing the ridge that
originates from the left delta toward the right delta to see
where it flows in relation to the right delta.

Whorl Tracing

The technique of whorl tracing depends upon the establishment of the focal
points---the deltas. Every whorl has two or more. When the deltas have been located,
the ridge emanating from the lower side or point of the extreme left delta is traced
until the point nearest or opposite the extreme right delta is reached. The number of
ridges intervening between the tracing ridge and the right delta are then counted with
the following rules:

 If the ridge traced passes inside of (above/in front) the right delta, and
three or more ridges intervene between the tracing ridge and the delta, the
tracing is designated as an “Inner”---I.
 If the ridge traced passes outside (below) the right delta, and three or
more ridges intervene between the tracing ridge and the right delta, the
tracing is designated as an “Outer”---O.
 All other tracings are designated as “Meeting”---M.

Other Rules to be observed in Ridge Tracing

 Tracing begins from the left delta. In no instance is a tracing to begin on a type
line.
 When the ridge traced ends abruptly, and it is determined that the ridge
definitely ends, the tracing drops down to the point on the next lower ridge
immediately beneath the point where the ridge above ends, continuing from
there. In this connection it should be noted that the rule for dropping to the next
lower line applies only when the ridge definitely ends. Short breaks in a ridge
which may be due to improper inking, the presence of foreign matter on the
ridges, enlarged pores, disease, or worn ridges should not be considered as
definite ridge endings. The determination of what constitutes a definite ending
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 48
 will depend, of course, upon the good judgment of the classifier. Appropriate
reference tracing should be done in all such cases.

 Whenever the ridge traced bifurcates, the rule for tracing requires that the lower
limb or branch proceeding from the bifurcation be followed.

 Accidentals often possess three or more deltas. In tracing them only the
extreme deltas are considered, the tracing beginning at the extreme left delta
and proceeding toward the extreme right delta.
 In a double loop or accidental the problem of where to stop tracing is
sometimes presented. The rule is, when the tracing passes inside of the right
delta, stop at the nearest point to the right delta on the upward trend. If no
upward trend is present, continue tracing until a point opposite the right delta, or
the delta itself, is reached.

Chapter 5
Recording, Developing and Preserving Fingerprints

A. KINDS OF IMPRESSIONS (Solis, p 57)

1. Real Impression – Impression of the finger bulbs with the use of printing ink on
the surface of the paper. Other coloring materials may be used but they are less
visible and indelible

Methods of Producing Real Impressions

a. Plain method
The bulbs of the last phalanges of the fingers and thumbs are pressed on the
surface of the paper after pressing them on a plate with printing ink.
b. Rolled Method
The bulb of the thumb and other fingers are rolled on the surface of the paper
after being rolled in an ink pad with the printing ink. The rolling must be from nail to nail
or 180 degrees.

Types of Real Impression

a. Rolled impression = One made by rolling the thumbs and fingers following
the procedure stated below.
b. Plain impression = this requires that the fingers be taken or printed
simultaneously, then the thumbs without rolling. Plain impressions are used as a check
upon the sequence and accuracy of the rolled impression.

Equipments in taking or recording real impressions (FBI Standard)

• Fingerprint ink roller = 6” long & 2” in diameter
• Card holder
• Inking plate or glass slab = 6” wide x 14” long
• Fingerprint ink
• Hand and slab roller cleaner
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 49
 • Fingerprint card = 8” x 8”
• Fingerprint stand or table = 2 feet in length, 1 foot in height and width

Suggested Procedures in Taking or Recording Fingerprints (Depayso)

a. Inking the Plate
a.1 Squeeze one-half “Fingerprint ink on the back strip.”
a.2 Roll the “one-half” ink with the ink roller until the roller is covered with a thin
film of ink. The back strip is used for replenishing ink. DO NOT move the
roller back and forth; lift the roller off the slab after each stroke. Return the
roller to the starting point and roll again.
a.3 Now place the roller on the front strip and roll ink for ten (10) seconds
across the length of the slab. The strip should be 3 to 4 inches in width. This
strip is used for inking the fingers. Continue rolling (do not roll back and
forth) until a smooth, uniform coating is apparent.

b. Inking and Rolling the Fingers

Rolled Impression

b.1 Have the subject wash and thoroughly dry his hands prior to inking. Some
subjects may be required that individual fingers be dried with a towel just
before inking.
b.2 You will start by inking and rolling the fingers on the right hand, then ink and
roll the fingers on the left hand and finally, take plain impressions of both
hands. In this way, you start at the top of the card. Where space is allotted
to the right hand, and work your way down the card.

b.3 The rule for inking the roller fingers is: Roll thumbs toward the center of
the subject’s body and roll fingers away from the center of the subject’s
body.

b.4 The fingers should be inked and rolled on the first joint; that is the area
between the tip and the first crease line and if possible including some part
of the middle phalange. Fingers should be inked and rolled 180º or from
“nail to nail,” with the finger held at right angles to the slab and cardholder.

b.5 Let the subject stand directly in front of the inking slab. A right-handed
technician should then place himself so that the subject is to his right and
rear, a left-handed technician to his left and rear. Grip the subject’s right
hand with your writing hand, cupping your hand and fingers over the top of
the subject’s hand and fingers. FBI suggested that the person taking the
fingerprints should stand to the left of the subject when printing the right
hand, and to the right of the subject when printing the left hand.

b.6 Insufficient ink, resulting in ridges to light and faint to be counted or traced.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 50

 b.7 Allowing the fingers to slip or twist resulting in smears, blurs and false
appearing patterns. The fingers should be held lightly without too much
pressure.

c. Obtaining Plain Impressions

To obtain “plain” impressions, all the fingers of the right hand should be
pressed lightly upon the inking plate, and then pressed simultaneously upon
the lower right hand corner of the card in the space provided. The left hand
should be similarly printed, and the thumbs of both hands should be inked
and printed, without rolling, in the space provided.

What to do for Temporary Disabilities

a) When fingers have fresh cuts, bandage finger which will prevent the
recording an indication in the fingerprint card to the effect “fresh cut, bandaged”
is not sufficient to file the fingerprint cased. The same situation would occur if
there were bluster on the individual’s finger. The blister temporarily disfigures
the ridge detail.
Solution: When an injury is temporary, the prints, if at all possible, should not
be taken until after the injury has healed.
b) Occupational problems (bricklayers, carpenters, etc.)
Solution: Rub the finger with softening agents-oil, cream, or lotion. It is further
suggested that a very small amount of ink should be used on the inking plate.

c) Excessive perspiration that causes inked impressions to be indistinct.

Solution: Wipe the finger with cloth and then immediately ink the fingers and
roll it on the fingerprint card. This process should be followed by each finger.
It is also suggested that possibly the fingers could be wipe by alcohol,
benzene, or similar fluid which would act as a drying agent.
d) When the ridges are very fine like the ridges of the fingers of the baby.
Solution: Used a very little amount of ink and spread a very thin coating of ink
on the glass slab.

What to do for Permanent Disabilities

a) Lack of fingers or missing fingers at birth.

Solution: The notation “missing finger at birth” or some similar notation is
made in the individual fingerprint block on the card. A proper notation
concerning this situation will prevent the fingerprint card from being returned.
b) Amputated Fingers
Solution: Proper notations to this effect in the individual fingerprint block. It is
suggested that if the portion of the first joint of a finger is amputated, the finger
should be inked and printed.
c) Bent or crippled fingers and certain deformities
Solution: A notation to this effect should be on the fingerprint card in the
proper individual fingerprint block. However, it is believed that these extreme
cases are rare. It is suggested that the special inking devices use for taking

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 51

 the prints of deceased individual be used in taking inked impression of bent or
crippled fingers.
d) Deformities
d.1 More than 10 fingers (Polydactyly)
Solution: If a subject has more than ten (10) fingers, as occasionally happed
as the thumb and the next four fingers to them should be printed, and any
finger left over should be printed in the other side of the card with a notation
made to the effect that they are extreme fingers.

d.2 Webbed Fingers (Syndactyly)

Solution: If a subject having two or more fingers webbed or grown together
making it possible to roll such fingers on the inside, such fingers should be
rolled, however, as completely as possible, and a notation to the effect that
they are joined.
d.3 Split Thumbs
Solution: Thumbs having two nail joints are classified as if the joint toward
the outside of the hand were not present. In other words, the inner joint is used,
and no consideration whatever is given to the outer joint.

2. Chance Impression – refers to fingerprints which are imprinted or impressed by

mere chance or without any intention to produce it.

Chance Impression maybe:

a) Visible or Patent – impression made by chance and is visible without

previous treatment. Impression made by the fingers smeared with some colored
substance, like black ink, vegetable juice, may be visible immediately after impression.
 These are friction ridge impressions of unknown origin which are obvious to the
human eye and are caused by a transfer of foreign material on the finger, onto
a surface. Because they are already visible they need no enhancement, and
are photographed instead of being lifted.

b) Semi-visible/plastic/molded – impressions made by chance by pressing

the finger tips on melted paraffin, putty, resin, cellophane, plastic tape, butter, soap,
etc. These prints need not a development, although photography is more
applicable.
 A plastic print is a friction ridge impression from a finger or palm (or toe/foot)
deposited in a material that retains the shape of the ridge detail.
Commonly encountered examples are melted candle wax, putty removed
from the perimeter of window panes and thick grease deposits on car parts.
Such prints are already visible and need no enhancement, but investigators
must not overlook the potential that invisible latent prints deposited by
accomplices may also be on such surfaces. After photographically recording
such prints, attempts should be made to visualize other non-plastic impressions
deposited in natural finger/palm secretions (eccrine gland secretions) or
contaminates.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 52

 c) Invisible/Latent – refers to prints which are not visible after impression but
made visible by the addition of some substances.

What is Latent Prints in Forensic Science?

Although the word latent means hidden or invisible, in modern usage for
forensic science the term latent prints means any chance or accidental impression
left by friction ridge skin on a surface, regardless of whether it is visible or invisible at
the time of deposition.

Electronic, chemical and physical processing techniques permit visualization of

invisible latent print residue whether they are from natural secretions of the eccrine
glands present on friction ridge skin (which produce palmar sweat, sebum, and various
kinds of lipids), or whether the impression is in a contaminate such as motor oil, blood,
paint, ink, etc.

Methods of Developing Latent Prints (Depayso)

a) Physical or powder method

Suitable materials for this technique are glass, porcelain, ceramic, pottery,
metallic item, plastic, and bamboo. The principle involved in this technique is that the
developing reagent adheres to the sweat present in the latent print.
a.1 Black powder – This is applied on white and smooth surfaces
a.2 White or aluminum powder – This is applied on black and smooth surface.
*The two types of powder involve the “Principle of Contrast” to develop
latent prints.
* These powders are applied on the surface through brushing.
a.3 Lycopodium powder – This is applied on leather bags. It is directly placed
on the surface using a blower to spread the powder instead of a brush. It is also
used to develop latent prints on human skin with the use of gelatin paper.
Procedure:
 Lift the latent print from the human skin using a fingerprint lifting material.
 Mount it on a gelatin paper.
 Apply lycopodium powder.
a.4 SP Black powder – Mix oxidizing iron into aluminum powder with weak
adhesive powder. When subjected evidence surface is white color, this powder
is used more frequently to make clear appearance from identification, on
detected fingerprint, than the aluminum powder.

b) Chemical or liquid Method

Common reagents:
b.1 Ninhydrin solution – It is used to detect latent prints on absorbent materials,
white wood, blood stained fingerprint, paper wrapping of cigarette stick, etc.
b.2 Ninhydrin Petroleum Benzine Solution – This is applied on printed materials.
The advantage of this method is the non destruction of written letters made by
ball pen and other ink.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 53

 b.3 TMB ( Tretramethyl Benzedrin – C16 H2O N2) Method - With this method,
the invisible amount of blood stained fingerprints can be detected. Fingerprint
on kitchen knife, and other blades used as a weapon, effectively detected.
b.4 Neo SPWA Method (Invented by Nobuo Yamauchi - Japanese fingerprint
Expert)
Applied on wet surfaces (plastic bag, metal pr0duct, plastic product,
vehicle body, bathroom tiles, weekly magazine cover, glass product, smooth
surface with no water absorbent ), adherent surface of adhesive tape, the
magnetic card and crappy plastic bag.
Preparation: Few drops of isoprophyl alcohol (70% alcohol content)
added to 1 gram of black powder. Add 7-10 ml of water and mix well.
b.5 Victoria Pure Blue Method – This is used to detect latent prints on leaves,
scotch tape, and masking tape.
Preparation: 1 gram of Victoria pure blue mix with 1 liter of ordinary water
to make 0.1% of Victoria pure blue solution.

Other chemical development of latent prints

a) Collaidal Gold Universal Fingerprint Developer - A newer process developed

at Los Alamos National Laboratory. This process which is used by the FBI and Secret
Services, can effectively develop prints on plastic, bank checks, counterfeit money,
metal and skin, even after cyanoacrylate or ninhydrin have failed.
b) Amino black – A dye sensitive to properties of blood and may be used with
contaminated/visible prints involving blood. It has the capability to turn blood proteins
to a blue-black color.
c) Crystal violet – It is used to develop latent prints on the adhesive side of
almost any kind of tape. It may also be useful on plastic surfaces. Crystal violet is
mixed with water and the tape is soaked in the solution. The tape is then rinsed with
tap water. Any latent print that appears is dried a purple color. The results can be
enhanced by viewing the treated area under laser illumination.
d) Iodine fuming – It is the oldest and most proven method of developing latent
prints on porous, particularly paper and nonporous surfaces. If the subsequent use of
ninhydrin may be required, the iodine fuming should be done first.
e) DFO (1, 8 – diazaflluoren – 9 – one) – This is a ninhydrin analoge. It reacts
with proteins to give a highly fluorescent red colored product, which is more sensitive
than ninhydrin. These red prints may be immediately visible to the naked eye. DFO
developed prints fluoresce under almost all laser alternative light sources. Ninhydrin
may be used in conjunction with the DFO; however, DFO must be used first.
f) Small Particle Reagent (SPR) – This is a technique of developing latent prints
that have been immersed in water, has when a perpetrator has attempted to dispose
of a firearm used in a crime by throwing it into a river or lake. It is also used to develop
prints on drew-or-rain soaked cars, on surfaces covered with residue, such as salt
from being near the ocean; and on waxed materials, plastic, tiles and glass.
Developed prints appear dark gray on a light surface and light gray on a dark
surface. Although SPR can be sprayed on an object, immersion of the object for about
30 seconds in SPR solution procedures better results.
g) Rhodamine 6 G – This is an excellent fluorescent chemical dye to be used
on metal, glass, leather, plastic, wood and many other types of non absorbent

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 54

surfaces. Rhodamine 6 G may enhance latent prints already developed and also
reaveal others.
h) Basic Yellow 40 – Following superglue fuming, Basic Yellow 40 can be
effectively used on surfaces such as cans, leather and plastics. The article is soaked
in Basic Yellow 40 solution for about one minute; it will happen fluoresce well under
alternate lighting.
i) Physical Developer (PD) – Also called stabilized physical developer or SPD.
PS is a silver- base solution use as a substitute for the conventional latent print silver
nitrate procedure. PD is useful in detecting latent prints on porous surfaces which are
wet or have been wet, e.g. paper, cardboard, and raw wood. The technique may be
used following ninhydrin. PD reacts with components of sweat and appears in shades
from gray to almost black. PD develops prints are preserve by photography.

C) Gas Method

c.1 Super Glue Or Cyanoacrelate – The cyano bond’s brand name in the
Philippines is mighty bond. This is applicable to metals, plastic/synthetic resin,
painted wood or metal, leather products, adhesive tape (adherence surface
side, not the sticky side), paper, plywood and skin of the human body.
Procedure:
1. Cyano gas treatment method
– Few drops of cyanoacrelate mighty bond drop on the gauge/cotton cut in
to 4-5 cm.
– Place it into the container with cover, like plastic bag with closed
opening, fix it position in order not to get in contact to the subject object.
– Wait for 15-20 minutes while observing fingerprint exposure condition.
Reaction to moisture in the fingerprint, crystal in white color fingerprint
can be observed with the naked eye.
– Take photograph as the fingerprint is formed into white color.
c.2 Cyanoacrelate adherence method
– White paper (nature of this paper is no absorbent, prevent cyanoacrelate
bond not to be absorbed), cut into the suspected surface (fingerprint)
size. Drop few drops 1-3 drops (0.1 - .3 g) of cyano band.
– Leave the paper for 2-3 seconds and shake slightly and make it semi
dried condition.
– Place this semi-dried cyano band applied paper on the suspected
surface (fingerprint) area with plastic to prevent gas evaporation.
– Within 10-20 minutes, fingerprint exposed in white color.
– Take a photograph record on the detected fingerprint.
c.3 Fuming box method
– Metal box (made in Japan) 40 X 40 X 50 cm. size developed for this
purpose of fingerprint sampling by cyanoacrlate method. The bottom part
consists of a round .05 hot plate. Heat of this hot plate agitates the
evaporation condition of cyanoacrelate group of bond glue and shortens
time detection. The window has 5X5 cm. size.
– Switch on to heat up the plate.
– Open the cover of the fuming box and place the suspected
objects/materials.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 55

 – Few drops of cyanoacrelate (mighty bond) on the hot plate.
– Put the cover and wait for 7-8 minutes.
– Take a photo record of the developed prints.

Methods of fingerprint processing and identification

1. FINDER ( FINgerprint reaDER system ) – This is capable of performing
latent print searching authomatically. The systems locate minute’s data, consisting of
the location of the fingerprint ridges, ridge endings or point of bifurcation. The minutes
for a given fingerprint are converted to digital data and then stored in this form in the
fingerprint file. When a latent print is obtained from the crime scene, the computer
locates all identifying minutes. It is then fed to a matcher that compares the latent print
to any number of other known fingerprint patterns. The machines then scores a match
on the basis of probability, produce a printout of identifying data for human
configuration of similar source.
2. Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) – This is the result of
the development of the FINDER system adopted by most States and Countries of law
enforcement agencies. The AFIS can effectively compare the latent print with a
300,000 – file database or can match prints in less than 15 minutes. It can also
produce up to 25 prints in its database that having strong probability of similarity to the
compared latent print. At a rate of 1,200/second, this machine can search a million
fingerprint matches. The computer operator establishes a set of criteria base on ridge
endings and bifurcation found on the print of the suspect.
The computer then scan prints on file and converts the images to digital signals that
match the criteria established by the operator. The prints that match the criteria are
then examined usually by an expert who decides if any selected points by the
computer match the print use as evidence. Ultimately, it is the eye of an expert that
determines whether or not a match has been found.
This machine can also digitize fingerprint information to produce inkless
fingerprints. The method of fingerprinting is basically the same as the conventional
inked method, however, instead of rolling each finger of the inking plate, each finger is
place in the succession into a glass platen where a laser reads the prints and transfer
the accepted print into the appropriate finger box on the fingerprint card.
Quality fingerprints are generated for later identification because this machine reduces
the possibility of smudging, smearing too much inking or under inking commonly
associated with inked prints.
3. Live - scan fingerprinting process - This record, stores and transmits
fingerprints digitally. This allows police to place a suspect’s fingers on a glass plate,
which then read by the special device to produce a digital image of the prints. The
image can then be transmitted over phone lines to a main AFIS computer center for
immediate comparison. This technology has virtually eliminated the taking of poor
quality inked fingerprints.
4. Laser fingerprint – This me thuds also eliminates the mess of inked
fingerprints and also other problems associated with them. One application of this
method is that a thin chemical pad is attached directly to the citation book and is used
for suspects or drivers without proper identification. Another method uses a folder, the
size of a checkbook, a thin inkless finger pad and pretreated sheets of 10 block print

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 56

cards. It can be used quickly and easily for taking prints at the scene. It can also use
the time resolve fluorescent imaging which maximizes the effects of laser on highly
fluorescent surfaces and also the one-step fluorescent cyanoacrylate, a method that
incorporates in a single step that superglue tagging process and a dye staining
procedures enables the investigator to stain large areas at a crime scene.
Inkless prints are non smearable, reduce fingers slippage in printing and cannot
be erased. It does not also require the normal preparation inked prints require
and .provide clearer fingerprint patterns, which better defined ridges and spaces.

Chapter 6
Fingerprint Classification

A. Definition of Terms (NBI Files)

Classification - is the method of obtaining a formula for a set of fingerprints whereby it

may be located in the filing cabinet.
Classification Formula - is the numerical description for a set of classified fingerprints
which is composed of figure and letters written above the horizontal line like a fraction.
Blocking - is the process of writing below each finger-print pattern the corresponding
symbols of its name.

B. Six Divisions of Classifications in Order According to their Importance

(Henry-FBI System)
Primary Classification
Secondary Classification
Sub-secondary classification
Major Division – Added by FBI
Key – Added by FBI
Final

C. Formation in classification line

Key Maj. Prim. Sec. Sub.Sec. Final
Div. Class. Class Class Class

1. Primary Classification
Primary classification is the sum total of all numerical values of whorls found in
fingerprint set expressed as the numerator and the denominator plus the pre-
established fraction of one over 1 (1/1).
 A numerical formula derived from the presence of any whorl pattern as they
appear on the fingers.
How to get the primary classification

1. Blocking or writing below each finger-print pattern the corresponding symbols of

its name.
2. By Pairing.
Right thumb and right index – 1st pair
Right middle finger and right ring finger - 2nd pair
Right little finger and left thumb – 3rd pair

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 57

 Left index finger and left middle finger – 4th pair
Left ring finger and left little finger – 5th pair
3. By assigning numerical values to each pair.
1st pair – 16
2nd pair – 8
3rd pair – 4
4th pair – 2
5th pair – 1
Note: Only whorl pattern has numerical value.
Without numerical value: A, T, R, U
With numerical value: W, C, D, X
4. Knowing the numerators and denominators in the pairs
Note: Even Number- Numerator
Odd Number- Denominator
5. Summing up the numerical values of whorls assigned to the fingers plus the pre-
established fraction of 1/1
N= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32
D= 16+8+4+2+1 = 31+1 = 32

Purpose of Fixed Count of One:

The purpose is to avoid a classification of zero over zero (0/0) in a set of
prints in which this might be mistaken for a letter “O” which has another specific
meaning in the classification.
Number of Possible Combination in Primary Classification
• There are 1,024 possible combinations for primary classification from 1/1 to
32/32.
• 1/1 – lowest primary classification
• 32/32 – highest primary classification

2. Secondary Classification
Secondary classification is the exhibition of Capital Letter symbols of plain arch,
tented arch, radial loop, ulnar loop, plain whorl, central-pocket loop, double loop whorl,
and accidental found in the index finger of both hands.
 An alpha expression derived from the pattern type of the index fingers.

The pattern appearing on the right index should be placed on the numerator
and the pattern appearing on the left index should be placed on the denominator.
There are twenty five (25) possible combinations which may appear in the index finger
from A/A to W/W without C, D, and X (Collins). There are 64 combinations for filing
from A/A to X/X. (Tubid). Example is illustrated below:
RI
LI
Steps:
1. Blocking
2. Put the capital letter symbol in the classification line. The capital letter symbol for
the right index finger should be placed as the numerator and the left index as
denominator.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 58

Secondary Classification (Small-letter group)

It is the exhibition of small letter symbols of arch (a), tented arch (t) and radial
loop (r) found before and after the index finger of both hands.
Prints with an arch or tented arch in any finger or a radial loop in any except the
index fingers constitute the small-letter group of the secondary classification. Such
“small letters,” with the exception of those appearing in the index fingers, are brought
up into the classification formula in their proper relative positions immediately adjacent
to the index fingers.

Steps:
1. Blocking
2. Look for Plain Arch, Tented Arch, and Radial Loop before and after the index finger
and placed the small letter symbol adjacent to the Capital Letter Symbol of the
patterns in the Index Fingers.

3. Sub- Secondary Classification

Sub-secondary classification is the exhibition of the resultant symbol for the

ridge counting in loops as expressed by symbol I and O and ridge tracing for whorl as
expressed by symbol IMO from the right index to the left ring finger excluding the
thumbs and the little fingers of both hands. Fingers to be considered are: index
finger, middle finger, and ring finger of both hands.

Loop Sub- Secondary by Ridge Counting

It is the exhibition of the resultant symbol for the ridge counting in loops as
expressed by symbol IO found from indexes, middles and ring fingers of both hands,
the ridges are counted and compound to the pre-established table to obtain the
resultant symbol IO. All loop sets of prints using the Index, Middle, and Ring fingers
of both hands has sixty four (64) combinations.

Index Fingers (R & L) Middle Fingers (R & L) Ring Fingers (R & L)

1-9 ridge counts = Inner (I) 1-10 ridge counts = Inner 1-13 ridge counts = Inner
10 & above = Outer (O) 11 & above = Outer 14 & above = Outer

Steps:
1. Locate the core and the delta.
2. Make an imaginary line connecting the core and the delta.
3. Count the number of ridges between the core and the delta passed through by
the imaginary line. Do not include in the counting the core and delta.
4. Put the corresponding symbol (I or O) in the classification line using the above
table. If there are 1-9 ridge counts for the both index finger then put Inner (I) in
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 59
 the classification line. 10 and above ridge counts will have a corresponding
symbol of “O” which means Outer. 1-10 ridge counts for the middle fingers will
be Inner (I), 11 and above is Outer (O). 1-13 ridge counts for ring fingers will be
Inner and 14 and above will be Outer.

Whorl Sub- Secondary by Ridge Tracing

When the whorl is found on the index, middle and ring fingers of both hands the
ridges are traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO. There are seven hundred twenty
nine (729) possible Sub secondary combinations for whorl type patterns in the Index,
Middle, and Ring fingers of both hands.

Rules for whorl tracing:

Meeting (M) – 0 to 2 ridges from left delta to the right delta.
Outer (O) – 3 or more intervening ridges below or outside the right delta.
Inner (I) – 3 or more intervening ridges above/inside/infront the right delta.

Steps:
1. Blocking
2. Conduct ridge tracing
3. Put the resultant symbol in the classification line whether Meeting (M), Outer
(O), or Inner (I) following the above rules.

For Tented Arch and Plain Arch

If a Plain Arch or Tented arch are present on the index, middle, and ring fingers
of both hands, just put a dash (-) for the sub-secondary classification.

Combination of Loop, Whorl and Arch Patterns

If the patterns composed of loop, whorl and arch patterns, they must be treated
independently according to the rules applied for each pattern.

4. Major Division
It is the exhibition of the ridge counting in loops as expressed by symbol SML
and the ridge tracing for whorls as expressed by symbols IMO found on the thumbs of
both hands.

Three (3) Kinds of Major Division

1) Loop Major Division

When the loop is found on the thumb of both hands, the ridges are
counted and compared to the pre- established table of Whorl Major Division.

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 60

 Denominator Numerator
Left thumb Right thumb

1- 11= S 1-11= S
12- 16= M 12- 16= M When the ridge count for left
17 and over = L 17 > = L thumb is 16 or less

1 – 17 = S This table will be used for right

18 – 22 = M thumb if the left thumb has ridge
23 > = L count of 17 or over

Left Thumb denominator Right thumb numerator

1 to 11, S (small) ------------------------------------ 1 to 11, Small

12 to 16, Medium
17 or more ridges, Large
12 to 16, M (medium)------------------------------- 1 to 11, Small
12 to 16, Medium
17 or more ridges, Large
17 or more ridges, L (Large)---------------------- 1 to 17, Small
18 to 22, Medium
23 or more ridges, Large

2) Whorl Major Division

When the whorl is found on the thumbs of both hands, the ridges are
traced to obtain the resultant symbol IMO. Same rules and steps applied in the
Sub-secondary Classification.

3) Combination of Loop and Whorl Major Division

When one of the thumbs is loop, the resultant symbol SML is used and
when the other thumb is whorl, the resultant symbol IMO is used.

For T and A just put dash in the classification line.

5. Final Classification

It is the ridge count of the loops and whorls found on the little fingers of both
hands. No ridge tracing conducted in this division as ridge counting is applied for both
loop and whorl. The ridge count for the right little finger is placed as numerator while
ridge count for left little finger is the denominator. Plain arch and tented arch are
represented by dash in classification formula.

 Final Classification is located or placed on the extreme right of the

classification line.
Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 61
How to Ridge Count a Whorl:
 When a whorl is found on the right little finger, ridges are counted from left delta
to the core.
 When the whorl is found on the left little finger, ridges are counted from right
delta to the core.
 If there are two or more cores (usually applies to accidental whorls), the ridge
count is made from left delta (right hand) or right delta (left delta) to the core
which is the least number of ridges distant from that delta.
 An exception is made in the case of the double loop. The double loop is
counted from the delta to the core of the upright loop. Where loops of a double
loop are horizontal, the nearest core is used.

6. Key Classification

It is the ridge count of the first loop from the right thumb to the left ring finger
excluding little fingers which are never considered for the key as they are reserved for
the final. In the absence of loop, the ridge count of the first whorl will be utilized as the
key treated as ulnar loop. The rules in ridge counting for whorls in this division is the
same with the rules applied in the Final Classification.
 For T and A just put dash in the classification line.
 The Key Classification is placed on the extreme left of the classification line and
is always represented as numerator, no matter where it is taken.

D. Classification of Scarred Patterns – Amputations – Missing at Birth

1. Classification of Scarred Patterns

Emphasis should be placed upon the necessity for fully referencing all scarred
patterns. In connection with their proper classification, the following rules should be
observed:
 When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor
the ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, the
impression should be given both the general type value and the sub-
classification value of the corresponding finger of the other hand.
 When an impression is partially scarred, i.e., large scars about the core so
that the general type cannot be determined with reasonable accuracy, but the
ridges allow reasonably accurate sub-classification by ridge tracing or counting,
the impression should be given the primary value of the pattern of the
corresponding finger and the sub-classification value as indicated by the ridges
of partially scarred impressions.
 When an impression is partially scarred and the general type of pattern can be
determined with reasonable accuracy, but the ridges cannot be traced or
counted so as to fall within the proper sub-secondary classification, the
impression should be given the ridge count or tracing value of the

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 62

 corresponding finger of the other hand, if the corresponding finger is of the
same general type. If the corresponding finger is not of the same general type,
the scarred impression should be given the probable value and referenced to all
other possibilities.
 When an impression is so scarred that neither the general type of pattern nor
the ridge tracing or count can be determined with reasonable accuracy, and it
so happens that the corresponding finger of the other hand is similarly scarred,
both patterns are given the arbitrary value of whorls with meeting tracings.

For example, the pattern is entirely obliterated. It could have been a small
whorl, a small ulnar or radial loop, an arch, or a tented arch. If the opposite finger were
an arch or tented arch or whorl, the obliterated impression would be classified as arch,
tented arch, or whorl (with the same tracing). If the opposite finger is a loop then the
obliterated impression will be classified as loop and would be given the count of the
opposite finger. If the opposite finger were scarred in the same fashion or were
amputated or missing, both impressions would be classified as whorls with meeting
tracings.

2. Classification of Amputations and Fingers Missing At Birth

Rules:
 If one finger is amputated, it is given a classification identical with that of the
opposite finger, including pattern and ridge count or tracing.
 If two or more finger is amputated they are given classification identical with the
opposite fingers.
 If two amputated finger are opposite each other, both are given the
classification of whorls with meeting tracing.
 When fingerprint card bearing notation of fingers missing at birth is classified,
the missing fingers should be treated as amputations in that they are given the
identical classification of the opposite fingers.

3. Classification of bandaged or unprinted fingers

Rules:
 If fingers are injured to the extent that it is impossible to secure inked
impressions by special inking devices, the unprinted fingers are given
classifications identical with the classifications of the fingers opposite.
 If there are two lacking, opposite each other, they should be classified as whorls
with meeting tracings.
 If however, in the case of an injured finger, observation is made of the ridges of
the finger itself and indicated on the print, this classification should be, insofar
as it is possible, utilized.

E. Referencing
If there is any doubt as to which of two or more classifications should be
assigned to a given pattern, it is given the preferred classification and reference
searches are conducted in all other possible classifications.
Illustration:
FPC: 17 S 19 rW2t II- -
L 9 U2a OO- -

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 63

 REF: 19 - 17 tW2t II- -
L 9 U2t OO- -
17 ridge 5 ridges I
counts above RD C T T
R ? T W

19 ridge 10 ridge O
counts counts 14 A A
U U C ?
R

References:

Books

Collins, Clarence G. (2006), Fingerprint Science: How to Roll, Classify, File

and Use Fingerprints, USA: Thomson and Wadsworth.

Federal Bureau of Investigation. The Science of Fingerprints Classification

and Uses. United States Department of Justice.

James, Stuart H. & Jon J. Nordby (2005), Forensic Science: An Introduction

to Scientific and Investigative Techniques, 2nd Edition, USA: Taylor and Francis.

Solis, Pedro P. (1987), Legal Medicine, Quezon City, Philippines: R.P. Garcia
Publishing Co.

Tubid, Processo T. (1996), Dactyloscopy: Science of Fingerprint

Classifications and Identification, Quezon City, Philippines: Rex Printing Company,
Inc.

Unpublished Materials

Depayso, Veneranda P (2007) “Handout in Personal

Identification.”University of Baguio.

Valdez, Gaudencio (2000), “Instructional Materials in Personal

Identification” University of Baguio.

National Bureau of Investigation compiled notes in fingerprint classification.

Electronic Sources

Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 64

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Roland T. Dayagan MS Crim. Page 65