Cattle keepers’ guide

to safeguarding
health

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© Crown Copyright 2015 WG25764
ISBN 978-1-4734-4233-7 Digital ISBN 978-1-4734-4231-3
Contents
Foreword 2

Introduction 3

Bovine Viral Diarrhoea 4

Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis 7

Johne’s Disease 9

Leptospirosis 12

Neosporosis 14

Tuberculosis 16

How to minimise the risk from all the diseases 19

Disease chart 21

Useful links 22

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Foreword
I very much welcome the publication
of this guidebook as a quick reference
guide to six important endemic cattle
diseases; Bovine Viral Diarrhoea,
Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis, Johne’s
Disease, Leptospirosis, Neosporosis and
Tuberculosis. These six diseases can
have a significant economic and welfare
impact on your farm and the industry as
a whole. These diseases affect a large
proportion of our herds in Wales but
there are steps we can take to help protect cattle from possible
infection. This guidebook will give you the key facts on each
disease – their signs, how they spread and what we can do to
prevent them.
The Wales Animal Health and Welfare Framework Group
is committed to helping the industry raise the already high
standards of animal health and welfare in Wales. Through good
husbandry practices, adoption of high welfare standards and
disease prevention measures (biosecurity), we can minimise the
likelihood of livestock contracting or spreading disease.
As a farmer myself, I am only too aware of the amount of
information that we all have to read and understand. I hope
that you will be able to use this quick guide to learn more about
each disease and what you can do to prevent it. Controlling and
eradicating these diseases is not easy but we all have a stake in
this and must work together as an industry to improve animal
health and welfare standards and help sustain the profitability of
the farming industry.

Peredur Hughes
Chair of the Animal Health and Welfare Framework Group

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Introduction
Buying-in cattle carries the risk of introducing disease. Infectious
diseases such as Bovine Viral Diarrhoea, Infectious Bovine
Rhinotracheitis, Johne’s Disease, Leptospirosis, Neosporosis and
Tuberculosis can impact on your herd and business in a number
of ways:
• Production and economic losses
• Restrictions on animal movements
• Animals suffering and dying
• Culling of infected animals
• Loss of valuable genetics
• Potential for risk to human health
There are practical precautions you can take to prevent the
introduction of these diseases into your herd. The aim of this
guidebook is to provide you with basic information and advice
that will help you maintain and improve the health of your herd
through applying appropriate biosecurity measures. This will help
to protect your herd from some of the major infectious diseases
of cattle. Controlling and preventing these diseases will improve
the health and welfare of your cattle and increase your farm’s
profitability.
You should discuss the
health challenges of your
herd with your vet before
taking any action. Good
biosecurity and health
planning with your vet will
help you prevent and control
disease on your farm.

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Bovine Viral Diarrhoea (BVD)
Background
BVD is a viral infection that mostly affects cattle. It is a complex
disease and affects different cattle in different ways. If cattle
are infected just before breeding, conception rates are reduced
whereas infection at the time of breeding may lead to early
death of the unborn calf.
Abortion can result from infection during any stage of pregnancy
but infection during the first third of pregnancy is critical
because, at this stage, the immune system of the unborn calf
has not yet achieved the ability to recognise and eliminate the
virus. As a result, that calf is then born with a state of persistent
infection and is known as a “PI”.

How it can spread

PI cattle cannot produce antibodies (immunity) against BVD and
remain infected for life. They produce large amounts of virus
throughout their lives and, although they may initially appear to
be normal and may remain so for years, they often succumb to a
condition called Mucosal Disease from which they eventually die.
Significant numbers of PI cattle survive into adulthood and pass
on infection to pregnant cattle and cause new PI calves to be
born. If PI cows breed, their calves are also persistently infected.

Clinical signs of acute disease

If non-immune cattle are exposed to BVD infection the result is
called ‘acute’ infection.
• The signs of acute BVD vary. Most affected animals show few
or no signs but acute infection can result in fever, diarrhoea,
respiratory disease or generally looking ‘out of sorts’.

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 • Because acute BVD infection causes suppression of the
immune system, these animals are more likely to catch other
diseases such as gut infections or pneumonia.
• Bulls may become temporarily less fertile and can infect cows
through their semen.
Occasionally, calves may show a range of defects at or after birth,
particularly where BVD infection takes place later in pregnancy.
These defects include:
• Cataracts
• Abnormal brain development causing difficulty in walking as
well as growth defects such as domed heads
• Shortened tails and changes to the texture of the coat
• In older calves mucosal disease is severe and always fatal

Testing
Cattle can be tested for both the presence of virus and
antibodies to assess their exposure to BVD. Blood, milk and tissue
samples can all be tested. Your vet can advise on the best means
of testing for your herd.

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Prevention
• PI cattle are the main source of new infection. The
introduction of one PI animal into a herd can lead to
significant financial losses.
• Ideally, cattle should be sourced from herds that are
accredited free of BVD. Alternatively, bought-in cattle should
be quarantined and tested negative before being introduced
into the herd.
• Be wary that a pregnant, apparently healthy, animal could
carry a calf that may turn out to be a PI, even if she tests
negative for virus. For this reason, pregnant cattle should not
be bought into a herd that is free of BVD, or is becoming free
of BVD, unless they come from a BVD accredited source.
• Once identified, owners should cull PI animals. Clinically
healthy PI animals can be sent to slaughter for human
consumption.
• Joining a BVD health scheme will help you monitor, control
and eradicate the disease from your herd.
• Vaccines for BVD are available and may be used to vaccinate
all breeding females before going to the bull or being
inseminated. Vaccination is useful to protect cattle while BVD
is being eradicated from the herd but will not result in full
control of BVD infection on its own.
• You should consult your vet to develop a vaccination
programme that best suits your business.
• Appropriate biosecurity and health planning with your vet
will also reduce the risk to your herd.

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Infectious Bovine
Rhinotracheitis (IBR)
Background
IBR is a highly contagious respiratory infection that is caused by
Bovine Herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1). Infected animals have poor health
and lower productivity, which can cause significant economic
losses to cattle producers. Infection can occur in cattle of any
age but it is most commonly seen between the ages of 6 and 18
months.

How it can spread

After the first infection, the virus is never fully eliminated. It stays
in nerve cells as a lifelong hidden infection. At times of stress the
virus can begin to multiply again and may be excreted, generally
from the nose and the eyes. The disease spreads both through
direct contact between cattle and in the air, so cattle in the same
airspace are at risk.

Clinical signs
Although it is a respiratory disease, cattle do not often cough or
sneeze. The most common signs are:
• Fever
• Discharge from the nose and eyes (initially watery and, later
on, it turns to puss)
• The nose, upper airway and often eyes become inflamed
Other signs can include:
• Dullness and a loss of appetite
• Difficulty breathing

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 • Drop in milk production
• Infertility and abortion

Testing
The disease can be confirmed by laboratory tests.

Prevention & Treatment

• The purchase of animals with dormant infection is the main
way the virus enters a herd.
• Ideally, cattle should be sourced from herds that are
accredited free of infection. Alternatively, bought-in cattle
should be quarantined and tested negative before being
introduced into the herd.
• Any infected animals should be isolated from the rest of
the herd and treated with anti-inflammatory drugs and
antibiotics for secondary infections if necessary.
• Cattle with dormant infection can be identified by laboratory
tests and should be culled from the herd.
• The disease can be prevented through the use of vaccines.
Vaccination is recommended from around four to six months
of age. Ask your vet for advice.
• Appropriate biosecurity and health planning with your vet
will also reduce the risk to your herd.

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Johne’s Disease
Background
Johne’s Disease is an infectious wasting condition of cattle
and other ruminants caused by a bacterium known as MAP
(Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis). Cattle
usually become infected during the early weeks of their life
through sucking on dirty teats or consuming milk or food
contaminated with the bacteria. The bacterium is shed in the
faeces or milk of infected adult cattle.
Animals with the disease fail to absorb nutrients from the
intestine, will eventually lose body condition and have a
significantly lower milk yield. The animal’s general health and
welfare will be poor and they will be susceptible to other
diseases including mastitis.

How it can spread

A diseased animal will eventually shed large numbers of MAP
bacteria in its faeces and so a single animal can pose a high risk
to other animals in the herd, especially calves. MAP can also
infect animals through milk and colostrum. Cattle can catch
the disease at any time but are most vulnerable in the first few
months of their life. Calves may be infected in the womb but are
more commonly infected through:
• Drinking contaminated colostrum
• Ingesting bacteria that may be present on the teats
• Contaminated feed
• Contamination in the environment or water
The other main route of introducing infection to a farm is
through infective material brought onto the farm e.g. colostrum
or slurry. Rabbits and other wildlife can also be infected with

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MAP, although they are believed to be much less significant as a
source of disease than infected cattle.

Clinical signs
Signs of the disease generally include:
• Persistent diarrhoea and severe weight loss, a period of
reduced milk yield or infertility well before the animal begins
to show other signs of advancing disease.
Once an animal has severe diarrhoea and is losing weight the
disease can usually easily be confirmed by a blood test or by
testing the faeces.

Testing
After infection, it may be years before the infected animal
becomes ill. At the early stages of infection, the only way to
confirm whether an animal has Johne’s Disease is to carry out
blood tests but these do not detect all infected animals. The
blood test detects an antibody to MAP, which is produced by
infected cattle, but this is not very reliable during the early stages
of disease as cattle tend to produce the antibodies relatively late
on in the infection.

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Prevention
• The major source of infection is the purchase of apparently
healthy infected cattle or other livestock. Try to obtain them
from herds accredited as low risk for Johne’s Disease and/or
that are undergoing regular testing and where no recent (3-5
years) evidence of infection has been found.
• Testing animals on arrival in their new herd reduces the risk
of introducing infected animals.
• You should consult your vet to develop a testing programme
that best suits your business and also consider joining an
accredited herd health scheme.
• Cull diseased cattle from the herd as early as possible and
do not breed from their offspring as they are probably also
infected.
• Once infection is present on a farm it is important to limit the
exposure of calves to the MAP bacteria through removing
the sources of infection (infected cattle) and maintaining
excellent calf hygiene standards and colostrum management.
• Once discovered, the reduction of the level of infection in a
herd will take several years to achieve.
• A vaccine is available but it is only suitable in very limited
situations because it can interfere with the TB skin test and
the Johne’s Disease blood test.
• Appropriate biosecurity and health planning with your vet
will reduce the risk to your herd.

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Leptospirosis
Background
Leptospirosis is a bacterial infection that is spread by animals
but can also infect humans. It is caused by a bacterium called
Leptospira hardjo. People who regularly deal with animals, such
as farmers and vets, have a higher risk of catching leptospirosis,
although the condition in people is rare in the UK.

How it can spread

The disease can spread through urine, abortion material and
semen. Humans are most likely to catch the disease through
direct contact with these materials because pasteurisation
destroys the bacterium in milk.

Clinical signs in cattle

• High temperatures for a short while
• A drop in milk yield
• Abortion can occur
• May result in infertility
• Infection may also produce prematurely born and weak
calves

Testing
Leptospirosis can be diagnosed by a blood test. Bulk milk
samples can also be taken and tested to give an indication of the
level of disease in a herd.

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Prevention & Treatment
• The disease may be eradicated from affected herds by testing
and culling or controlled by vaccination. When herds are
being vaccinated for the first time, two doses of vaccine
should be given four to six weeks apart. After that cattle
should be vaccinated annually.
• Alternatively, bought-in cattle should be quarantined and
tested negative before being introduced to the herd.
• Prevent your cattle having access to watercourses – they can
carry infection for long distances.
• Cattle should be treated when ill. Bear in mind that this is
likely to be an expensive option when used to treat more
than a few animals and it will not prevent re-infection.
• Appropriate biosecurity and health planning with your vet
will reduce the risk to your herd.

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Neosporosis
Background
Neosporosis is a disease caused by a parasite called Neospora
caninum. It is the most frequently diagnosed cause of abortion in
cattle in the UK.

How it can spread

Infection can enter the herd either through ingesting infected
dog faeces or through bought-in infected animals. Cattle
that are already infected can pass the parasite onto their
unborn offspring through the placenta – this is called ‘vertical
transmission’.
Infected calves may be aborted or born with no abnormal signs.
If they survive they may carry the infection and, if they become
pregnant, they will either abort or produce congenitally infected
calves. Calves infected in this way remain infected for life.

Clinical signs
Cattle can be infected without showing any signs but these can
include:
• Abortion, between 3 and 9 months of pregnancy (particularly
5 to 7 months)
• Still birth or a prematurely born calf
• Occasionally, calves will have brain disease at birth
• Repeat abortions in the same cow

Testing
A blood test is available. It detects an antibody reaction, which
is produced by infected cattle, but this is not reliable during
the early stages of the disease as cattle tend to produce the

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antibodies relatively late on in the infection. Tests can be carried
out on the aborted foetus to identify if the parasite is present.

Prevention & Treatment

• Ideally, cattle should be sourced from herds that are
accredited free of Neosporosis.
• Dogs are a source of the disease so they must be prevented
from accessing calving areas, carcase material and placentas.
• Dogs should also have the minimum access to pasture used
for grazing and the production of forage.
• Make sure cattle feed and forage storage is dog-proof to
prevent contamination by faeces. It is also good practice to
prevent contamination by foxes, badgers, rats and mice.
• Have high hygiene standards at calving. Still born calves,
carcases of dead and aborted calves and placental material
should be removed from the calving accommodation and
paddocks as soon as possible, kept at a biosecure location
and removed by a fallen stock contractor.
• Once identified, owners should cull infected animals.
• Appropriate biosecurity and health planning with your vet
will reduce the risk to your herd.

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Tuberculosis (bovine TB)
Background
TB in cattle is caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium bovis. It
can affect humans as well as animals but the risk to public health
is kept low through regular testing of cattle, milk pasteurisation
and inspections at abattoirs.

Responsibilities
TB differs from the diseases already described in that it is a
notifiable disease. This means that anyone who suspects that
an animal or carcase is or may be affected must notify the
veterinary authorities immediately. Whilst the Welsh Government
implements controls to stop disease spreading and to protect
both public and animal health, there are many things that cattle
keepers can do to reduce the risk that TB poses to their herds.

How it can spread

TB is mainly a respiratory disease of cattle. Disease spread
between infected and uninfected animals is most likely to
occur during periods of close contact, particularly when cattle
are housed. The bacterium can also enter the body through
ingestion and infection can be present in muck and slurry, milk
and sometimes urine.
Wildlife, such as badgers and deer, can also be infected and
cattle and wildlife can infect each other.

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Clinical signs
In the UK clinical signs are rarely seen because cattle are removed
before they develop any signs of illness. The signs can include:
• Chronic coughing
• Mastitis
• Weight loss

Following infection it may be many months or years before

the disease becomes apparent and infected cattle can spread
infection long before they show any sign of being unwell.

Testing
The control and eradication of the disease relies on the early
detection and removal of infected animals before they become
ill. All herds of cattle in Wales are tested at least annually by the
Welsh Government. This means that infected animals are often
identified and removed before characteristic TB lesions have time
to develop.

Prevention
• Cattle keepers are required by law to have their cattle tested
for TB and all infected animals have to be slaughtered.
• There is no effective treatment and no vaccine is currently
licensed for use in cattle.
• Bought-in cattle may introduce infection into a herd.
• Ideally, cattle should be pre-movement tested. Alternatively,
testing animals on arrival in their new herd reduces the risk
of infection spreading.
• Asking for information about the disease history of an animal
and the herd it comes from will help you make a decision
about the level of risk and how to manage it.

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• Buying cattle from herds with a recent history of the disease
represents more of a risk than buying cattle from herds that
have never had TB.
• Be aware of the risk from neighbouring (possibly infected)
cattle. Take precautions to limit any possible contact.
• Badgers visiting farm buildings can be a disease risk. There
are a number of effective precautions that can be taken to
prevent badgers accessing cattle housing and feed stores.
• Direct contact between badgers and cattle at pasture is
thought to occur infrequently. Measures should focus on
preventing cattle from having access to badger setts and
latrines as well as preventing badgers from accessing food
and water troughs.
• More information on the measures that can be taken to help
prevent contact between badgers and cattle is available on
the Welsh Government website: www.gov.wales/bovinetb
• Appropriate biosecurity and health planning with your vet
will reduce the risk to your herd.

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How to minimise the risk from
these diseases
For all of the diseases, bought-in cattle can be a source of new
infection. Asking for a disease history of an animal and the
herd it comes from at the point of sale will allow you to make
more informed buying decisions and know what precautions
you may need to take. You can reduce the risk of disease being
introduced into your herd by asking sellers or auctioneers for the
following information before you buy:
• Does the animal come from a herd that is accredited free of, or
low risk for, any infectious diseases? Disease-free accreditation
schemes exist for BVD, IBR, Leptospirosis and Neosporosis
whilst the Johne’s Disease scheme categorises herds according
to their risk level. See the Cattle Health Certification Standard
for further information.
• Has the animal been tested as free from any particular
disease? If so, how and when? Your vet will need to advise
you on how to interpret the result – no lab test is 100%
accurate.
• Has the animal been vaccinated for any particular disease?
Vaccines are available for BVD, IBR and Leptospirosis.
Once you know the disease history of an animal and the herd it
comes from, you can make arrangements for introducing new
cattle in to your herd. This should be part of your herd health
planning advised by your vet. Ideally, cattle should be sourced
from herds that are accredited as disease free (or the lowest level
of risk) and tested negative before they move.
It is also best practice to separate incoming cattle in an
appropriate isolation facility. Isolation is somewhere no physical
contact can be made with other livestock and other cattle do not

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share the same air space or have access to drainage or manure
from the isolation facility. Check the cattle in the isolation facility
daily for any signs of illness.
There are other actions you can take to minimise the risk of
introducing disease:
• During the isolation period, the animal(s) can be tested again
and vaccinated for BVD, IBR and Leptospirosis (if part of the
herd health plan).
• Non–accredited mature cattle should be blood tested for
Johne’s Disease. It is also good practice to TB test any animal
after arrival, especially if it has not recently been tested.
• Milk isolated cattle separately, ideally using dedicated
portable equipment. If this is not practical, milk cattle in an
existing facility after the rest of the herd has been milked and
left the parlour.
Remember that the risk of disease being introduced is two way
– bought in animals can spread disease to your herd but cattle in
your herd can also spread disease to introduced stock. Although
this handbook focuses on six endemic cattle diseases, other
infectious diseases can be controlled by applying good biosecurity
and herd health planning. Work with your vet to implement
health planning for your herd and, if you are in any doubt about
disease risk from purchased cattle, get advice from your vet.

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 Disease Type Affect Test Treatment Vaccine
humans
BVD Virus No Yes No Yes

IBR Virus No Yes No Yes

Johne’s Bacterium No (evidence Yes - limited No Yes - limited

Disease lacking)
Leptospirosis Bacterium Yes Yes Yes Yes
Disease chart

Neosporosis Parasite No Yes No No

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TB Bacterium Yes Yes No No1

1
Vaccination against TB is forbidden in the EU legislation on disease control (Council Directive 78/52/EEC) and also in intra-Union trade
legislation (Council Directive 64/432/EEC).
Useful links
Animal and Plant Health Agency: www.gov.uk/government/
organisations/animal-and-plant-health-agency
Biosecurity: www.gov.wales/topics/environmentcountryside/ahw/
biosecurity
Cattle Health Certification Standard (CHeCS): www.checs.co.uk
Cattle Health and Welfare Group (CHAWG): www.eblex.org.
uk/returns/health-and-welfare/cattle-health-and-welfare-group-
chawg
Herdsure Cattle Health Improvement Service: www.ahvla.defra.
gov.uk/apha-scientific/services/herdsure/index.htm
My Healthy Herd: www.myhealthyherd.co.uk
Wales Animal Health and Welfare Framework: www.gov.wales/
ahwframework

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