1. What is the origin of the word "Logic"?

Answer: The word "Logic" comes from the Classical Greek word "logos," meaning "word"
or "reason."
Example: The term "logos" can be found in ancient Greek philosophical texts, where it refers
to rational discourse

2. What is the Indian term for logic, and what does it mean?
Answer: In India, logic is called Tarka Sastra, which means the science of dialectics, logic,
and reasoning.
Example: Indian philosophers used Tarka Sastra to debate philosophical issues such as the
nature of knowledge

3. Why is studying logic important?

Answer: Studying logic sharpens reasoning skills, enhances understanding of philosophy,
and can be intellectually stimulating.
Example: A lawyer uses logical reasoning to construct valid legal arguments in court

4. What are the two types of reasoning in logic?

Answer: The two types of reasoning are deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning.
Example: Deductive reasoning: "All humans are mortal; Socrates is a human; therefore,
Socrates is mortal." Inductive reasoning: "This swan is white; therefore, all swans might be
white"【9†source】

5. What is deductive reasoning?

Answer: Deductive reasoning draws a specific conclusion from a general principle.
Example: "All birds have wings; a penguin is a bird; therefore, a penguin has wings"

6. What is inductive reasoning?

Answer: Inductive reasoning draws a general conclusion from specific observations.
Example: "Every cat I have seen has a tail; therefore, all cats have tails"

7. What is the main difference between deductive and inductive reasoning?

Answer: Deductive reasoning results in certainty if the premises are true, while inductive
reasoning leads to a probable conclusion.
Example: Deductive: "All cars run on gasoline; my car is a car; therefore, my car runs on
gasoline." Inductive: "Most cars I’ve seen run on gasoline; therefore, all cars might run on
gasoline"【9†source】

8. What is a syllogism?
Answer: A syllogism is a logical argument where a conclusion is drawn from two premises.
Example: "All mammals have lungs; a whale is a mammal; therefore, a whale has lungs"

9. What is the Law of Identity in logic?

Answer: The Law of Identity states that "A is A," meaning a thing is what it is.
Example: "A cat is a cat" follows the Law of Identity

10. What is the Law of Non-contradiction?

Answer: The Law of Non-contradiction states that something cannot be both true and false at
the same time and in the same respect.
Example: "A door cannot be both open and closed at the same time"

11. What is the Law of Excluded Middle?

Answer: The Law of Excluded Middle states that a proposition is either true or false, with no
middle ground.
Example: "The light is either on or off; it cannot be partially on or off in this context"

12. What are the main purposes of a definition in logic?

Answer: The five main purposes of a definition are to increase vocabulary, eliminate
ambiguity, reduce vagueness, provide theoretical explanations, and influence attitudes.
Example: Defining "bachelor" as "an unmarried man" eliminates ambiguity

13. What is a real definition?

Answer: A real definition refers to the essence of things, like "Man is a rational animal."
Example: "Water is a compound made of hydrogen and oxygen" is a real definition

14. What is a nominal definition?

Answer: A nominal definition focuses on the meaning of words rather than the essence of
things.
Example: "'Philosophy' means the love of wisdom" is a nominal definition

15. What are the rules for a good definition?

Answer: A good definition must state the essence, be clear, commensurate, avoid circularity,
and not use negative or obscure terms unless necessary.
Example: A bad definition would be "A book is something that contains pages" (too vague)

16. What is an argument in logic?

Answer: An argument consists of premises and a conclusion, where the premises support the
conclusion.
Example: "All dogs bark; Rex is a dog; therefore, Rex barks"

17. What is the difference between a valid and an invalid argument?

Answer: A valid argument is one where the conclusion logically follows from the premises,
while an invalid argument fails this logical connection.
Example: Valid: "All fish swim; a goldfish is a fish; therefore, a goldfish swims." Invalid:
"All birds fly; a penguin is a bird; therefore, a penguin flies"

18. What is soundness in an argument?

Answer: An argument is sound if it is both valid and has true premises.
Example: "All humans are mortal; Socrates is a human; therefore, Socrates is mortal" is a
sound argument

19. What is inference in logic?

Answer: Inference is the process of drawing a conclusion from premises.
Example: "The ground is wet; therefore, it must have rained" is an inference

20. What is immediate inference?

Answer: Immediate inference is when a conclusion is drawn directly from a single premise
without the use of additional terms.
Example: From "All men are mortal," we immediately infer, "No men are immortal"

21. What is mediate inference?

Answer: Mediate inference involves drawing a conclusion from two premises, such as in a
syllogism.
Example: "All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal"

22. What is opposition of propositions?

Answer: Opposition of propositions occurs when two propositions share the same subject
and predicate but differ in quantity or quality.
Example: "All men are wise" (A) and "Some men are not wise" (O) are opposed propositions

23. What are contradictory propositions?

Answer: Contradictory propositions differ in both quantity and quality, and they cannot both
be true or false at the same time.
Example: "All men are wise" (A) and "Some men are not wise" (O) are contradictory

24. What is the square of opposition?

Answer: The square of opposition shows the relationships between four types of categorical
propositions (A, E, I, O) and their oppositions (contrary, contradictory, sub-contrary, and
subaltern).
Example: "All dogs are mammals" (A) and "No dogs are mammals" (E) are contraries

25. What are contrary propositions?

Answer: Contrary propositions are universal statements that differ in quality, and both cannot
be true but can be false.
Example: "All birds can fly" and "No birds can fly" are contrary

26. What are sub-contrary propositions?

Answer: Sub-contrary propositions are particular statements that differ in quality. Both can
be true, but both cannot be false at the same time.
Example: "Some children like candy" and "Some children do not like candy" are sub-
contraries

27. What is the relationship between universal and particular propositions in

subalternation?
Answer: In subalternation, if a universal proposition is true, the corresponding particular
proposition is also true.
Example: "All men are mortal" (A) implies "Some men are mortal" (I)

28. What is distribution of terms in logic?

Answer: Distribution refers to whether a term in a proposition applies to every member of a
class (distributed) or only some members (undistributed).
Example: In "All birds have wings," "birds" is distributed because it refers to all birds

29. What is a categorical proposition?

Answer: A categorical proposition affirms or denies something about a subject, and it can be
universal or particular, affirmative or negative.
Example: "All cars are vehicles" is a universal affirmative proposition (A)

30. What is the difference between an affirmative and a negative proposition?

Answer: An affirmative proposition asserts something is true, while a negative proposition
denies something.
Example: "All dogs are friendly" (affirmative) vs. "No dogs are friendly" (negative)

31. What is the main goal of logic?

Answer: The main goal of logic is to set order in reasoning by distinguishing correct from
incorrect arguments.
Example: A scientist uses logical reasoning to test hypotheses systematically

32. What is formal logic?

Answer: Formal logic investigates the structure of arguments based on established rules and
systems, focusing on validity rather than truth.
Example: A mathematician uses formal logic to verify the validity of a proof

33. What is a circular definition?

Answer: A circular definition occurs when the term being defined appears within its own
definition.
Example: "A calculator is a device that calculates" is a circular definition

34. Why should definitions avoid obscure or figurative language?

Answer: Definitions should avoid obscure or figurative language because it makes
understanding unclear.
Example: Defining "night" as "the black blanket of the sky" is figurative and unclear

35. What is an inductive argument?

Answer: An inductive argument is one where the conclusion follows with probability based
on specific observations.
Example: "Every swan I've seen is white; therefore, all swans are white"

36. What is a deductive argument?

Answer: A deductive argument is one where the conclusion necessarily follows from the
premises.
Example: "All humans are mortal; Socrates is a human; therefore, Socrates is mortal"

37. What is the principle of non-contradiction?

Answer: The principle of non-contradiction asserts that a proposition cannot be both true and
false at the same time and in the same respect.
Example: "A car cannot be both moving and stationary at the same time"

38. How does the principle of excluded middle work?

Answer: The principle of excluded middle states that a proposition must be either true or
false, with no middle option.
Example: "It is either raining or it is not raining"
39. What does validity mean in logic?
Answer: Validity refers to whether the conclusion logically follows from the premises,
regardless of whether the premises are true.
Example: "If all birds fly and penguins are birds, then penguins fly" is valid but not true

40. What does it mean if an argument is unsound?

Answer: An argument is unsound if it is invalid or has one or more false premises.
Example: "All dogs are reptiles; Rex is a dog; therefore, Rex is a reptile" is unsound

41. What is the law of identity in formal logic?

Answer: The law of identity states that a thing is identical to itself (A = A).
Example: "A chair is a chair" follows the law of identity

42. What is an example of an invalid deductive argument?

Answer: An invalid deductive argument is one where the conclusion doesn't logically follow
from the premises.
Example: "All birds can fly; penguins are birds; therefore, penguins can fly" is invalid

43. What is meant by "distribution" of terms in propositions?

Answer: Distribution refers to whether the terms in a proposition apply to all members of a
class (distributed) or only some members (undistributed).
Example: In "All cats are animals," the subject "cats" is distributed

44. How is logic applied in computer science?

Answer: Logic is used in computer science for developing algorithms, programming
languages, and artificial intelligence by structuring valid reasoning processes.
Example: Boolean logic is the foundation of digital circuit design in computers

45. What is a contradictory opposition of propositions?

Answer: Contradictory opposition occurs when two propositions differ both in quantity and
quality, such as "All men are wise" and "Some men are not wise."
Example: "All swans are white" (A) and "Some swans are not white" (O) are contradictories

46. What are subaltern propositions?

Answer: Subaltern propositions have the same subject and predicate but differ in quantity. If
the universal is true, the particular is also true.
Example: "All dogs are mammals" (A) implies "Some dogs are mammals" (I)

47. Why is formal logic important?

Answer: Formal logic is important because it provides a systematic way to assess arguments
based on their structure, helping distinguish valid from invalid reasoning.
Example: A computer scientist uses formal logic to verify the correctness of algorithms

48. What does it mean for a proposition to be distributed?

Answer: A proposition is distributed when it refers to all members of the class it describes.
Example: In "No dogs are reptiles," "dogs" is distributed because it refers to all dogs

49. What is the relationship between inference and implication?

Answer: Implication is the logical connection between premises and conclusion, while
inference is the process of drawing the conclusion from the premises.
Example: "If all men are mortal, then Socrates is mortal" is an implication, and drawing that
conclusion is inference

50. What is the nature of logic as an art and a science?

Answer: Logic is both an art because it involves skill in reasoning and a science because it
systematically studies principles of valid reasoning.
Example: A philosopher applies the art of logic to analyze ethical arguments

Here are 15 questions and answers based on Chapter Two: Concept, Term, Division, and
Proposition, with an example provided for each:

51. What are the three parts of language from a linguistic point of view?
Answer: The three parts of language are terms, propositions, and syllogisms.
Example: The term "dog" forms part of the proposition "The dog is barking," which can be
used in the syllogism, "All dogs bark; this is a dog; therefore, it barks"(Chapter one-logic).

52. What are the three stages of thinking according to the operations of the
mind?
Answer: The three stages of thinking are simple apprehension (concept formation),
judgment (formation of propositions), and reasoning (formation of arguments).
Example: Seeing a tree involves simple apprehension; stating "the tree is tall" involves
judgment, and concluding "all tall trees provide good shade" involves reasoning(Chapter one-
logic).

53. What is simple apprehension in logic?

Answer: Simple apprehension is the act of the mind where one becomes aware of something
or forms an idea, notion, or impression of it.
Example: When you see a dog, the mental image that forms in your mind is an example of
simple apprehension(Chapter one-logic).

54. What is the difference between natural and artificial signs?

Answer: A natural sign has significative power from nature itself, like smoke signifying
fire. An artificial sign derives its meaning from customs or conventions, such as a red traffic
light indicating 'stop.'
Example: Smoke rising from a chimney is a natural sign of a fire, while a red traffic light is
an artificial sign telling drivers to stop(Chapter one-logic).

55. What is the concept of "extension" in logic?

Answer: Extension refers to the totality of things in which the attributes suggested by the
concept are found.
Example: The extension of the concept "animal" includes humans, cats, dogs, etc., as they all
share the attribute of being living creatures with sense perception(Chapter one-logic).

56. What is comprehension in logic?

Answer: Comprehension refers to the attributes and qualities that define a concept.
Example: The comprehension of the concept "human" includes attributes such as "rational"
and "living being"(Chapter one-logic).
57. How are comprehension and extension related?
Answer: According to Aristotle, comprehension and extension are inversely related: as the
comprehension of a term increases, its extension decreases, and vice versa.
Example: If we increase the comprehension of "animal" by adding "rational," the extension
decreases, limiting it to humans(Chapter one-logic).

58. What are the three kinds of beings that a concept can signify?
Answer: A concept can signify a real being (e.g., human, stone), a possible being (e.g., a
future mango tree from a seed), or a being of reason (e.g., a winged horse).
Example: The concept of "unicorn" represents a being of reason, as it does not exist in reality
but can be conceived by the mind(Chapter one-logic).

59. What is abstraction in the context of universality?

Answer: Abstraction is the process of deriving a universal concept from particular instances
by focusing on their common attributes.
Example: From observing various individual men and women, we abstract the concept of
"human," a universal applicable to all people(Chapter one-logic).

60. What is predicability?

Answer: Predicability is the logical operation that follows from the universality of concepts,
where terms can be predicated of subjects in propositions.
Example: "Man" is predicated of "John" in the statement, "John is a man," applying the
universal concept to an individual(Chapter one-logic).

61. What is the difference between genus and species in logic?

Answer: Genus is a general class that contains multiple species, while species is a class of
beings sharing the same nature.
Example: "Animal" is the genus, and "dog" is the species, as dogs are a subclass of animals
(Chapter one-logic).

62. What is a specific difference (differentia)?

Answer: A specific difference is the attribute that distinguishes one species from another
within a genus.
Example: The attribute "rational" distinguishes humans from other animals, making it the
specific difference of the species "human"(Chapter one-logic).

63. What is an abstract term?

Answer: An abstract term refers to a quality without reference to a specific individual or
thing.
Example: The term "honesty" is abstract because it refers to the quality of being honest
without pointing to a specific individual(Chapter one-logic).

64. What is a concrete term?

Answer: A concrete term refers to a thing possessing certain qualities.
Example: "Dog" is a concrete term because it refers to an actual object with qualities like fur
and four legs(Chapter one-logic).

65. What is the difference between absolute and relative terms?

Answer: An absolute term has meaning independently, while a relative term depends on its
relation to another concept.
Example: "Teacher" is a relative term because it implies the existence of students, while
"tree" is an absolute term, needing no relation to another concept(Chapter one-logic).
66. What is logical division?
Answer: Logical division is the division of a class into its individuals or a genus into its
species, ending with the lowest species, the infima species.
Example: Dividing "government" into "democratic," "monarchical," and "dictatorial" is a
logical division of various forms of government(Chapter one-logic).

67. How can we distinguish between a logical division and a physical division?
Answer: A logical division is predicable of its parts, meaning each part still belongs to the
whole class. A physical division, on the other hand, divides a whole into its parts, which do
not belong to the whole anymore.
Example: Dividing "animals" into "mammals" and "reptiles" is a logical division, while
dividing a "car" into its "engine" and "wheels" is a physical division(Chapter one-logic).

68. What is metaphysical division?

Answer: Metaphysical division analyzes a thing into its attributes, dealing with the nature of
the thing.
Example: Analyzing a human into "animality" and "rationality" is a metaphysical division
(Chapter one-logic).

69. What is the difference between division and classification?

Answer: Division is a descending process, breaking down a genus into species, while
classification is an ascending process, grouping species into a higher genus.
Example: Dividing "mammals" into "dogs" and "cats" is division; grouping "dogs" and
"cats" under "mammals" is classification(Chapter one-logic).

70. What is the first rule for a proper logical division?

Answer: The division must be exhaustive, meaning all subclasses or species into which a
genus is divided must be logically equal and co-extensive with the genus.
Example: Dividing "animals" into "mammals," "birds," and "reptiles" is exhaustive because
it covers all species(Chapter one-logic).

71. What is the second rule for logical division?

Answer: The species must exclude one another to avoid overlapping within the genus.
Example: Dividing the human race into "Indians" and "Americans" is proper, but including
"Conservatives" and "Liberals" would overlap, as a person could be both(Chapter one-logic).

72. What happens if a logical division violates the rule of foundation

(fundamentum divisionis)?
Answer: Violating this rule leads to cross division, where two different principles of division
are used simultaneously.
Example: Dividing philosophies into "Platonist," "Kantian," and "Empirical" combines two
principles—historical thinkers and theories of knowledge, causing a cross division(Chapter
one-logic).

73. What is division by dichotomy?

Answer: Division by dichotomy involves dividing a class into two mutually exclusive
categories, marked by a differentia and its negation.
Example: Dividing "animals" into "rational" (humans) and "non-rational" (all other animals)
is an example of dichotomy(Chapter one-logic).

74. What are the elements of a proposition?

Answer: A proposition consists of three elements:
 Subject (S): What the statement is about.
 Predicate (P): What is affirmed or denied about the subject.
 Copula: The verb connecting the subject and predicate.
Example: In the proposition "The dog is barking," "dog" is the subject, "barking" is the
predicate, and "is" is the copula(Chapter one-logic).

75. What distinguishes a proposition from a sentence?

Answer: All propositions are sentences, but not all sentences are propositions. Only
declarative (affirmative or negative) sentences can be propositions.
Example: "The sky is blue" is a proposition, while "Is the sky blue?" (interrogative) is not
(Chapter one-logic).

76. What is a categorical proposition?

Answer: A categorical proposition is an unconditional statement where the predicate is
either affirmed or denied of the subject.
Example: "Rome is the capital of Italy" is a categorical proposition(Chapter one-logic).

77. What is a hypothetical proposition?

Answer: A hypothetical proposition is a conditional statement, where the truth of one
statement depends on the truth of another.
Example: "If it rains, then the ground will be wet" is a hypothetical proposition(Chapter one-
logic).

78. What is the difference between a universal affirmative (A) and a universal
negative (E) proposition?
Answer: A universal affirmative (A) asserts that the predicate applies to all members of the
subject class, while a universal negative (E) asserts that no member of the subject class has
the predicate.
Example:
 Universal affirmative (A): "All men are mortal."
 Universal negative (E): "No men are perfect"(Chapter one-logic).

79. What is the distribution of terms in a universal affirmative (A)

proposition?
Answer: In a universal affirmative (A) proposition, the subject is distributed (applies to all
members of the subject class), but the predicate is not.
Example: In "All textbooks are useful," "textbooks" (subject) is distributed, but "useful"
(predicate) applies only to some things, not all(Chapter one-logic).

80. What is the purpose of reducing propositions to logical form?

Answer: Reducing propositions to logical form ensures clarity by clearly showing the
subject, predicate, and copula, as well as indicating the quantity and quality
(universal/particular, affirmative/negative).
Example: The sentence "Most people aren’t interested in philosophy" would be rewritten as
"Some people are not interested in philosophy" in logical form(Chapter one-logic).