Review

Comprehensive review of
experimental studies, numerical
modeling, leakage risk assessment,
monitoring, and control in geological
storage of carbon dioxide:
Implications for effective CO2
deployment strategies
Abobakr Sori, Jafarsadegh Moghaddas and Hasan Abedpour, Transport Phenomena Research
Center Chemical Engineering Faculty, Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz, Iran

Abstract: The geological storage of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) represents a promising strategy for mitigating
climate change by securely sequestering CO2 emissions. This review article aims to provide a
comprehensive overview of the current state of research and development in the field of geological
carbon dioxide (CO2 ) sequestration. We systematically examined a wide range of recent literature,
focusing on advancements in numerical simulations, experimental studies, risk assessments, and
monitoring techniques related to CO2 sequestration. Literature was selected based on relevance,
recency, and contribution to the understanding of key challenges and solutions in CO2 storage, with
sources spanning peer-reviewed journals, conference proceedings, and significant technical reports.
Our review highlights several key themes: the integration of machine learning and advanced numerical
models in predicting CO2 behavior in subsurface formations; innovative experimental approaches to
understanding the physicochemical interactions between CO2 , brine, and geological substrates; and
the development of robust risk assessment frameworks to address potential leakage and induced
seismicity. We also explore recent advancements in monitoring technologies, emphasizing their critical
role in ensuring the long-term integrity and effectiveness of CO2 storage sites. Overall, this review
synthesizes the latest findings and identifies gaps in current knowledge, providing a roadmap for future

Correspondence to: Jafarsadegh Moghaddas, Transport Phenomena Research Center Chemical Engineering Faculty, Sahand University of
Technology, P.O. Box 51335/1996, Tabriz, Iran.
E-mail: [email protected]
Received May 15, 2024; revised July 11, 2024; accepted July 24, 2024
Published online at Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com). DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 887
 A Sori et al.

research directions. Our aim is to enhance the understanding of CO2 sequestration processes, support
the development of safer and more efficient storage methods, and contribute to the global effort in
mitigating climate change through effective carbon management strategies. © 2024 Society of
Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Keywords: CO2 storage; experimental; numerical modeling; risk assessment; monitoring; leakage
control

Oil and gas reservoirs have the potential to be

Introduction repurposed as storage sites for carbon, offering a
Background substantial portion of underground storage capacity at
O2 capture from large sources means an industrial level. The practice of utilizing depleted

C transporting it to storage sites and absorbing it

in geological layers. This technology allows the
simultaneous use of fossil fuels and CO2 reduction.1,2
underground reservoirs for carbon storage will persist
to prioritize safety and maintain long-term control. In
their research, Paluszny et al. examined laboratory
By 2050, Ccs will be recognized as an effective strategy experiments and numerical simulations conducted in
for targeted elimination and to bring emissions close to depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs across seven
zero.3–5 In the past decade the focus on carbon countries: Algeria, Australia, Finland, Germany,
sequestration in land-based ecosystems and the process Norway, and the United Kingdom.10 Various methods
of capturing and storing carbon dioxide has gained such as pre-combustion, post-combustion,
significant attention as crucial elements in a set of oxy-combustion, and chemical loop techniques are
energy technologies designed for a world constrained employed to capture carbon. In these processes,
by carbon emissions. At first glance, the concept of different gases are utilized for the separation of CO2 ,
capturing and storing CO2 in geological formations including absorption, chemical loop, membrane
may appear to be an extreme idea that is challenging separation, hydrated separation, and cryogenic
and potentially risky to put into practice. However, distillation. These gases play a crucial role in extracting
extensive knowledge and expertise in gasification, CO2 CO2 from the captured mixture. The selection of a
capture, and the underground injection of gases and specific CO2 absorption technology highly depends on
liquids serve as the basis for future operations the type of CO2 production plant and the fuel used.
involving CCS.6,7 The pipeline is considered the most suitable solution
CO2 is stored in geological formations (emptied oil for the high volume of CO2 transfer.8 Extensive
and gas reservoirs, extractable coal beds, saline tables, research has been conducted to understand the
and basalts). It has been used to enhanced oil recovery challenges posed by injecting large amounts of CO2
for numerous years. The reason for the huge potential into underground layers and its subsequent migration.
storage capacity of CO2 is the growing interest in The analysis of these phenomena reveals that there are
storing it in saline aquifers. There are various obstacles indeed environmental risks associated with CO2
to the implementation of CCS (and storage). These injection, but they can be effectively addressed and
include the absence of a well-defined justification for mitigated. Several factors contribute to the slow
investing in CCS and insufficient economic adoption of CCS technology: Firstly, the expense
motivations to cover the substantial expenses associated with absorption, particularly in
associated with CCS.8,9 In a study conducted by Zhang first-of-a-kind (FOAK) projects, is a significant barrier.
et al., they investigated the technical and financial Secondly, concerns regarding the environmental risks
aspects related to storing CO2 underground, including of subsurface CO2 injection have also impeded
CO2 transportation, different storage methods in progress. Lastly, the absence of a universally
geological formations, and monitoring for CO2 agreed-upon carbon emission price has further
leakage. The research suggests that by integrating CO2 hindered the widespread implementation of CCS.8
storage with increased industrial production, such as Carbon dioxide storage in geological formations is
oil and natural gas, there is a significant potential to widely employed globally as an effective method to
lower the overall cost of CO2 storage.9 counteract the release of greenhouse gases into the

888 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

atmosphere. It is considered a permanent solution. In conducted to explore different methodologies for the
the realm of oil and gas production, large-scale EOR is selection of geological sites suitable for CO2 storage. In
a common practice. However, the introduction of these research various techniques have been used for
carbon dioxide into geological reservoirs significantly screening and optimal selection of the storage location.
alters the physical and chemical interactions between Kim et al. conducted a comprehensive review of prior
rocks and fluids, particularly in dense carbonate research, dividing it into three stages: oil fields, gas
formations. Extensive experimental and numerical fields, and natural gas storage reservoirs. They
models have been developed to study these changes, considered multiple criteria such as storage capacity,
with a focus on siliceous and carbonate formations depth, salinity, permeability, porosity, thickness,
reacting to CO2 injection. Siqueira et al. conducted a number of reservoir layers, cavity, and injection
comprehensive analysis of experimental studies and pressure to evaluate technical risks and surface
numerical modeling to evaluate how rock, water, and limitations. These limitations encompassed sensitive
carbon dioxide interactions affect the quality and habitats and densely populated areas. In the initial
integrity of CO2 injection. Injecting CO2 into deep stage, they identified 129 potential storage locations in
geological formations for CO-EOR can initiate a California based on geological conditions and pore
series of chemical reactions, such as mineral pressure. The second stage involved a meticulous
dissolution and asphaltene precipitation, as well as screening process to identify sensitive sites, taking into
physical effects like mechanical compaction and account factors like seismic activity, faulting,
changes in permeability. These processes can population density, restricted lands, and sensitive
significantly impact carbonate reservoirs, which habitats. Finally, in the third stage, they extracted 61
contain highly reactive minerals like dolomite and storage sites from the screenings performed in the
calcite. Additionally, supercritical CO2 can dissolve and previous stages. These sites had a CO2 volume range of
precipitate components in complex crude oil mixtures, 1 to 2 Gt. Finally, the ranking was done based on
particularly those with heavy fractions like wax and technical criteria using a seven-parameter scoring
asphaltene.11,12 system (storage capacity, seal, formation depth, average
The capacity of an aquifer to store carbon dioxide in permeability, average porosity, reservoir thickness, and
terms of volume is a crucial consideration in geothermal gradient). Storage sites with high and
large-scale carbon dioxide storage projects, as it medium porosity were recognized for CCS.14 Callas
directly affects their feasibility and cost-effectiveness. et al. suggested that establishing hubs as a means of
Another significant factor to consider is the maximum dividing resource clusters and carbon storage
sustainable rate at which carbon dioxide can be reservoirs is a viable approach for implementing
injected into the reservoir, which is determined by large-scale CCS projects in the energy industry. A
various properties of the storage site.13 A screening crucial factor in the success of these hub projects is
process should be performed before sites are precisely finding appropriate locations to safely store the
characterized to select carbon storage sites and reduce captured carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions. To address
the number of candidate sites. Screening is the this, the researchers developed a quantitative and
definition of several criteria for evaluating each site. criteria-based method to assess the potential suitability
The evaluation of each criterion will be different finally, of drained oil and gas reservoirs for CCS.
and the coefficients show the importance of each. To The study employs a three-step process to evaluate
assess and select a site for carbon dioxide storage, it is and identify potential sites, using three screening
necessary to evaluate and assign scores to each categories: (1) assessing injection capacity and
criterion. These scores are then collected and assessed optimization, (2) minimizing geomechanically risks,
using the Shapley index, taking into account the and (3) considering site selection and economic
relative importance of the criteria. The Choquet constraints. The framework is specifically tailored to
Integral is utilized to incorporate the interaction drained reservoirs in various geological settings and
between the criteria in this evaluation methodology. takes into account project-specific conditions.
This proposed approach holds practical significance, To exemplify the methodology, the study examined
particularly during the initial stages of choosing a 1,317 fields in the Gulf of Mexico. Based on the defined
location for CO2 storage when there is limited criteria, selected fields and clusters were ranked
information available. Numerous studies have been according to their suitability as CO2 storage sites.

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 889
 A Sori et al.

Selected fields and clusters were ranked according to providing a pathway for large-scale projects around the
the most suitable site for CO2 storage.4 world.

Experimental study
Motivation and novelty
Our world is increasingly invaded by pollutants, Numerous research experiments have focused on
directly and indirectly produced by human activities. examining how carbon dioxide behaves within porous
Among the necessities of life, climate and air are materials. These studies primarily investigate the
particularly vulnerable to pollution, prompting a interplay between rocks and fluids, as well as the
heightened interest in the geological storage of CO2 . influence of various factors on carbon dioxide’s
This paper is motivated by several key aspects. Firstly, behavior.15–20
it aims to provide a comprehensive platform that The studies summarized in the Table 1 highlight the
consolidates existing knowledge in the field of CO2 various experimental approaches to understanding
storage and identifies research gaps, thereby facilitating CO2 sequestration mechanisms, the impact of
scientific progress. Secondly, given the critical role of geological heterogeneity, mineral dissolution and
CO2 storage in CCS technologies as vital strategies for precipitation, and capillary phenomena. The results
mitigating climate change, this paper offers indicate significant progress in understanding the
policymakers, regulators, and industry stakeholders an interactions between CO2 , water, and rock in different
overview of the geological aspects related to CO2 geological settings.
storage. This information is intended to inform policy Missing aspect of experimental study
decisions, regulations, and guidelines to ensure the safe 1. Long-term stability: Future studies should focus on
and effective implementation of CCS projects. the long-term stability of CO2 storage, assessing the
Our review compiles best practices from various case durability of mineral transformations and their
studies worldwide, highlighting successful methods implications for storage security.
and lessons learned. This knowledge sharing is 2. Standardized protocols: Developing standardized
intended to guide researchers, engineers, and protocols for experimental setups and
professionals involved in CO2 storage projects on measurements will enhance comparability and
effective methodologies. Additionally, we address reproducibility across studies.
common concerns related to the geological aspects of 3. Advanced modeling: Integrating experimental
CO2 storage, such as leakage risks, seismic issues, and results with advanced numerical models will
long-term reservoir stability. By providing a thorough improve the predictive capability for CO2 behavior
overview of current understanding and mitigation in various geological formations.
strategies, this paper aims to build public confidence in 4. Environmental impact: Assessing the broader
CCS technologies. environmental impacts, including potential leakage
One of our goals at the Transfer Phenomena Research and its mitigation, will be crucial for ensuring safe
Center of Sahand University of Technology is to CO2 storage practices.
support education and training. We believe this article 5. Field studies: More field studies are needed to
will serve as a valuable resource for educational validate laboratory findings and assess their
purposes in universities or educational programs applicability to real-world scenarios.
focused on geology, environmental science, and
technical sciences. By addressing these areas, future research can build
This work investigates the complete geological cycle on the current understanding and contribute to the
of CO2 storage, from initial decision making to development of more effective and reliable CO2
post-storage monitoring and control, including sequestration strategies.
experimental studies, numerical modeling, leakage risk Figure 1 shows a summary of research done in
assessment, monitoring, and control. There is currently experimental studies. As it is clear from this figure,
no other article that comprehensively covers these experiments have been carried out on various minerals
aspects while also considering general policies and with the aim of safe storage of carbon dioxide.
decision making. Our review bridges technical, Figure 1 schematically shows the core flooding setup
political, and economic fields of carbon storage, in the carbon dioxide storage process. The previous

890 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

Table 1. Summary of experimental study.

Reference Results Laboratory Conditions Study Type Laboratory Items
21 Plagioclase, hematite, and clay mixed Temp. = 55 and 70 °C, Mechanism of CO2 Minerals (Quartz,
with illite-smectite and illite are Pressure = 18 MPa sequestration in Plagioclase, Calcite,
dissolved; quartz (at 55 and 70 °C) minerals of deep Dolomite, Illite-smectite
and kaolinite (at 70 °C) are saline aquifers mixed layer, Illite,
precipitated. Kaolinite, Hematite)
22 High heterogeneity impacts CO2 Cores characterized using Sealing of CO2 in the Heterogeneity Effect on
movement, relative permeability, X-CT scanner, thin core carbon sequestration
and saturation distribution, crucial section analysis, potential
for assessing carbon storage petrographic scanners,
potential. and porosity
measurement with
mercury.
23 Dissolution of calcite and dolomite, Samples crushed and Interaction between Analysis with XRD and
and CO2 -water-rock interactions placed under CO2 CO2 -water-rock on SEM before and after the
cause significant changes in pressure, pH measured injectability and safety test, and initial
carbonate formations, including every three days of GCS composition of minerals
transformations between calcite and water chemistry
and dolomite and alterations in
porosity.
24 Developed a protocol for Temp. = 22 °C, Rayleigh In vitro determination of Experiments at different
density-based dissolved carbon number = 3,6400, density-based CO2 times, calculating the
measurement in Hele-Shaw cell Pressure = 1.013 bar mass transfer mass of dissolved CO2
and compared it with a numerical using a TC analyzer
model.
25 Dissolution of K-feldspar increased Pressure = 207 bar CO2 sequestration in Core placed in a saline
porosity by ten percent, minimal minerals of a core environment in a
changes observed in other chamber under CO2
minerals. injection pressure
26 Capillary invasion, finger Four cells with different gas Capillary invasion and Different injection rates and
phenomenon, and fissure manifest injection rates (2, 4, 8, viscous finger micro-bead diameter
at varying heights within a single and 20 mL/min) observed phenomenon, gaps sizes
cell, highlighting gravity’s influence. with CCD camera formation in horizontal
Hele-Shaw cell filled
with micro-beads

discussions show that various parameters such as used in the GCS domain are constructed by
pressure, temperature, formation water salinity, etc. incorporating Darcy’s law, as well as mass and
affect this process. These parameters show the process energy equations. Modeling and simulation can
of carbon dioxide movement, its storage rate in all types optimize the flow and volume distribution of CO2 in
of reservoir rocks. The efficiency of carbon dioxide forecast storage and optimal injection operations
storage in each of the rocks of the reservoir is measured conditions. Jiang compares an evaluation system of
in the effective parameters, using mass transfer, numerical methods according to the streamline and
solubility and the degree of sealing of the caprock evaluation. Multitasking modeling can be effective in
predicting long-term geological CO2 storage.27–34 In
this research, previous studies are summarized along
Numeral modeling and risk with results, software, and important items of
assessment numerical modeling in Table 2. In some studies,
Numeral modeling laboratory case studies and numerical modeling have
Numerical simulation plays a valuable role in been combined, and numerical modeling has been
enhancing our comprehension. The physical models used for laboratory validation. The summary Table 2

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 891
892
Table 2. Numeral modeling, software, and simulation items.
Reference Results Study Type Software Simulation Items
35 Addition of methane reduces oil Water–gas injection for formations CMG Fluid modeling with Burke Oil 1
displacement efficiency but improves damaged by asphalt deposition in oil experimental data, analyzing
formation damage. Quantification of reservoirs. Effects of methane impact and WAG ratio
CH4 -CO2 WAG shows enhanced methane-carbon dioxide-methane on CCS-EOR and asphaltene
CCS-EOR performance. injection on carbon harvesting and precipitation.
storage.
36 Accurate estimation of crucial Water injection experiment in limestone COORES Flow Analysis of concentration changes
parameters like injection rate, volume, formation with dissolved gases over time and space during
and well placement. Sensitivity (CO2 , krypton) and fluorescent experiment.
analysis identifies water level and molecule. Study of system behavior
dispersion as key parameters. and interactions.
13 Non-linear correlation found between Surfactant solution (SURFONIC CMG-GEM Numerical simulations on
surfactant quantity and injection rate POA-25R2) injection before CO2 to theoretical and experimental
affecting CO2 column migration and reduce irreducible water saturation models in South Korea,
solubility trapping. and improve injectability. assessing CO2 migration and
injectability.

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
21 Certain minerals dissolve while others Carbon dioxide sequestration in TOUGHREACT Calibration with experimental data
precipitate at 55–70 °C in deep saline minerals within deep saline aquifers. for mineral dissolution and
aquifers. Slow calcite precipitation precipitation parameters,
over thousands of years at higher modeling CO2 sequestration.
temperatures reduces CO2 storage
capacity.
22 Dissolution of K-feldspar increases Core experiments and numerical COMSOL 3D numerical model simulating
porosity by ten percent, unaffected modeling on heterogeneity impact CO2 sealing under various
minerals remain stable. on CO2 injection factors. heterogeneity scenarios.
23 Primary minerals formed during Interaction of CO2 -water-rock affecting TOUGHREACT-ECO2H Batch model simulating long-term
secondary reaction: calcite, injectability and safety in carbonate CO2 -water-rock interaction,
magnesite, and hematite; dolomite formations. validated with experimental
identified as main soluble mineral. data.
24 Association established between CO2 Simulation of CO2 mass transfer in STOMP-WCS Simulation of Hele-Shaw cell
mass dissolved, time to reach bottom horizontal Hele-Shaw cell with dynamics illustrating CO2 mass
of Hele-Shaw cell, and Rayleigh microbeads. transfer due to density
number. differences.
37 Buoyant migration and capillary trapping CO2 column flow patterns in Permedia Monte Carlo simulations
control CO2 column distribution under heterogeneous sandstone comparing plume distribution
hydrostatic pressure. considering capillary forces. with direct observations,
assessing capillary pressure

Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295

impact.

(Continued)
A Sori et al.
 Table 2. (Continued)
Reference Results Study Type Software Simulation Items
38 Well logs aid in assessing CO2 storage Three-dimensional modeling of CO2 COORES, Integration of petrophysical
capacity using reservoir-scale facies injection considering multiphase TOUGH2-TMGAS properties and geomechanically
models. Injection flux allocation geology and geomechanically stability in CO2 storage
considers well-reservoir flow and effects. assessment.
geomechanically constraints.
39 Pore network models (PNM) derived Assessment of PNM capability in Darcy-scale simulation Utilization of X-ray microcomputed
from Darcy-scale simulations improve capturing heterogeneity of tomography to validate PNM in
prediction of relative permeability and multiphase flow. core-scale flow dynamics.
local flow behavior.
25 Dissolution of K-feldspar increases Model of CO2 transportation and TOUGHREACT Modeling mineral changes

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
porosity by 10% in carbon dioxide interaction in reservoir conditions post-injection and saline
storage reservoirs. Clay coatings with ECON2 module. displacement effects at IBDP
inhibit reaction, minimal changes site.
observed within 100 years at IBDP
site.
40 Model predicts CO2 solubility in saline Mathematical model for CO2 solubility Setschenov Model Development and validation of
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

comparable to multi-parameter in H2O-NaCl system under model with existing laboratory

models. geological conditions. data for CO2 solubility
prediction.
26 Simulator predicts finger phenomenon Simulation of capillary invasion and STOMP Two-dimensional Euler-based
width but lacks accuracy in porous viscous finger phenomenon in simulation depicting CO2 flow
media representation. horizontal Hele-Shaw cell. dynamics in Hele-Shaw cell.
41 High CO2 temperature exceeds Analysis of temperature effect on CO2 ECLIPSE 300 Temperature-sensitive CO2
formation geothermal temperature, wettability alteration in saline aquifer. injection scenario assessment
increasing CO2 saturation and over 3, 6, and 12 months.
geological leakage risk.
42 Simulation provides insights into CO2 Modeling CO2 injection in four saline TOUGHREACT Sensitivity analysis on porosity,
migration, pressure changes, and aquifer reservoirs with different permeability, and pressure
dissolution in saline aquifer. geological properties. dynamics over 10 years
post-injection.

Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295

43 GATOUGH2 demonstrates superior Optimization of CO2 storage capacity GATOUGH2 Genetic algorithm optimization for
optimization in CO2 storage capacity using genetic algorithm with targeted CO2 sequestration and
compared to TOUGH2. GATOUGH2. WAG application.

893
 A Sori et al.

Figure 1. Summary of experimental study in CO2 storage.

below makes selecting software for modeling ◦ Comprehensive environmental impact

easier. assessments, including potential leakage
Lecture review of numerical modeling provides a pathways and the impact on groundwater quality,
comprehensive overview of various studies related to are critical. This includes evaluating the risks
CO2 injection into geological formations, focusing on associated with CO2 leakage and its potential
different aspects such as fluid modeling, mineral effects on surrounding ecosystems and human
dissolution, capillary trapping, and the impact of health.
heterogeneity on CO2 storage EOR. However, there are 4. Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) optimization:
several aspects that could be further explored to gain a ◦ While some studies focus on EOR, further
more complete understanding of the CO2 injection research into optimizing EOR techniques in
process and its implications. various geological settings is essential. This
Missing aspect includes investigating the synergistic effects of
CO2 with other EOR methods (e.g., polymer
1. Long-term effects on reservoir integrity: flooding, surfactant injection) and their
◦ While some studies have examined mineral economic viability.
dissolution and precipitation, a more in-depth 5. Economic and policy considerations:
analysis of the long-term impacts on reservoir ◦ The economic feasibility of large-scale CO2
integrity, including potential fracturing and the injection projects, including cost-benefit analyses
creation of new pathways for fluid flow, is and the impact of regulatory frameworks, should
necessary. This would help in assessing the be explored. Understanding the economic and
sustainability and safety of CO2 storage over policy dimensions can help in designing more
extended periods. effective and financially sustainable CO2 storage
2. Microbial interactions: projects.
◦ The role of microbial activity in CO2 6. Advanced monitoring and modeling techniques:
sequestration and EOR is not covered in the table. ◦ Development and application of advanced
Microbes can influence CO2 solubility, monitoring technologies (e.g., time-lapse seismic,
mineralization processes, and overall reservoir remote sensing) and high-resolution modeling
behavior. Studying microbial interactions can techniques can improve the accuracy of
provide insights into biogeochemical cycles and predictions regarding CO2 behavior in reservoirs.
their impact on CO2 storage efficiency. This includes real-time monitoring of CO2 plume
3. Environmental impacts and risk assessment: migration and pressure changes.

894 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

7. Human and societal factors: identify potential hazards to human health and the
◦ The social acceptance and public perception of environment. These findings are critical for developing
CO2 injection projects are crucial for their robust protocols and safeguards to ensure the safe
successful implementation. Research into implementation of carbon storage technologies in the
community engagement, risk communication, long term.44–46
and the societal impacts of CO2 sequestration Based on the results shown in the table, several
initiatives can facilitate smoother project aspects related to CO2 storage and risk assessment
deployment. could be further studied to enhance the understanding
8. Chemical interactions beyond primary minerals: and effectiveness of CCS technologies. Here are some
◦ Further investigation into the chemical key aspects that could be explored:
interactions between CO2 and a wider range of
minerals and complex rock matrices is necessary.
This includes understanding the behavior of trace 1. Long-term monitoring and post-injection behavior:
minerals and their role in overall reservoir Many studies focus on initial injection and
dynamics. short-term behavior of CO2 , but long-term
monitoring is crucial to assess the stability of stored
By addressing these additional aspects, the overall CO2 over extended periods. This includes
understanding of CO2 injection into geological understanding how CO2 interacts with geological
formations can be enhanced, leading to more efficient, formations over decades to centuries.
safe, and sustainable CO2 storage and EOR practices. 2. Impact of geological heterogeneity: Most studies
assume homogeneous geological conditions, but
Risks assessment of geological CO2 real-world formations are heterogeneous.
storage Investigating how different geological features (e.g.,
The potential for fluid leakage from storage reservoirs faults, fractures) affect CO2 migration and storage
poses a significant risk in the process of carbon storage security is essential.
within deep geological formations, and this risk can 3. Risk assessment in different geological contexts: The
have adverse effects on underground water resources. table mentions specific case studies (e.g., Sleipner,
This concern arises from the possibility that stored Pohang Basin), but exploring diverse geological
carbon could escape its designated reservoir and settings (e.g., offshore vs. onshore, different rock
contaminate groundwater sources. To mitigate this risk, types) can provide insights into variability in CO2
it is crucial to assess and understand the various aspects storage risks and efficacy.
related to carbon storage in deep geological formations. 4. Integrated risk management strategies: While
Table 3 provides a concise summary of studies individual studies assess risks, integrating these
conducted to evaluate the risks associated with findings into comprehensive risk management
geological storage. These studies encompass strategies is critical. This includes developing
comprehensive risk assessment methodologies as well protocols for early leak detection, emergency
as specific cases examined within each study. The response plans, and optimizing injection strategies
primary focus of these investigations lies in to minimize risks.
understanding the behavior and movement of carbon 5. Environmental and socioeconomic impacts: Beyond
dioxide, along with its subsequent impacts on human technical aspects, understanding the broader
health and the environment. By analyzing such environmental impacts (e.g., induced seismicity,
information, scientists aim to develop effective groundwater contamination) and socioeconomic
strategies for carbon storage while minimizing implications (e.g., public acceptance, regulatory
potential risks. frameworks) of CCS deployment is crucial for
The objective of these risk assessment studies is to sustainable implementation.
acquire a better understanding of the potential 6. Innovative technologies and modeling approaches:
consequences and challenges involved in storing Exploring advanced technologies (e.g., advanced
carbon in deep geological formations. By monitoring techniques, novel materials for well
comprehensively evaluating the behavior of carbon integrity) and modeling approaches (e.g., advanced
dioxide and its potential migration, researchers can computational fluid dynamics, ML for predictive

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 895
896
Table 3. risk assessment of geological CO2 storage.
Reference Main Results and Findings Risk Assessment Software Special Cases Study Type
Method
47 Detecting sedimentation < 55 tons/yr results - COMSOL Sleipner in Assessing environmental consequences of
in < 2 m plume in deep waters during Central North CO2 emission, numerical simulation.
strong tides; Seepage from well impacts Sea
local area minimally.
28 Injected volume relates to CO2 distribution; GERAS- CO2 of TOUGH2- CO2 by Basic strata Lab study on supercritical flow, water in
Larger particles increase water mobility; AIST LANL model porous environments, numerical
CO2 has high permeability below critical simulations.
point.
48 CO2 migration, dispersion analysis from GERAS-CO2GS ADMER 2.5 - Lab study on geological risk assessment,
Earth’s surface, marine environment, risk CO2 migration, leakage scenarios.
evaluation in injection facilities.
49 Model for senior decision-makers in - T2VOC (part of - Lab investigation of CO2 migration in
energy-related risks; CCS safety TOUGH) shallow aquifers, modeling with T2VOC.
technology.
50 Meta-model for automated decision-making; PyLACE - Synthetic Leakage assessment, cost estimation using

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Monte Carlo simulation comparison. scenario meta-model.
51 MILP optimization minimizes geological risks Mixed Integer Linear - - Financial risk measurement from geological
in network costs; Strategic supply chain Programming uncertainties in CO2 storage.
design.
52 Quantitative assessment of CO2 storage NRAP-OPEN-IAM - - Integrated model for CO2 geological
risks; Field characterization, ongoing storage risk assessment and
monitoring. management.
53 Toxicological risks in CCS; Emergency - - - Importance of CO2 toxicity research,
protocols, safety in CO2 toxicity. emergency management protocols.
54 MCDA approach for storage site selection, Excel, ASSESS, - - Decision models, risk analysis using
risk mitigation in CO2 migration. @Risk, Precision graphical representation, Monte Carlo
Tree simulation.
55 Comprehensive research on CO2 toxicity, - - - Focus on CO2 toxicity research, emergency
emergency management protocols. management protocols in CCS.
3 Review on CO2 leakage risk assessment; - - - Investigation of potential CO2 leakage
Poor cement work primary cause paths, risk assessment scheme.
near-well zone leaks.
56 Assessment of natural seepage risk; Surface - Coupled FLAC3D and Fault above Analysis of CO2 leakage impact on
travertine sediment analysis. TOUGHREACT- reservoir in sediment, GHG reduction effectiveness.
FLAC3DDM Arizona

Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295

57 Storage potential assessment; Directional - ECLIPSE 300 Pohang Basin, Evaluation of CO2 storage capacity,
hydraulic characterization, numerical Southeast injection efficiency, and leakage risks.
modeling. Korea
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CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

Figure 2. Summary of modeling and risk assessment of CO2 storage.

modeling) can enhance accuracy and reliability in environment. In the porous environment, the reaction
risk assessments. between rock and fluid, the reaction between two fluids
7. Lifecycle assessment and cost-benefit analysis: (water and carbon dioxide) and the effect of carbon
Conducting comprehensive lifecycle assessments dioxide as a result of storage (acidification of the
and cost-benefit analyses considering the entire porous environment) must be considered. Considering
CCS process—from capture to storage—is necessary that the purpose of carbon dioxide storage is its
to evaluate its economic feasibility and long-term removal from the environment, therefore, its
environmental benefits. movement and behavior in the porous environment
8. Policy and regulatory considerations: Investigating should be modeled for a long time and the probability
the regulatory frameworks and policies that support of its occurrence and consequences due to storage
or hinder CCS deployment globally can provide (leakage to the following waters) should be modeled.
insights into overcoming barriers and promoting ground or return to the ground) to be evaluated.
widespread adoption.
In summary, while the existing studies provide
CO2 monitoring leakage
valuable insights into CO2 storage and risk assessment, To ensure the safety of human health and the
further research into these aspects can enhance the environment, it is crucial to monitor CCS projects
robustness, reliability, and applicability of CCS closely due to the potential long-term leakage of CO2
technologies in mitigating climate change effectively. from deep formations into shallow aquifers or the
Integrating findings across disciplines and applying ground surface, emphasizing the importance of having
them in diverse real-world scenarios will be crucial for a monitoring program with proximity to the ground
advancing CCS as a viable climate mitigation strategy. level.58 The effective development of geological CO2
Modeling studies and leakage risk assessment have storage is hindered by potential CO2 leakage, thus
been carried out with the aim of completing utilizing a big data mining approach is recommended
experimental studies in order to ensure that the storage for site selection, validation, storage capacity
process is without side damage, Fig. 2, this process, the estimation, leakage risk assessment, carbon credit
rules governing modeling and the objectives of leakage allocation, and public acceptance analysis. Additionally,
risk assessment in the porous environment described CO2 mineralization and industrial utilization are viable
schematically. Figure 2 shows the modeling and risk options for storing CO2 securely within stable minerals
assessment process of storage according to previous through reactions with metal oxides to form stable
studies. Darcy’s law and mass conservation are carbonates. However, such industrial mining and
established in the modeling process in the porous exploitation plans should prioritize sustainability and

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 897
 A Sori et al.

environmentally friendly processes, adhering to the Based on the information presented in the table, there
principles of industrial ecology when implemented on are several aspects that could be further explored to
a large scale. The main barriers to implementing enhance our understanding of CO2 storage and its
carbon storage projects include high costs, energy environmental impacts. Here are some additional areas
penalties, safety concerns, reliability issues, and policy that should be studied:
uncertainties.9 Stored CO2 can leak through two
primary mechanisms: migration into aquifers or return 1. Long-term impact on ecosystems: Most studies
to the Earth’s surface and atmosphere, resulting in focus on short-term effects. Long-term studies
environmental damage and depletion of natural would provide insights into chronic exposure effects
resources. The first leakage path occurs when there is a on ecosystems, which are crucial for evaluating the
connection between the storage formation and the sustainability of CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage)
Earth’s surface. The second leakage path involves fluid projects. Prolonged monitoring of marine and
migration through geological faults and fractures terrestrial ecosystems, long-term soil and water
within high-permeability zones of a caprock.59–61 chemistry changes, and cumulative impacts on
biodiversity.
2. Socio-economic impacts: Understanding the
Monitoring approaches method socio-economic aspects will help in assessing the
CCS involves capturing CO2 from major sources, feasibility and acceptance of CCS projects by
transporting it to storage sites, and sequestering it in communities and stakeholders. Impact on local
geological formations. While CCS offers environmental communities, cost-benefit analysis, job creation
benefits, it also poses risks, such as CO2 migration to versus environmental risks, and public perception.
underground and surface water. To ensure the safe 3. Advanced monitoring technologies: To improve
implementation of these projects within acceptable detection accuracy and reduce false
limits, a monitoring program incorporating analysis positives/negatives, and to develop cost-effective
and risk assessment is essential. Such a program monitoring solutions. Integration of cutting-edge
provides valuable data on site integrity, well technologies such as drone-based monitoring, AI
injectability, and overall storage complex performance. and ML for data analysis, and real-time remote
This study investigates CCS pilot projects, large-scale sensing technologies.
implementations, and measurement scales through the 4. Chemical and physical interaction of CO2 with
lens of life cycle assessments. Additionally, the reservoir materials: To understand how injected
importance of monitoring CCS operations for ensuring CO2 interacts with reservoir rocks and fluids, which
proper functioning and maintaining the storage affects storage security and capacity. Mineralogy
complex is emphasized, with a case study conducted in changes, rock porosity and permeability alterations,
France.1 and CO2 solubility in various geological formations.
The significance of CO2 capture and storage cannot 5. Leakage pathways and mitigation strategies:
be overstated in addressing the environmental Identifying potential leakage pathways and
challenges posed by GHG emissions. The process developing effective mitigation strategies are crucial
entails injecting CO2 into appropriate geological for ensuring the integrity of storage sites. Detailed
formations and closely monitoring the injected plume geological surveys to identify potential faults and
over time to ensure effective containment. By fractures, development of sealant technologies, and
implementing underground CO2 storage, we can testing of contingency plans.
contribute to environmental stability and mitigate the 6. Impact of CO2 on human health: Ensuring that CO2
adverse effects of GHG on our planet.62 The studies in storage does not pose a health risk to nearby
monitoring methods have been conducted in two ways: populations is critical for public acceptance and
1) Using equipment and methods (types of regulatory approval.
seismographs, geoelectric and spontaneous potential, Health impact assessments, safe exposure levels, and
infrared spectrometer, etc.) 2) Using consequential emergency response protocols in case of leaks.
effects such as on various types of fish, bacteria, and
biomarkers.63–65 Table 4 shows the type of study, its 7. Climate feedback mechanisms: To understand the
methods, and the visa cases of each study. broader implications of CCS on global climate

898 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

Table 4. Monitoring approaches method.

Reference Special Cases Monitoring Method Research Type
66 Sleipner and Snøhvit offshore Time-lapse seismic measurements Examining surveillance techniques for
projects and gravimetry CO2 injection reservoir performance
58 Shenhua CCS project U-tube method for geochemical Near-surface CCS monitoring using
monitoring of shallow aquifers U-tube technology
67 Marine CCS Biological monitoring using sensitive Long-term monitoring for early CO2
species leakage detection
68 High soil CO2 concentrations Studying plant and microbial Environmental impact of CCS
parameters technology
69 Aquatic ecosystem CO2 levels Effects of metals and CO2 on Impact of high soil CO2 on plants and
marine bacteria environmental effects
70 Marine organisms (fish larvae, Laboratory study of seawater Lethal effects of CO2 leakage on
oysters) acidification effects marine organisms
71 Czech Republic reservoir Combined remote sensing and in CO2 leakage detection and risk
situ measurements assessment
72 Natural CO2 reservoirs in Czech Geoelectrical and soil CO2 flux Monitoring natural CO2 emissions and
Republic measurements gas leaks
73 Fluid behavior in Hele-Shaw cell Measurements of fluid height and Laboratory investigation of leakage
outflow velocity path effects
74 CO2 degassing in sediments CO2 concentration and electrical Evaluating CO2 degassing control
resistance thermography methods
75 Gaseous CO2 migration in GPR Field tests for CO2 migration
shallow aquifer monitoring
76 Marine organisms (sea urchins) Field experiments on urchin density Studying the impact of CO2 leakage on
around CO2 spill marine life
77 Acid gas migration in Poland Well sample analysis for gas Long-term safety assessment of gas
movement re-injection
78 Microalgae environment Cytometry analysis of microalgae Using biomarkers to detect CO2
physiology leakage impacts

systems. Interaction of stored CO2 with other GHG, Biological monitoring: Biological monitoring
potential for induced seismicity, and effects on involves observing changes in living organisms and
atmospheric chemistry. their environment to detect CO2 leakage. This
◦ Economic viability and scalability: To determine approach leverages the sensitivity of certain species to
if CCS can be scaled up to meet global carbon alterations in CO2 levels and pH. For instance:
reduction goals. Economic models for large-scale
deployment, comparison with alternative carbon 1. Marine organisms: Monitoring the health and
reduction strategies, and identification of funding behavior of marine species such as phytoplankton,
and investment mechanisms. zooplankton, fish, and shellfish can provide early
indications of CO2 leakage. These organisms often
exhibit physiological and biochemical changes in
Leakage monitoring is a critical component of the response to increased CO2 and lower pH levels,
geological storage of CO2 . Effective monitoring ensures such as altered growth rates, reproductive success,
the integrity of storage sites, detects potential leaks, and and mortality rates.
mitigates associated risks. There are two primary 2. Terrestrial Plants and Microorganisms: On land, the
approaches to leakage monitoring: biological response of plants and soil microorganisms to
monitoring and advanced equipment-based elevated CO2 levels can serve as indicators.
monitoring. Dicotyledonous plants, for example, are generally

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 899
 A Sori et al.

Figure 3. Leakage monitoring in geological CO2 storage.

more sensitive to CO2 fluctuations than subsurface. These methods allow for continuous,
monocotyledons. Changes in microbial activity, real-time monitoring over large areas.
diversity, and exopolysaccharide production in 5. Geophysical techniques: Methods such as
response to CO2 levels can also be monitored. geoelectrical surveys and self-potential
measurements help characterize subsurface CO2
Advanced equipment-based monitoring: distribution and identify preferential leakage
Advanced equipment-based monitoring employs pathways.
various technologies to detect and measure CO2 levels 6. Microbial and plant biomarkers: Cytometry analysis
and potential leaks with high precision. These of microalgae and other microorganisms can
technologies include: identify physiological changes in response to
CO2 -induced acidification, serving as effective
1. Seismic measurements: Time-lapse seismic biomarkers for environmental monitoring.
measurements are used to track the migration of
CO2 plumes within geological formations. This The schematic diagram in Fig. 3 illustrates the
method can provide detailed images of subsurface integration of these biological and technological
structures and changes over time. monitoring approaches. By combining biological
2. Gravimetry: This technique measures changes in indicators with advanced equipment, a comprehensive
gravitational fields caused by CO2 density monitoring strategy can be implemented. This dual
variations, offering additional data on CO2 approach enhances the ability to detect, quantify, and
distribution and dissolution rates when seismic data respond to CO2 leaks promptly, ensuring the safety and
is limited or unavailable. effectiveness of geological CO2
3. Geochemical analysis: Techniques such as the storage.
U-tube method collect water and gas samples at
various depths to analyze parameters like pH,
conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS), and ion
Leakage control
concentrations. These analyses help in detecting Geological CO2 sequestration (GCS) is a promising
CO2 leakage into shallow aquifers and near-surface approach for reducing atmospheric CO2 levels,
environments. requiring porous reservoir rock zones for CO2 storage
4. Remote sensing: Tools like Fourier Transform and impermeable caprocks to prevent upward
Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and movement. Nanoscale chemical reactions play a crucial
ground-penetrating radar (GPR) are utilized to role in the safety and efficiency of CO2 storage,
monitor CO2 levels both at the surface and influencing factors such as injection pressure,

900 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

Table 5. Type of study, leakage method, and special cases of each.

Reference Special Cases Leakage Control Method Study Type
89 Micro annular openings during Use of flexible cement to minimize 2D finite element simulation to assess
CO2 injection can develop at well cement cracking. well integrity during and after CO2
cement-casing or injection.
cement-rock interfaces.
90 Biofilms can protect well MUFTE-G software to simulate Development and testing of a
cement against CO2 -induced biofilm growth and two-phase numerical model to simulate biofilm
corrosion and saline. fluid flow in geological formations. development in CO2 storage
reservoirs.
91 Geopolymer cement shows Numerical modeling and laboratory Analysis of uniaxial stress-strain
increased UCS with rising investigations of OPC and behavior of cements considering
salinity, unlike OPC cement. geopolymer cement under various salinity and confinement.
conditions.
60 Evaluate chemical blockers in Use of SetraSim (TOUGH2 and Experimental assessment of blocking
CO2 -containing saline TOUGHReact) for numerical agents and temperature effects in 2D
environments. modeling. and 3D models.
92 Wettability of shale surfaces Experimental evaluation of Investigation of contact angle changes
varies based on mineralogy, wettability in shale samples from between water and shale at the CO2
impacting CO2 leakage different fields. interface.
control.
93 Improved wetting and capillarity X-ray CMT to study fluid migration Laboratory investigation of wettability
trapping in Bentheimer and trapping efficiency. changes and their effects on CO2
sandstone cores. migration and trapping.
94 Impact of surface properties on Study of contact angles and Investigation of oleic acid
reservoir storage capacity and interfacial properties in concentration’s impact on caprock
containment security. mica-H2-brine and mica- wettability.
CO2 -brine systems.
95 Surface roughness changes due Analytical techniques like XRD, Study of the wetting effect of oleic
to increased organic acid FESEM, TOC, FTIR, AFM, and acids in mica/ CO2 /brine systems.
concentration. EDS.
96 Reducing cement reactivity with Modeling of cement alteration and Prediction of cement alteration, sealing
CO2 -salt mixture to extend fracture sealing conditions using conditions, and CO2 -brine leakage
fracture sealing. Darcy’s law. rate in well areas.
97 Enhanced self-healing Formation of silica gel and calcite Laboratory investigation of natural
properties of cement in precipitation observed via X-ray cement flooding in multiphase flow
multi-phase saline and and electron microscopy. and model comparison.
supercritical CO2 .

mineral-fluid interactions, sealing integrity, and CO2 (change in wettability, surface tension, etc.). Table 5
mineralization time scales, which in turn impact summarizes the type of study, leakage method, and
hydrogeological and mechanical properties like special cases of each.
wettability, permeability, strength, and fracture Missing aspects:
characteristics of geological media, ultimately affecting
storage capacities and viability during
GCS.79 1. Long-term monitoring and impact assessment:
The studies conducted regarding leakage control in ◦ Why: Understanding the long-term effects of
the laboratory environment or numerical modeling CO2 storage and potential leaks is crucial for
have been conducted with the following two goals: 1- assessing the sustainability and safety of these
well integrity 80–82 (including the resistance of cement, storage methods.
casing, prevention of leakage using bio-materials, etc.) ◦ What to study: Long-term monitoring
2- change in fluid behavior in porous media 83–88 techniques, the impact on ecosystems over

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 901
 A Sori et al.

extended periods, and the cumulative effects of 8. Sealing and self-healing properties of well materials:
small leaks.
2. Economic and socio-economic impacts: ◦ Why: Ensuring the long-term integrity of wells is
◦ Why: The feasibility of CCS (Carbon Capture and crucial for preventing leaks.
Storage) projects depends not only on technical ◦ What to study: Development of advanced
viability but also on economic factors and societal materials with self-healing properties, the
acceptance. long-term behavior of well cements, and the
◦ What to study: Cost-benefit analysis, economic interaction of well materials with CO2 and saline
impacts on local communities, potential job environments.
creation, and public perception of CCS projects.
Potential Studies and Their Importance:
3. Comprehensive risk assessment and management:
1. Environmental impact studies:
◦ Why: To identify, assess, and manage the risks ◦ To evaluate the broader ecological impacts of
associated with CO2 storage and potential CO2 storage and identify potential mitigation
leakage. strategies.
◦ What to study: Development of comprehensive 2. Innovative leakage prevention technologies:
risk assessment frameworks, emergency response ◦ To develop more effective and cost-efficient
protocols, and mitigation strategies for different methods for preventing and detecting CO2 leaks.
leakage scenarios. 3. Interdisciplinary research:
4. Advanced sensor and detection technologies: ◦ Combining insights from geology, biology,
◦ Why: Improving the accuracy and reliability of chemistry, and engineering to develop a holistic
leakage detection is essential for ensuring the understanding of CO2 storage and its impacts.
integrity of CO2 storage sites.
By addressing these gaps, research can provide a
◦ What to study: Development and testing of
more comprehensive understanding of the feasibility,
advanced sensors, real-time monitoring systems,
safety, and effectiveness of CCS as a climate mitigation
and remote sensing technologies.
strategy, ensuring that it is a viable and sustainable
5. Impact on human health:
solution for reducing atmospheric CO2 levels.
◦ Why: Ensuring that CO2 storage does not pose a
Leakage control for the long-term storage of CO2
health risk to nearby populations is crucial for
encompasses several key research areas and
regulatory approval and public acceptance.
methodologies. This comprehensive approach includes
◦ What to study: Health impact assessments, safe
both the development of advanced materials and
exposure levels, and emergency response plans
technologies to ensure the integrity of storage wells and
for potential leaks.
the in-depth study of fluid dynamics within geological
6. Integration of biological monitoring techniques:
formations.
◦ Why: Biological indicators can provide early
Well integrity:
warnings of leaks and help assess the
environmental impact of CO2 storage. 1. Material development:
◦ What to study: Use of bioindicators in monitoring ◦ Flexible cement: Traditional cement used in well
programs, the response of different species to construction can develop micro-annular
elevated CO2 levels, and integration of biological openings at the interfaces of cement-casing or
and technological monitoring approaches. cement-rock. To address this, researchers have
7. Effect of CO2 on different geological formations: developed flexible cements specifically designed
◦ Why: Different geological formations may for oil wells. These cements can withstand the
respond differently to CO2 injection and storage, mechanical stresses associated with CO2
affecting the integrity and capacity of storage injection, reducing the risk of cracking and
sites. leakage.
◦ What to study: Detailed studies on various ◦ Geopolymer cement: Studies have shown that
geological formations, their porosity, geopolymer cements exhibit higher unconfined
permeability, and mineralogy, and how these compressive strength (UCS) under saline
factors influence CO2 storage and leakage. conditions compared to Ordinary Portland

902 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

Cement (OPC). This makes them a promising behavior, such as the formation of blocking
alternative for CO2 sequestration wells, as they agents that can prevent leakage pathways.
can better resist the harsh chemical environment
created by CO2 and brine. Long-term monitoring:
2. Self-healing properties: 1. Advanced sensors:
◦ Silica gel and calcite precipitation: Research has ◦ Real-time monitoring systems: The development
demonstrated that the self-healing properties of of advanced sensors and real-time monitoring
well cement can be enhanced through the systems is crucial for detecting any signs of
formation of silica gel and calcite precipitation leakage early. These systems can measure
when exposed to CO2 and saline mixtures. These parameters such as pressure, temperature, and
reactions can effectively seal cracks and prevent chemical composition within the storage site,
leakage, ensuring the long-term integrity of the providing continuous data on the integrity of the
well. storage reservoir.
3. Biofilm utilization: 2. Biological indicators:
◦ Biofilm growth: Biofilms, which are layers of ◦ Bioindicators: The use of biological indicators,
bacteria that adhere to surfaces, have been such as specific species of plants or
studied for their potential to protect well cement microorganisms that react to changes in CO2
from CO2 -induced corrosion. Numerical models levels, can provide early warnings of potential
have simulated the growth and behavior of leaks. Integrating biological monitoring with
biofilms within geological formations, showing technological methods offers a comprehensive
how they can reduce permeability and enhance approach to ensuring storage site integrity.
the durability of well materials.
Fluid behavior in porous media: By integrating these diverse research areas, the
process of controlling leakage for long-term CO2
1. Wettability studies: storage can be significantly improved. Figure 4
◦ Contact angle analysis: The wettability of provides a schematic overview of this integrated
geological formations, or how fluids interact with research process, highlighting the importance of well
rock surfaces, is a crucial factor in CO2 storage. integrity, fluid behavior studies, and long-term
Experimental studies have evaluated how monitoring in ensuring the success of CCS projects.
different minerals within shale and sandstone This comprehensive approach ensures that CO2
formations affect the movement and trapping of remains securely stored underground, contributing to
CO2 . Understanding these interactions helps in the reduction of atmospheric CO2 levels and the
predicting and controlling CO2 migration within mitigation of climate change.
the storage site.
2. Capillarity trapping: Supportive policies, regulations, and
◦ X-ray Microtomography: Advanced imaging incentives vital for geological CO2
techniques, such as X-ray computerized
microtomography (X-ray CMT), have been used
deployment
to study the capillarity trapping and fluid The successful deployment of geological CO2 storage
migration within porous media. These studies will heavily rely on the implementation of supportive
provide insights into how CO2 can be policies, regulations, and economic incentives. These
immobilized within pore spaces, reducing the measures are crucial to create an enabling environment
risk of leakage. that encourages the adoption and expansion of this
3. Chemical interactions: technology. Policies and regulations play a significant
◦ Reactive transport models: Simulations using role in providing a clear framework for the deployment
software like TOUGH2 and TOUGH React have of geological CO2 storage projects. They can establish
been conducted to evaluate the interactions guidelines for site selection, operational procedures,
between CO2 , brine, and geological materials. monitoring, and reporting requirements. By ensuring
These models help predict changes in fluid compliance with environmental standards and safety

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 903
 A Sori et al.

Figure 4. Leakage control in long-term CO2 storage.

protocols, these policies and regulations help build technologies cannot reduce carbon without CO2
public trust in the technology and mitigate potential storage.98–101
risks.
Resource evaluation and development
Net zero objectives are made possible by take time, but momentum grows
CO2 storage More than 130 CO2 storage sites are being developed in
A tried-and-true method for keeping captured CO2 20 countries by the middle of 2022. Although several of
apart from the atmosphere is CO2 storage. Currently, these sites have been under construction for some time,
roughly 10 Mt of CO2 per year are injected into deep 60 new storage projects were scheduled for 2021. From
geological formations by seven commercial-scale CO2 about 10 Mt presently, the yearly dedicated injection
storage plants. Since the 1990s, dedicated storage has capacity might reach more than 110 Mt by 2030. The
been tested and proven. Dedicated storage also builds world may have enough resources for storing CO2 , but
on more than 150 years of subsurface operations by the further research is needed. Around the world, sources
oil and gas industry, as well as insights acquired from suitable for CO2 storage have been less investigated and
CO2 -EOR over the previous 50 years. The ability to researched. However, very few of these resources can
regulate CO2 in the context of containing global be developed as appropriate sites. Governments should
temperatures rise depends on access to safe and secure evaluate CO2 storage potential and establish reserves to
geological CO2 storage. 5.9 Gt of CO2 is absorbed per facilitate resource management policies. Due to the fact
year in 2050 according to the IEA’s Net Zero Emissions that the development of qualified resources in possible
by 2050 scenario. If businesses are uncertain about operating locations takes from 3 to 10 years, not every
their ability to store collected emissions in CO2 , they resource can be developed. Government-led
may be reluctant to invest in CO2 capture. CO2 capture precompetitive resource assessments can lower CO2
is falling behind global CO2 storage. It might be storage facility costs and facilitate the development of
possible for the process to be sped up by government existing ones. If the evaluation and development
action and increasing policy backing to include CO2 process is staged, it will be more efficient and effective.
storage projects. CO2 storage is necessary for As the path progresses, the evaluation becomes more
technology-based CO2 removal. For permanently expensive and complete. Process phasing eliminates
removing collected CO2 , direct air capture with CO2 resources that do not meet the project’s suitability
storage (DACS) and bioenergy with carbon capture criteria from further evaluations. This lowers
and storage (BECCS) rely on geological storage. These exploration risk and boosts storage confidence.

904 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

Additionally, phasing allows actors to pursue different r Define strategies for sharing or allocating risks
phases of evaluation. This allows for instance, the between the public and private sectors.
private sector to build on precompetitive assessments r To aid in the decarbonization of industrial clusters
by governments.98–100,102 and promote the co-location of renewable energy
technologies with CO2 storage resources, promote
Commercialization needs government the establishment of CO2 transport and storage hubs.
support r Encourage public support through creating effective
Large-scale, multi-source CO2 storage facility communication channels and providing public
development should be given attention. What should participation opportunities.98,102,103
be noted is that multi-source sites are the basis of a hub
model for CO2 storage deployment. They in order to
CCS deployment challenges
lower storage costs and promote CO2 capture r The private sector won’t implement CCS at the scale
deployment at emitters where full-chain CCUS
projects are not practical, such as emitters that are tiny necessary to accomplish climate change mitigation
or lack storage expertise, they take use of economies of goals without a well-designed legislative framework
scale. CO2 storage costs may rise over time due to that facilitates the development of a self-sustaining
resource availability and quality. Resources with the market for it. This is due to several market failures
greatest amount of data, the easiest access, the largest and large investment obstacles to CCS.
r These market failures result in risks, some of which
size, or the least amount of complexity are likely to be
developed first. As a result, expenses associated with are broad project risks that may be reduced
evaluation, development, operating, and monitoring throughout deployment. However, others are
may rise due to the requirement to collect more data. difficult to decrease risks that will need to be
This may be due to the complexity of injection allocated to the government, at least temporarily.
r Notably, this does not mean governments should
operations, or a combination of the two.98,100,103,104
assume all risks connected with CCS projects.
Instead, risks should be wisely distributed to the
The development of CO2 storage
company most equipped to handle them at the
resources with top priority actions lowest possible cost. Since technical, construction,
The IEA has outlined five areas of priority activities and operational performance risks are present in
that governments may take to speed up CO2 storage many significant infrastructure projects, the private
development in order to decrease the possibility that sector is ideally positioned to handle these risks. The
CO2 storage would become a bottleneck during energy government would have to assume such risks, at
transitions. The private sector may assist with these least initially. This is because the private sector has
initiatives by providing input during the formulation of no control over the occurrence and consequences of
regulations and policies. It may also enhance data hazards that are difficult to reduce.
management procedures, foster innovation, and assist r These risks may diminish, vanish, or shift from the
in the retraining and upskilling of the oil and gas government to the private sector over time. This is as
workforce. The IEA has also specified particular factors the market matures and more success stories from
the private sector should consider to support CO2 executing CCS projects are learned. This assumes
storage deployment.98,102,103 that a solid policy framework is in place to facilitate
that shift.99,104
Create regulations and policies that favor
CO2 storage
r Investigate if CO2 storage, and by extension CCUS Analysis of environmental factors enabling
should be included in national decarbonization, existence of large-scale CCS facilities
energy, and industrial initiatives. If so, create a plan r These have been made possible by helpful legislation
for effective resource management. and advantageous project circumstances. They offer
r Implement market-based or direct incentives, such valuable perspective on how the aforementioned
as a carbon tax, takeback requirement, or emissions obstacles have been removed to make CCS a
trading system, to stimulate CO2 storage investment. financially feasible option.

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 905
 A Sori et al.

r CCS has only been implemented in a small number Massive private sector investment needed
of nations, primarily in North America. It relies for CCS deployment. Banks play crucial
heavily on CO2 sales for improved oil recovery role in funding projects
(EOR) to generate income and encourage CO2 Banks now find it challenging to qualify CCS projects
collection. for debt financing because they believe project risks are
r Because funding CCS initiatives requires a lot of
too high. Policy DE risking is crucial to lowering risks
resources, many projects rely on grants to help fill so that debt funding for CCS projects can be obtained.
financial gaps. In the “technology valley of death,” This includes setting a suitable value for carbon and
where funding is difficult to secure for permitting shared transport and storage infrastructure.
breakthroughs that are technically sound but have Capital costs significantly impact CCS project approval.
not yet been implemented on a large scale, this is the Debt financing for CCS projects will become more
situation for many developing energy technologies. accessible as the number of CCS facilities rises and due
r It has been widely stated that CCS prices might be
to policy DE risking. Interviews with banks and equity
greatly reduced by resolving market flaws. This is investors can be used to establish the additional cost of
done by efficiently assigning risks, establishing specific risks. This is supposed to be done to assist
economies of scale, and learning by doing. This policymakers in prioritizing the policies that will
heavily depends on how many CCS facilities are permit the necessary expansion of CCS
actually in use.98,99,104,105 implementation.98,104,105

Insufficient carbon limits hinder climate 18 operational CCS plants with 5 under
mitigation efforts construction
The only country that values CO2 storage significantly This is despite the fact that no government has yet put
(up to $50 per ton by 2026) is the United States. The in place a complete framework to facilitate the
only country with a carbon price strong enough to scaling-up of CCS that is consistent with attaining Paris
justify CO2 geological storage during gas production is climate objectives.98,104,105 There are general
Norway. Half of the existing emissions covered by characteristics that are present in a variety of initiatives,
carbon pricing schemes are priced at less than US$10 even if the precise strategies used to overcome market
per ton of CO2 , and eighty percent of global emissions failures vary in Figure 5.
are still not covered by carbon pricing1. A relatively
low carbon price might result in a considerable Recommendation and outlook
increase in deployment. This is despite the fact that
CCS is sometimes incorrectly characterized as Recommendations
prohibitively expensive compared to other climate As research in geological CO2 storage continues to
change mitigation technologies.98,104,105 advance, it is recommended to focus on the following
areas:
Shared networks vital for reducing CCS 1. Long-term monitoring: Emphasize the importance
costs and risks of continuous monitoring and develop advanced
This is as a result of scale savings and general techniques to detect potential leaks or changes in
derricking in relation to storage liability and storage sites over extended periods. This will
cross-chain risk. Businesses may concentrate on their provide valuable data for ongoing risk assessment
core competencies while minimizing risk and expense and prompt implementation of corrective actions.
by using a disaggregated transport and storage business 2. Improved modeling capabilities: Enhance numerical
model. The overall consequence is economies of scale modeling approaches to incorporate more complex
and risk reduction. This leads to a large decrease in geological scenarios, improve accuracy in predicting
CO2 storage unit costs. Also, government must take the CO2 behavior, and assess the long-term stability of
lead in the early deployment of shared transport and storage reservoirs under various conditions.
storage infrastructure. This is either by development or 3. Risk mitigation strategies: Develop innovative
by establishing the legal parameters that allow for control measures that can mitigate risks associated
efficient network construction.98,104–107 with CO2 storage operations. Explore technologies

906 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

Figure 5. The primary project characteristics and policies that have removed investment roadblocks for CCS.98,107,108

and methods that optimize injection rates, pressure 1. Experimental studies: Continued research using
management, and fluid behavior within porous laboratory and field experiments will enhance our
media to ensure safe and efficient long-term understanding of CO2 trapping mechanisms,
containment. mineralization processes, and geomechanically
4. Collaboration and knowledge sharing: Encourage effects. This knowledge is crucial for assessing the
collaboration among researchers, industry experts, long-term stability and containment potential of
and policymakers to facilitate knowledge sharing, CO2 in geological formations.
standardization of methodologies, and best 2. Numerical modeling: Advancements in numerical
practices in geological CO2 storage. This will speed modeling techniques will allow for more accurate
up progress and enable widespread adoption of this simulations and predictions of CO2 behavior in
promising solution. storage locations. Models that consider factors
such as rock permeability, caprock integrity, and
Outlook geochemical reactions will provide valuable
The outlook for geological CO2 storage can be insights into reservoir capacity, flow dynamics, and
summarized as follows: potential pathways for CO2 migration or leakage.

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 907
 A Sori et al.

3. Leakage risk assessment: Ongoing research on 9. Nanomaterials in wettability studies: The

leakage risk assessment methods, including application of nanomaterials such as FeO, TiO2 ,
pressure monitoring, tracer tests, and geophysical and ZnO for wettability alteration should be
imaging, will help identify and evaluate potential further investigated to enhance CO2 trapping
leakage paths and associated risks. Understanding efficiency.
the geology, well integrity, and seal performance of 10. Advanced contact angle measurement: Qualitative
storage sites is vital for maintaining reliable and methods like relative permeability and capillary
long-lasting CO2 containment. pressure curves should be explored to complement
4. Monitoring systems: The development of advanced traditional contact angle measurements in surface
monitoring systems, encompassing techniques chemistry studies.
such as pressure monitoring, fluid composition 11. Heterogeneity of natural formations: The
analysis, seismic monitoring, and remote sensing, wettability of heterogeneous natural formations
will enable early leak detection and response. should be studied to assess their potential for CO2
Continuous monitoring of storage sites is essential storage.
to ensure their integrity and implement corrective 12. Real organic acids in geological formations:
actions promptly when required. Investigate the impact of real organic acids with
5. Control strategies: Effective control measures, such various compositions to accurately analyze natural
as adjusting injection rates, managing pressures, geological formations at a real scale.
modifying fluid behavior, and optimizing well 13. Machine learning integration: Incorporate
design, will be crucial for mitigating identified machine learning algorithms into future CCS
risks during CO2 storage operations. These models to improve accuracy, reduce the need for
strategies draw upon comprehensive knowledge extensive training samples, and enhance efficiency.
from experimental studies, numerical modeling, 14. Transfer learning: Apply transfer learning by
and real-time monitoring data to enhance safety leveraging knowledge from established subsurface
and prevent leaks. fluid injection methods in CCS research to
6. Integration with other technologies: Further improve performance and accuracy.
integration of geological CO2 storage with other 15. Hybrid CCS/CCUS systems: Develop hybrid
technologies, such as enhanced oil recovery systems combining CO2 capture, separation,
(EOR), can improve the viability and transport, use, and storage processes to achieve
cost-effectiveness of carbon capture and storage synergistic technical advantages and improve
(CCS). Exploring synergies between different overall system performance.
energy production and storage processes will 16. Integration with renewable energy: Enhance the
contribute to the widespread adoption of CCS. sustainability and value proposition of carbon
7. Policy and economic incentives: The capture technologies by integrating them with
implementation of supportive policies, regulations, renewable energy sources to reduce the carbon
and economic incentives will be vital to encourage footprint and improve cost-effectiveness.
the deployment of geological CO2 storage on a
larger scale. Governments and international bodies By focusing on these recommendations and outlook
should continue to prioritize and incentivize CCS points, the scientific community and stakeholders can
as a means of reducing GHG emissions and work together to advance geological CO2 storage
combating climate change. technology, enhance its safety and efficiency, and
8. Continued research and collaboration: Ongoing contribute to global efforts in mitigating climate
research, collaboration between academia, change.
industry, and government agencies, and
knowledge-sharing platforms will drive further
advancements in geological CO2 storage. This
Conclusion
multidisciplinary approach will help address This review provides a comprehensive overview of the
technical challenges, improve safety standards, and current state of knowledge on the geological storage of
refine storage techniques for long-term carbon CO2 and its potential as a solution to combat climate
sequestration. change. The review highlights the significance of

908 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

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912 © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295
CO2 geological storage: Experimental studies, modeling, and risk management

Abobakr Sori Hasan Abedpour

Abobakr Sori, born 1992, holds Hasan Abedpour, born, 1993, is a
a Master’s degree in Petroleum graduate of Chemical Engineering
Engineering from the Petroleum from Sahand University of Technology
University of Technology. He is in Tabriz, Iran. After completing
currently a PhD candidate in Chemical his academic studies, he quickly
Engineering at Sahand University entered the industry and gained
of Technology. His expertise lies in diverse experiences in the field of
carbon storage, energy, and their chemical engineering. He is recognized as a specialist
related optimizations, and he is passionately engaged with extensive knowledge and skills in this domain.
in these fields. During his academic journey, Abobakr With an ambitious vision and a passion for innovation,
Sori has acquired deep knowledge in petroleum and Hasan Abedpour founded Borna Tosan Arian Company.
chemical engineering through meticulous research and This company operates extensively in various areas
extensive studies. He is particularly active in innovative of chemical engineering. Under his management
areas related to carbon storage and energy optimization, and leadership, Borna Tosan Arian has rapidly grown
striving to provide sustainable and effective solutions to and successfully completed numerous projects. He
improve energy and environmental conditions. is constantly seeking to develop and improve new
technologies in the field of chemical engineering and,
along with a team of expert colleagues, engages in
Jafarsadegh Moghaddas research and development.
Jafarsadegh Moghaddas is a
distinguished professor at Sahand
University of Technology in Tabriz. He
completed his Bachelor’s and Master’s
degrees in Chemical Engineering
from the University of Tehran and
earned his PhD from Lund University
in Sweden. His research interests
encompass mixing, transport phenomena, porous media,
and the applications of silica aerogel. With a strong
background in these areas, Professor Moghaddas has
made significant contributions to the field of chemical
engineering, particularly in the study and utilization of
advanced materials and processes.

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Greenhouse. Gas. Sci. Technol. 14:887–913 (2024); DOI: 10.1002/ghg.2295 913