CS2511 Database Management Systems

Lecture #1

Presented by
Dr. Zahraa Tarek
 Part 1
Data & Database

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 Learning Objectives
▪ Explain why humankind’s interest in data goes back to ancient times.
▪ Describe how data needs have historically driven many information technology
developments.
▪ Describe the evolution of data storage media during the last century.
▪ Relate the idea of data as a corporate resource that can be used to gain a
competitive advantage to the development of the database management systems
environment.
▪ Differentiate the types of databases and database applications
▪ Understand the principals of typical DBMS functionality
▪ Explain the main characteristics of the database approach
▪ Know the types of database users
▪ Appraise the advantages of using the database approach
▪ Summarize the historical development of database technology
▪ Know how to extend database capabilities
▪ Estimate when not to use databases
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 Outline
▪ Data in history
▪ Data storage media (today and in the past)
▪ Types of Databases and Database Applications
▪ Basic Definitions
▪ Typical DBMS Functionality
▪ Example of a Database (UNIVERSITY)
▪ Main Characteristics of the Database Approach
▪ Types of Database Users
▪ Advantages of Using the Database Approach
▪ Historical Development of Database Technology
▪ Extending Database Capabilities
▪ When Not to Use Databases
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 Data
▪ Data - the foundation of technological activity

▪ Database - a highly organized collection of assembled

data

▪ Database Management System - sophisticated

software that controls the database and the database
environment

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 What is Data?
▪ A single piece of data is a single fact about something
that interests us.

▪ A fact can be any characteristic of an object.

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 History of Data
▪ People have been interested in data for at least the past
12,000 years.

▪ Non-computer, primitive methods of data storage and

handling.

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 What is Data? (Cont.)

▪ Shepherds kept track of their flocks with pebbles.

▪ A primitive but legitimate example of data storage

and retrieval.

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 History of Data

▪ Dating back to 8500 B.C., unearthed clay tokens or “counters”

may have been used for record keeping in primitive forms of
accounting.

▪ Tokens, with special markings on them, were sealed in hollow

clay vessels that accompanied commercial goods in transit.

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 Data Through the Ages
▪ Record-keeping - the recording of data to keep track
of how much a person has produced and what it can
be bartered or sold for.

▪ With time, different kinds of data were kept

▪ calendars, census data, surveys, land ownership records,
marriage records, records of church contributions, family
trees, etc.

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 History of Data

▪ Double-entry bookkeeping - originated in the trading

centers of fourteenth century Italy.

▪ The earliest known example is from a merchant in

Genoa and dates to the year 1340.
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 Early Data Problems Spawn Calculating
Devices
▪ People interested in devices that could
“automatically” process their data.

▪ Blaise Pascal produced an adding machine that was an

early version of today’s mechanical automobile
odometers.

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Punched Cards - Data Storage
▪ Invented in 1805 by Joseph Marie Jacquard of France.

▪ Jacquard’s method of storing fabric patterns, a form of

graphic data, as holes in punched cards was a very
clever means of data storage.

▪ Of great importance for computing devices to follow.

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 Era of Modern Information Processing
▪ The 1880 U.S. Census took about seven years to
compile by hand.

▪ Basing his work on Jacquard’s punched card concept,

Herman Hollerith arranged to have the census data
stored in punched cards and invented machinery to
tabulate them.

▪ In 1896 Hollerith formed the Tabulating Machine

Company to produce and commercially market his
devices -- this later became IBM.
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 Era of Modern Information Processing
▪ James Powers developed devices to automatically
feed cards into the equipment and to automatically
print results.

▪ In 1911 he established the Powers Tabulating Machine

Company -- this later became Unisys Corporation.

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 The Mid-1950s
▪ The introduction of electronic computers.

▪ Witnessed a boom in economic development.

▪ From this point onward, it would be virtually

impossible to tie advances in computing devices to
specific, landmark data storage and retrieval needs.

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Modern Data Storage Media
▪ Punched paper tape - The earliest form of modern
data storage, introduced in the 1870s and 1880s.

▪ Punched cards were the only data storage medium

used in the increasingly sophisticated
electromechanical accounting machines of the 1920s,
1930s, and 1940s.

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 Modern Data Storage Media
▪ Middle to late 1930s saw the beginning of the era of
erasable magnetic storage media.

▪ By late 1940s, early work was done on the use of

magnetic tape for recording data.

▪ By 1950, several companies were developing the

magnetic tape concept for commercial use.

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 Modern Data Storage Media
▪ Magnetic Tape - commercially available units in 1952.

▪ Direct Access Magnetic Devices - began to be developed

at MIT in the late 1930s and early 1940s.

▪ Magnetic Drum - early 1950s; forerunners of magnetic

disk technology.

▪ Magnetic Disk - commercially available in mid 1950s.

▪ Compact Disk (CD) – introduced as a data storage

medium in 1985.

▪ Solid-state technology – Flash drives.

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 Using Data for Competitive Advantage
▪ Data has become indispensable to every kind of modern
business and government organization.

▪ Data, the applications that process the data, and the

computers on which the applications run are fundamental
to every aspect of every kind of endeavor.

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 Using Data for Competitive Advantage
▪ Data is a corporate resource, possibly the most important
corporate resource.

▪ Data can give a company a crucial competitive advantage.

▪ e.g., FedEx had a significant competitive advantage when

it first provided access to its package tracking data on its
Web site.

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 Problems in Storing and Accessing Data
▪ Difficult to store and to provide efficient, accurate access
to a company’s data.

▪ The volume of data that companies have is massive.

▪ Wal-Mart estimates its data warehouse contains hundreds

of terabytes (trillions of characters) of data.

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 Problems in Storing and Accessing Data
▪ Larger number of people want access to data:
 Employees
 Customers
 Trading partners

▪ Additional issues include: data security, data privacy, and

backup and recovery.

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 Data Security
▪ Involves a company protecting its data from theft,
malicious destruction, deliberate attempts at making
phony changes to the data.

▪ e.g., someone trying to increase his own bank account

balance.

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 Data Privacy
▪ Ensuring that even employees who normally have access
to the company’s data are given access only to the specific
data that they need in their work.

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 Backup and Recovery
▪ The ability to reconstruct data if it is lost or corrupted.

▪ e.g., following a hardware failure

▪ e.g., following a natural disaster

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 Data Accuracy
▪ The same data is stored several, sometimes many, times
within a company’s information system.

▪ When a new application is written, new data files are

created to store its data.

▪ Data can be duplicated within a single file and across files.

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 Data as a Corporate Resource
▪ Data may be the most difficult corporate resource to
manage.

▪ We have tremendous volume, billions, trillions, and more

individual pieces of data, each piece of which is different
from the next.

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 Data as a Corporate Resource
▪ A new kind of software is required to help manage the
data.

▪ Progressively faster hardware is required to keep up with

the increasing volume of data and data access demands.

▪ Data management specialists need to be developed and

educated.

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 The Database Environment
▪ Database Management System (DBMS)

▪ New Personnel - database administrator and data

management specialist

▪ Fast hardware

▪ Massive data storage facilities

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 The Database Environment
▪ Encourages data sharing

▪ Helps control data redundancy

▪ Has important improvements in data accuracy

▪ Permits storage of vast volumes of data with acceptable

access.

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 The Database Environment
▪ Allows database queries

▪ Provides tools to control:

 data security
 data privacy
 backup and recovery

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Types of Databases and its Applications
▪ Traditional Applications:
 Numeric and Textual Databases
▪ More Recent Applications:
 Multimedia Databases
 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
 Biological and Genome Databases
 Data Warehouses
 Mobile databases
 Real-time and Active Databases

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 Recent Developments (cont.)
▪ Social Networks started capturing a lot of information
about people and about communications among people-
posts, tweets, photos, videos in systems such as:
- Facebook
- Twitter
- Linked-In
▪ All of the above constitutes data
▪ Search Engines- Google, Bing, Yahoo : collect their own
repository of web pages for searching purposes

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 Recent Developments (cont.)
▪ New Technologies are emerging from the so-called non-
database software vendors to manage vast amounts of data
generated on the web:

▪ Big Data storage systems involving large clusters of

distributed computers (Chapter 25)
▪ NOSQL (Not Only SQL) systems (Chapter 24)
▪ A large amount of data now resides on the “cloud” which
means it is in huge data centers using thousands of
machines.

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 Basic Definitions
▪ Database:
 A collection of related data.
▪ Data:
 Known facts that can be recorded and have an implicit meaning.
▪ Mini-world:
 Some part of the real world about which data is stored in a database. For
example, student grades and transcripts at a university.
▪ Database Management System (DBMS):
 A software package/ system to facilitate the creation and maintenance of
a computerized database.
▪ Database System:
 The DBMS software together with the data itself. Sometimes, the
applications are also included.

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Impact of Databases and its Technology
▪ Businesses: Banking, Insurance, Retail, Transportation,
Healthcare, Manufacturing
▪ Service Industries: Financial, Real-estate, Legal,
Electronic Commerce, Small businesses
▪ Education : Resources for content and Delivery
▪ More recently: Social Networks, Environmental and
Scientific Applications, Medicine and Genetics
▪ Personalized Applications: based on smart mobile devices

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Simplified database system environment

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Typical DBMS Functionality
▪ Define a particular database in terms of its data types,
structures, and constraints
▪ Construct or Load the initial database contents on a secondary
storage medium
▪ Manipulating the database:
 Retrieval: Querying, generating reports
 Modification: Insertions, deletions and updates to its content
 Accessing the database through Web applications
▪ Processing and Sharing by a set of concurrent users and
application programs – yet, keeping all data valid and
consistent

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Database Model Requirements
▪ PQRI:
Persistency Quantity

Database model

Integrity
Reactivity

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Application Activities Against a Database
▪ Applications interact with a database by generating
- Queries: that access different parts of data and formulate
the result of a request
- Transactions: that may read some data and “update” certain
values or generate new data and store that in the database
▪ Applications must not allow unauthorized users to access
data
▪ Applications must keep up with changing user
requirements against the database

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Additional DBMS Functionality
▪ DBMS may additionally provide:
 Protection or Security measures to prevent unauthorized
access
 “Active” processing to take internal actions on data
 Presentation and Visualization of data
 Maintenance of the database and associated programs over
the lifetime of the database application
 Called database, software, and system maintenance

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Example of a Database
(with a Conceptual Data Model)
▪ Mini-world for the example:
 Part of a UNIVERSITY environment.
▪ Some mini-world entities:
 STUDENTs
 COURSEs
 SECTIONs (of COURSEs)
 (academic) DEPARTMENTs
 INSTRUCTORs
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Example of a Database
(with a Conceptual Data Model)
(cont.)
▪ Some mini-world relationships:
 SECTIONs are of specific COURSEs
 STUDENTs take SECTIONs
 COURSEs have prerequisite COURSEs
 INSTRUCTORs teach SECTIONs
 COURSEs are offered by DEPARTMENTs
 STUDENTs major in DEPARTMENTs

▪ Note: The above entities and relationships are typically

expressed in a conceptual data model, such as the ENTITY-
RELATIONSHIP data model (see Chapters 3, 4)
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Example of a simple database

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Main Characteristics of the
Database Approach
▪ Self-describing nature of a database system:
 A DBMS catalog stores the description of a particular database (e.g. data
structures, types, and constraints)
 The description is called meta-data*.
 This allows the DBMS software to work with different database
applications.
▪ Insulation between programs and data:
 Called program-data independence.
 Allows changing data structures and storage organization without having
to change the DBMS access programs.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
* Some newer systems such as a few NOSQL systems need no meta-data:
they store the data definition within its structure making it self describing
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Example of a simplified database catalog

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Main Characteristics of the
Database Approach (cont.)
▪ Data Abstraction:
 A data model is used to hide storage details and present the
users with a conceptual view of the database.
 Programs refer to the data model constructs rather than data
storage details
▪ Support of multiple views of the data:
 Each user may see a different view of the database, which
describes only the data of interest to that user.

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Main Characteristics of the
Database Approach (cont.)
▪ Sharing of data and multi-user transaction processing:
 Allowing a set of concurrent users to retrieve from and to
update the database.
 Concurrency control within the DBMS guarantees that each
transaction is correctly executed or aborted
 Recovery subsystem ensures each completed transaction has its
effect permanently recorded in the database
 OLTP (Online Transaction Processing) is a major part of
database applications. This allows hundreds of concurrent
transactions to execute per second.

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Database Users
▪ Users may be divided into
 Those who actually use and control the database content,
and those who design, develop and maintain database
applications (called “Actors on the Scene”), and
 Those who design and develop the DBMS software and
related tools, and the computer systems operators (called
“Workers Behind the Scene”).

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 Database Users – Actors on the
Scene
▪ Actors on the scene
 Database administrators:
 Responsible for authorizing access to the database, for
coordinating and monitoring its use, acquiring software and
hardware resources, controlling its use and monitoring efficiency
of operations.
 Database Designers:
 Responsible to define the content, the structure, the constraints,
and functions or transactions against the database. They must
communicate with the end-users and understand their needs.

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Database End Users
▪ Actors on the scene (continued)
 End-users: They use the data for queries, reports and some
of them update the database content. End-users can be
categorized into:
 Casual: access database occasionally when needed
 Naïve or Parametric: they make up a large section of the end-user
population.
 They use previously well-defined functions in the form of “canned
transactions” against the database.
 Users of Mobile Apps mostly fall in this category
 Bank-tellers or reservation clerks are parametric users who do this
activity for an entire shift of operations.
 Social Media Users post and read information from websites

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Database End Users (cont.)
 Sophisticated:
 These include business analysts, scientists, engineers, others
thoroughly familiar with the system capabilities.
 Many use tools in the form of software packages that work closely
with the stored database.
 Stand-alone:
 Mostly maintain personal databases using ready-to-use packaged
applications.
 An example is the user of a tax program that creates its own
internal database.
 Another example is a user that maintains a database of personal
photos and videos.

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Database Users – Actors on the
Scene (cont.)
 System Analysts and Application Developers
This category currently accounts for a very large proportion of the IT
work force.
 System Analysts: They understand the user requirements of
naïve and sophisticated users and design applications including
canned transactions to meet those requirements.
 Application Programmers: Implement the specifications
developed by analysts and test and debug them before deployment.
 Business Analysts: There is an increasing need for such people
who can analyze vast amounts of business data and real-time data
(“Big Data”) for better decision making related to planning,
advertising, marketing etc.
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Database Users – Actors behind
the Scene
 System Designers and Implementors: Design and implement
DBMS packages in the form of modules and interfaces and test and
debug them. The DBMS must interface with applications, language
compilers, operating system components, etc.
 Tool Developers: Design and implement software systems called
tools for modeling and designing databases, performance monitoring,
prototyping, test data generation, user interface creation, simulation
etc. that facilitate building of applications and allow using database
effectively.
 Operators and Maintenance Personnel: They manage the actual
running and maintenance of the database system hardware and
software environment.
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Advantages of Using the Database
Approach
▪ Controlling redundancy in data storage and in
development and maintenance efforts.
 Sharing of data among multiple users.
▪ Restricting unauthorized access to data. Only the DBA
staff uses privileged commands and facilities.
▪ Providing persistent storage for program Objects
 E.g., Object-oriented DBMSs make program objects
persistent– see Chapter 12.
▪ Providing Storage Structures (e.g. indexes) for efficient
Query Processing – see Chapter 17. 56
Advantages of Using the Database
Approach (cont.)
▪ Providing optimization of queries for efficient processing.
▪ Providing backup and recovery services.
▪ Providing multiple interfaces to different classes of users.
▪ Representing complex relationships among data.
▪ Enforcing integrity constraints on the database.
▪ Drawing inferences and actions from the stored data using
deductive and active rules and triggers.

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Additional Implications of Using the
Database Approach

▪ Potential for enforcing standards:

 This is very crucial for the success of database applications
in large organizations. Standards refer to data item names,
display formats, screens, report structures, meta-data
(description of data), Web page layouts, etc.
▪ Reduced application development time:
 Incremental time to add each new application is reduced.

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Additional Implications of Using the
Database Approach (cont.)
▪ Flexibility to change data structures:
 Database structure may evolve as new requirements are
defined.
▪ Availability of current information:
 Extremely important for on-line transaction systems such as
shopping, airline, hotel, car reservations.
▪ Economies of scale:
 Wasteful overlap of resources and personnel can be avoided
by consolidating data and applications across departments.
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Historical Development of
Database Technology
▪ Early Database Applications:
 The Hierarchical and Network Models were introduced in mid
1960s and dominated during the seventies.
 A bulk of the worldwide database processing still occurs using
these models, particularly, the hierarchical model using IBM’s
IMS system.
▪ Relational Model based Systems:
 Relational model was originally introduced in 1970, was heavily
researched and experimented within IBM Research and several
universities.
 Relational DBMS Products emerged in the early 1980s.
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Historical Development of
Database Technology (cont.)
▪ Object-oriented and emerging applications:
 Object-Oriented Database Management Systems (OODBMSs)
were introduced in late 1980s and early 1990s to cater to the need
of complex data processing in CAD and other applications.
 Their use has not taken off much.
 Many relational DBMSs have incorporated object database
concepts, leading to a new category called object-relational
DBMSs (ORDBMSs)
 Extended relational systems add further capabilities (e.g. for
multimedia data, text, XML, and other data types)

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Historical Development of
Database Technology (cont.)
▪ Data on the Web and E-commerce Applications:
 Web contains data in HTML (Hypertext markup language)
with links among pages.
 This has given rise to a new set of applications and E-
commerce is using new standards like XML (eXtended
Markup Language). (see Ch. 13).
 Script programming languages such as PHP and JavaScript
allow generation of dynamic Web pages that are partially
generated from a database (see Ch. 11).
 Also allow database updates through Web pages

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Extending Database Capabilities
▪ New functionality is being added to DBMSs in the following areas:
 Scientific Applications – Physics, Chemistry, Biology - Genetics
 Earth and Atmospheric Sciences and Astronomy
 XML (eXtensible Markup Language)
 Image Storage and Management
 Audio and Video Data Management
 Data Warehousing and Data Mining – a very major area for future
development using new technologies (see Chapters 28-29)
 Spatial Data Management and Location Based Services
 Time Series and Historical Data Management
▪ The above gives rise to new research and development in incorporating new
data types, complex data structures, new operations and storage and
indexing schemes in database systems.

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Extending Database Capabilities
(cont.)
▪ Background since the advent of the 21st Century:

 First decade of the 21st century has seen tremendous growth

in user generated data and automatically collected data from
applications and search engines.

 Social Media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter are

generating millions of transactions a day and businesses are
interested to tap into this data to “understand” the users

 Cloud Storage and Backup is making unlimited amount of

storage available to users and applications
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Extending Database Capabilities
(cont.)
▪ Emergence of Big Data Technologies and NOSQL databases
 New data storage, management and analysis technology was necessary
to deal with the onslaught of data in petabytes a day (10**15 bytes or
1000 terabytes) in some applications – this started being commonly
called as “Big Data”.
 Hadoop (which originated from Yahoo) and Mapreduce Programming
approach to distributed data processing (which originated from Google)
as well as the Google file system have given rise to Big Data
technologies (Chapter 25). Further enhancements are taking place in the
form of Spark based technology.
 NOSQL (Not Only SQL- where SQL is the de facto standard language
for relational DBMSs) systems have been designed for rapid search and
retrieval from documents, processing of huge graphs occurring on social
networks, and other forms of unstructured data with flexible models of
transaction processing (Chapter 24). 65
When not to use a DBMS
▪ Main inhibitors (costs) of using a DBMS:
 High initial investment and possible need for additional hardware.
 Overhead for providing generality, security, concurrency control,
recovery, and integrity functions.
▪ When a DBMS may be unnecessary:
 If the database and applications are simple, well defined, and not
expected to change.
 If access to data by multiple users is not required.
▪ When a DBMS may be infeasible:
 In embedded systems where a general purpose DBMS may not fit
in available storage

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When not to use a DBMS
▪ When no DBMS may suffice:
 If there are stringent real-time requirements that
may not be met because of DBMS overhead (e.g.,
telephone switching systems)
 If the database system is not able to handle the complexity
of data because of modeling limitations (e.g., in complex
genome and protein databases)
 If the database users need special operations not supported
by the DBMS (e.g., GIS and location based services).

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 Part 2
Database System Concepts
and Architecture

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 Learning Objectives
▪ List data models and their categories
▪ Interpret the history of data models
▪ Understand schemas, instances, and states
▪ Evaluate the Three-Schema Architecture
▪ Appraise data independence
▪ Name DBMS languages and interfaces
▪ Identify database system utilities and tools
▪ Know the difference between centralized and client-server
architectures
▪ Classify DBMSs

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 Outline
▪ Data Models and Their Categories
▪ History of Data Models
▪ Schemas, Instances, and States
▪ Three-Schema Architecture
▪ Data Independence
▪ DBMS Languages and Interfaces
▪ Database System Utilities and Tools
▪ Centralized and Client-Server Architectures
▪ Classification of DBMSs

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 Data Models
▪ Data Model:
 A set of concepts to describe the structure of a database, the
operations for manipulating these structures, and certain
constraints that the database should obey.
▪ Data Model Structure and Constraints:
 Constructs are used to define the database structure
 Constructs typically include elements (and their data types) as
well as groups of elements (e.g. entity, record, table), and
relationships among such groups
 Constraints specify some restrictions on valid data; these
constraints must be enforced at all times

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Data Models (continued)
▪ Data Model Operations:
 These operations are used for specifying database retrievals
and updates by referring to the constructs of the data model.
 Operations on the data model may include basic model
operations (e.g. generic insert, delete, update) and user-
defined operations (e.g. compute_student_gpa,
update_inventory)

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 Categories of Data Models
▪ Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
 Provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive
data.
 (Also called entity-based or object-based data models.)
▪ Physical (low-level, internal) data models:
 Provide concepts that describe details of how data is stored in the
computer. These are usually specified in an ad-hoc manner
through DBMS design and administration manuals
▪ Implementation (representational) data models:
 Provide concepts that fall between the above two, used by many
commercial DBMS implementations (e.g. relational data models
used in many commercial systems).
▪ Self-Describing Data Models:
 Combine the description of data with the data values. Examples
include XML, key-value stores and some NOSQL systems. 73
 Schemas versus Instances
▪ Database Schema:
 The description of a database.
 Includes descriptions of the database structure, data types,
and the constraints on the database.
▪ Schema Diagram:
 An illustrative display of (most aspects of) a database
schema.
▪ Schema Construct:
 A component of the schema or an object within the schema,
e.g., STUDENT, COURSE.

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 Schemas versus Instances
▪ Database State:
 The actual data stored in a database at a particular moment
in time. This includes the collection of all the data in the
database.
 Also called database instance (or occurrence or snapshot).
 The term instance is also applied to individual database
components, e.g. record instance, table instance, entity instance

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Database Schema vs. Database State
▪ Database State:
 Refers to the content of a database at a moment in time.
▪ Initial Database State:
 Refers to the database state when it is initially loaded into
the system.
▪ Valid State:
 A state that satisfies the structure and constraints of the
database.

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Database Schema vs. Database State
(cont.)
▪ Distinction
 The database schema changes very infrequently.
 The database state changes every time the database is
updated.

▪ Schema is also called intension.

▪ State is also called extension.

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Example of a Database Schema

78
Example of a database state

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 Three-Schema Architecture
▪ Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:
 Program-data independence.
 Support of multiple views of the data.
▪ Not explicitly used in commercial DBMS products, but
has been useful in explaining database system
organization

80
 Three-Schema Architecture
▪ Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
 Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical storage
structures and access paths (e.g indexes).
 Typically uses a physical data model.
 Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe the
structure and constraints for the whole database for a community
of users.
 Uses a conceptual or an implementation data model.
 External schemas at the external level to describe the various
user views.
 Usually uses the same data model as the conceptual schema.

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Three-Schema Architecture (cont.)

82
Three-Schema Architecture (cont.)
▪ Mappings among schema levels are needed to transform
requests and data.
 Programs refer to an external schema, and are mapped by
the DBMS to the internal schema for execution.
 Data extracted from the internal DBMS level is reformatted
to match the user’s external view (e.g. formatting the results
of an SQL query for display in a Web page)

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 Data Independence
▪ Logical Data Independence:
 The capacity to change the conceptual schema without
having to change the external schemas and their associated
application programs.
▪ Physical Data Independence:
 The capacity to change the internal schema without having
to change the conceptual schema.
 For example, the internal schema may be changed when
certain file structures are reorganized or new indexes are
created to improve database performance

84
 Data Independence (cont.)
▪ When a schema at a lower level is changed, only the
mappings between this schema and higher-level schemas
need to be changed in a DBMS that fully supports data
independence.
▪ The higher-level schemas themselves are unchanged.
 Hence, the application programs need not be changed since
they refer to the external schemas.

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 DBMS Languages
▪ Data Definition Language (DDL)
▪ Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 High-Level or Non-procedural Languages: These include
the relational language SQL
 May be used in a standalone way or may be embedded in a
programming language
 Low Level or Procedural Languages:
 These must be embedded in a programming language

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 DBMS Languages (cont.)
▪ Data Definition Language (DDL):
 Used by the DBA and database designers to specify the
conceptual schema of a database.
 In many DBMSs, the DDL is also used to define internal
and external schemas (views).
 In some DBMSs, separate storage definition language
(SDL) and view definition language (VDL) are used to
define internal and external schemas.
 SDL is typically realized via DBMS commands provided to the
DBA and database designers

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 DBMS Languages (cont.)
▪ Data Manipulation Language (DML):
 Used to specify database retrievals and updates
 DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a
general-purpose programming language (host language),
such as COBOL, C,
C++, or Java.
 A library of functions can also be provided to access the DBMS
from a programming language
 Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied
directly (called a query language).

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 Types of DML
▪ High Level or Non-procedural Language:
 For example, the SQL relational language
 Are “set”-oriented and specify what data to retrieve rather
than how to retrieve it.
 Also called declarative languages.
▪ Low Level or Procedural Language:
 Retrieve data one record-at-a-time;
 Constructs such as looping are needed to retrieve multiple
records, along with positioning pointers.

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 DBMS Interfaces
▪ Stand-alone query language interfaces
 Example: Entering SQL queries at the DBMS interactive
SQL interface (e.g. SQL*Plus in ORACLE)
▪ Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in
programming languages
▪ User-friendly interfaces
 Menu-based, forms-based, graphics-based, etc.
▪ Mobile Interfaces:interfaces allowing users to perform
transactions using mobile apps

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 DBMS Programming Language Interfaces
▪ Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in a
programming languages:
 Embedded Approach: e.g embedded SQL (for C, C++, etc.), SQLJ (for
Java)
 Procedure Call Approach: e.g. JDBC for Java, ODBC (Open Databse
Connectivity) for other programming languages as API’s (application
programming interfaces)
 Database Programming Language Approach: e.g. ORACLE has
PL/SQL, a programming language based on SQL; language incorporates
SQL and its data types as integral components
 Scripting Languages: PHP (client-side scripting) and Python (server-
side scripting) are used to write database programs.

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User-Friendly DBMS Interfaces
 Menu-based (Web-based), popular for browsing on the web
 Forms-based, designed for naïve users used to filling in
entries on a form
 Graphics-based
 Point and Click, Drag and Drop, etc.
 Specifying a query on a schema diagram
 Natural language: requests in written English
 Combinations of the above:
 For example, both menus and forms used extensively in Web
database interfaces

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Other DBMS Interfaces
 Natural language: free text as a query
 Speech : Input query and Output response
 Web Browser with keyword search
 Parametric interfaces, e.g., bank tellers using function keys.
 Interfaces for the DBA:
 Creating user accounts, granting authorizations
 Setting system parameters
 Changing schemas or access paths

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Database System Utilities
▪ To perform certain functions such as:
 Loading data stored in files into a database. Includes data
conversion tools.
 Backing up the database periodically on tape.
 Reorganizing database file structures.
 Performance monitoring utilities.
 Report generation utilities.
 Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring, data
compression, etc.

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 Other Tools
▪ Data dictionary / repository:
 Used to store schema descriptions and other information
such as design decisions, application program descriptions,
user information, usage standards, etc.
 Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS software and
users/DBA.
 Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA only.

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 Other Tools
▪ Application Development Environments and CASE
(computer-aided software engineering) tools:
▪ Examples:
 PowerBuilder (Sybase)
 JBuilder (Borland)
 JDeveloper 10G (Oracle)

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Typical DBMS Component Modules

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 Centralized and Client-Server DBMS
Architectures
▪ Centralized DBMS:
 Combines everything into single system including- DBMS
software, hardware, application programs, and user interface
processing software.
 User can still connect through a remote terminal – however,
all processing is done at centralized site.

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A Physical Centralized Architecture

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 Basic 2-tier Client-Server Architectures
▪ Specialized Servers with Specialized functions
 Print server
 File server
 DBMS server
 Web server
 Email server
▪ Clients can access the specialized servers as needed

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Logical two-tier client server architecture

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Clients
▪ Provide appropriate interfaces through a client software
module to access and utilize the various server resources.
▪ Clients may be diskless machines or PCs or Workstations
with disks with only the client software installed.
▪ Connected to the servers via some form of a network.
 (LAN: local area network, wireless network, etc.)

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DBMS Server
▪ Provides database query and transaction services to the clients
▪ Relational DBMS servers are often called SQL servers, query
servers, or transaction servers
▪ Applications running on clients utilize an Application Program
Interface (API) to access server databases via standard
interface such as:
 ODBC: Open Database Connectivity standard
 JDBC: for Java programming access

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Two Tier Client-Server Architecture
▪ Client and server must install appropriate client module
and server module software for ODBC or JDBC
▪ A client program may connect to several DBMSs,
sometimes called the data sources.
▪ In general, data sources can be files or other non-DBMS
software that manages data.
▪ See Chapter 10 for details on Database Programming

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 Three Tier Client-Server Architecture
▪ Common for Web applications
▪ Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web Server:
 Stores the web connectivity software and the business logic part of
the application used to access the corresponding data from the
database server
 Acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data between
the database server and the client.
▪ Three-tier Architecture Can Enhance Security:
 Database server only accessible via middle tier
 Clients cannot directly access database server
 Clients contain user interfaces and Web browsers
 The client is typically a PC or a mobile device connected to the
Web
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Three-tier client-server architecture

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Classification of DBMSs
▪ Based on the data model used
 Legacy: Network, Hierarchical.
 Currently Used: Relational, Object-oriented, Object-relational
 Recent Technologies: Key-value storage systems, NOSQL
systems: document based, column-based, graph-based and key-
value based. Native XML DBMSs.
▪ Other classifications
 Single-user (typically used with personal computers)
vs. multi-user (most DBMSs).
 Centralized (uses a single computer with one database) vs.
distributed (multiple computers, multiple DBs)

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Variations of Distributed DBMSs
(DDBMSs)
▪ Homogeneous DDBMS
▪ Heterogeneous DDBMS
▪ Federated or Multidatabase Systems
 Participating Databases are loosely coupled with high
degree of autonomy.
▪ Distributed Database Systems have now come to be
known as client-server based database systems because:
 They do not support a totally distributed environment, but
rather a set of database servers supporting a set of clients.
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Cost considerations for DBMSs
▪ Cost Range: from free open-source systems to configurations
costing millions of dollars
▪ Examples of free relational DBMSs: MySQL, PostgreSQL,
others
▪ Commercial DBMS offer additional specialized modules, e.g.
time-series module, spatial data module, document module,
XML module
 These offer additional specialized functionality when purchased
separately
 Sometimes called cartridges (e.g., in Oracle) or blades
▪ Different licensing options: site license, maximum number of
concurrent users (seat license), single user, etc.

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Other Considerations
▪ Type of access paths within database system
 E.g.- inverted indexing based (ADABAS is one such
system).Fully indexed databases provide access by any
keyword (used in search engines)
▪ General Purpose vs. Special Purpose
 E.g.- Airline Reservation systems or many others-
reservation systems for hotel/car etc. Are special purpose
OLTP (Online Transaction Processing Systems)

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 Additional Material
History of Data Models

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History of Data Models
▪ Network Model
▪ Hierarchical Model
▪ Relational Model
▪ Object-oriented Data Models
▪ Object-Relational Models

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History of Data Models
▪ Network Model:
 The first network DBMS was implemented by Honeywell in
1964-65 (IDS System).
 Adopted heavily due to the support by CODASYL
(Conference on Data Systems Languages) (CODASYL -
DBTG report of 1971).
 Later implemented in a large variety of systems - IDMS
(Cullinet - now Computer Associates), DMS 1100 (Unisys),
IMAGE (H.P. (Hewlett-Packard)), VAX -DBMS (Digital
Equipment Corp., next COMPAQ, now H.P.).

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Network Model
▪ Advantages:
 Network Model is able to model complex relationships and
represents semantics of add/delete on the relationships.
 Can handle most situations for modeling using record types
and relationship types.
 Language is navigational; uses constructs like FIND, FIND
member, FIND owner, FIND NEXT within set, GET, etc.
 Programmers can do optimal navigation through the database.

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Network Model
▪ Disadvantages:
 Navigational and procedural nature of processing
 Database contains a complex array of pointers that thread
through a set of records.
 Little scope for automated “query optimization”

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History of Data Models
▪ Hierarchical Data Model:
 Initially implemented in a joint effort by IBM and North
American Rockwell around 1965. Resulted in the IMS
family of systems.
 IBM’s IMS product had (and still has) a very large customer
base worldwide
 Hierarchical model was formalized based on the IMS
system
 Other systems based on this model: System 2k (SAS inc.)

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Hierarchical Model
▪ Advantages:
 Simple to construct and operate
 Corresponds to a number of natural hierarchically organized
domains, e.g., organization (“org”) chart
 Language is simple:
 Uses constructs like GET, GET UNIQUE, GET NEXT, GET NEXT
WITHIN PARENT, etc.
▪ Disadvantages:
 Navigational and procedural nature of processing
 Database is visualized as a linear arrangement of records
 Little scope for "query optimization"

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History of Data Models
▪ Relational Model:
 Proposed in 1970 by E.F. Codd (IBM), first commercial system in
1981-82.
 Now in several commercial products (e.g. DB2, ORACLE, MS
SQL Server, SYBASE, INFORMIX).
 Several free open source implementations, e.g. MySQL,
PostgreSQL
 Currently most dominant for developing database applications.
 SQL relational standards: SQL-89 (SQL1), SQL-92 (SQL2),
SQL-99, SQL3, …
 Chapters 5 through 11 describe this model in detail

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History of Data Models
▪ Object-oriented Data Models:
 Several models have been proposed for implementing in a
database system.
 One set comprises models of persistent O-O Programming
Languages such as C++ (e.g., in OBJECTSTORE or VERSANT),
and Smalltalk (e.g., in GEMSTONE).
 Additionally, systems like O2, ORION (at MCC - then ITASCA),
IRIS (at H.P.- used in Open OODB).
 Object Database Standard: ODMG-93, ODMG-version 2.0,
ODMG-version 3.0.
 Chapter 12 describes this model.

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History of Data Models
▪ Object-Relational Models:
 The trend to mix object models with relational was started
with Informix Universal Server.
 Relational systems incorporated concepts from object
databases leading to object-relational.
 Exemplified in the versions of Oracle, DB2, and SQL
Server and other DBMSs.
 Current trend by Relational DBMS vendors is to extend
relational DBMSs with capability to process XML, Text and
other data types.
 The term “Object-relational” is receding in the marketplace.

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 Next Lecture

Data Modeling & ER Model

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References
▪ Ramez Elmasri, Shamkant Navathe; “Fundamentals of
Database Systems”, 6th Ed., Pearson, 2014.
▪ Mark L. Gillenson; “Fundamentals of Database
Management Systems”, 2nd Ed., John Wiley, 2012.
▪ Universität Hamburg, Fachbereich Informatik, Einführung
in Datenbanksysteme, Lecture Notes, 1999

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