THE MORAL AGENT

CULTURE
Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values, attitudes,
hierarchies religions and more concepts of the universe, and material possessions acquired
by a group of people in the course of generations.
CULTURE ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
People learn moral aspects of right and wrong from transmitters of culture. Respective
parents, teacher, novels, films and etc…
A culture is ‘a way of life’ of a group of people and this actually include moral values and
behaviors
MORAL STANDARDS AS SOCIAL CONVENTION AND THE SOCIAL CONDITIONING THEORY
Among theories explaining basic ethical concepts like moral rules and accountability are
'social convention' and 'social conditioning' theories, which suggest we learn morality
through cultural and social influences
THEORIES EXPLAINED...
Some theories view moral laws as social conventions or products of social conditioning,
shaped by cultural and educational influences. Richard Robinson described conscience as
societal taboos and compulsions.
This theory suggests that our sense of right and wrong comes from society. When society
disapproves of certain actions, people, especially children, start to feel bad about those
actions.
The philosopher C.S. Lewis offers two reasons for saying that morality belongs to the same
class as mathematics (Lewis, 1943, p. 28-31)
CONCERNING THE SOCIAL CONDITIONING THEORY
According to 'social conditioning theory,' when people say an action 'ought' or 'ought not' to
be done, they're not just repeating social approval or disapproval. Sometimes, despite
cultural conditioning, individuals feel a moral duty to act differently.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Is perhaps the most famous for moral relativism, a theory in ethics which holds that ethical
judgments have their origins either in individual or cultural standards
the most dominant form of moral relativism, defines “moral” as what is “socially approved”
by the majority in a particular culture
MORAL RELATIVISM
Submits that different moral principles apply to different persons or group of individuals.
When the recognize standards is a particular agent, the relativist theory is very much
compatible with moral subjectivism. If the considered basis given society, the relativist
ideology is typically referred to as cultural relativism
According to the theory, there is no “universal truth” in ethics
CULTURAL RELATIVISM: AN ANALYSIS
Cultural relativism positively warns against being judgmental as it reminds us that some of
our beliefs and practices are mere conventional, and thus not absolutely and exclusively
correct
Cultural relativism discourages analytical thinking and independent decision-making in ethics
as it requires unsuspecting compliance and subscription to social norms
Rachel’s evaluation of cultural relativism. The late philosophy-professor James Rachels
(1941-2003) made a compelling assessment of cultural relativism.
The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas the callatians (an Indian bribe)
believed it was right to eat the dead.
ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING
-Culture has a major impact on morality, people from different cultures appear to gave
seemingly, but not essentially, different sets of ethics
-One of the differences between eastern (Asian) and western ethics is the fact that Western
Ethics is basically about finding truth, whereas Eastern Ethics is very much about the
protocol and showing respect
7. Filipino Moral Character: Strengths and Weaknesses
6 BASIC FILIPINO VALUES
1. PAKIKISAMA- is having and maintaining ‘good public relations’. It characterizes both
a value and a goal that involves keeping good feelings in all personal interactions and
getting along with others, oftentimes, at all costs. Just like other Filipino Values,
however ‘pakikisama’ can work either positively or destructively.
2. HIYA - described as feeling of lowliness, shame or embarrassment, and inhibition or
shyness.
3. AMOR PROPIO- Is derived from the concept of ‘face’. Although commonly translated
as ‘self-respect’ or ‘self esteem’
4. UTANG NA LOOB - Is likewise a fundamental aspect of upholding group harmony
and relationships that demand the balancing of obligations and debts.
5. FILIPINO HOSPITALITY - Refers to the innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be
courteous and entertaining to their guest. Filipinos are internationally known to be
warm, welcoming, and accommodating.
6. RESPECT TO ELDERS - We, Filipinos, are not only respectful to elder but also have
unique ways of expressing this respect to elders. These include the use of ‘po’ and
 ‘opo” when talking to elders and ‘pagmamano’ or the putting of the elders hands to
one’s forehead.
UNIVERSAL VALUES - By universal values, we mean those values generally shades by
cultures. The existence of the so-called universal values is a strong proof that cultural
relativism is wrong.
- Giving value on telling truth, for instance, is indispensable in the existence of a
society, for without it there would be no reason to pay attention to what anyone
communicates with anyone.

LESSON 2:
Developing Virtue as Habit
MORAL CHARACTER – refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage,
fortitude, honesty, and loyalty
1. MORAL CHARACTER AND VIRTUES - The term “character” is derived from the Greek
word ‘charakter’ which was initially used as a mark impressed upon a coin. The word
character later came to mean a distinct mark by which one thing was distinguished
from others, and then chiefly to mean the assemblage of qualities that distinguish
one person from another.
In the beginning of BOOK II OF THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS, there are two distinct of human
excellences (Aristotle)
1. excellences of thought
2. excellences of character
According to Aristotle, the excellences of (mortal) character ‘ethikai aretai’ is often
translated as “mortal virtue(s)” and “moral excellence(s)”. The Greek ‘ethikos’ (ethical) is the
adjective cognate with ‘ethos’ (character).

2. THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS AND CHARACTER

In the process of moral development, there is the circular relation between acts that build
character and moral character itself. The sense of human flourishing is attained by the
habitual practice of moral and intellectual excellences, or ‘virtues’.
3. MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITIONS
The moral character trats that constitute a person’s moral character are
characteristically understood as behavioral and affective dispositions. Dispositions are
particular kinds of properties or characteristics that objects can possess. Examples:
 elasticity of a rubber band, solubility of a sugar-cube in water, fragility of porcelain, and
magnetism of a loadstone.
4. SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT-The American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
(1927-1987) is best known for his theory of stages of moral development. In principle, he
agreed with the Swiss clinical psychologist Jean Piaget's (1896 1980) theory of moral
development but wanted to develop his ideas further
Kohlberg employed Piaget's storytelling technique to tell stories involving moral dilemmas.
In each case, Kohlberg offered an option to be considered, for example, between the rights
of some authority and the needs of some deserving person who is being unfairly treated.
One of his best known stories concerns a man called Heinz
Kohlberg pinpointed three distinct levels of moral reasoning each with two sub stages
composing his so called six stages of moral development. He believed that people can only
pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the kind of reasoning
typical of the previous stage. Some do not achieve all the stages

Level 1 - Pre-conventional morality Stage

1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation Stage
2. Individualism and Exchange
Level 2 - Conventional morality Stage
3. Good Interpersonal Relationships Stage
4. Maintaining the Social Order
Level 3 - Post-conventional morality Stage
5. Social Contract and Individual Rights Stage
6. Universal Principles

5. Getting to the Highest Level, Conscience-Based Moral Decisions Another way to view
Kohlberg's stages, especially when combined with Piaget's theory, is as follows ("Kohlberg's
Stages of Moral Development," n.d.):
Stage 1: Respect for power and punishment A young child (age 1-5) chooses what to do
what is right according to what he/she wants to do and can do without getting into trouble.
"Might makes right."
Stage 2: Looking out for #1 Children (age 5-10) are disposed to be egotistic or self-serving.
"What's in it for me?"
Stage 3: Being a "Good Boy" or "Nice Girl." "I want to be nice.
Stage 4: Law and order thinking. " The motto here is: "I'll do my duty."
Stage 5: Justice through democracy In this stage, people understand the underlying moral
purposes that are supposed to be served by laws and social customs. "I'll live by the rules or
try to change them."
Stage 6: Deciding on basic moral principles by which you will live your life and relate to
everyone fairly In this stage, rare people have evaluated many values and have rationally
chosen a philosophy of life that truly guides their life. highest level, conscience- based moral
decisions.
6.Problems with Kohlberg's Theory It must be noted, nonetheless, that not all ethicists
accept Kohlberg's theory on moral development.