Environmental Pollution 344 (2024) 123387

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Pollution
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envpol

Review

Nexus of food waste and climate change framework: Unravelling the links
between impacts, projections, and emissions☆
Sunita Varjani a, Shaili Vyas b, Junjie Su a, Muhammad Ahmar Siddiqui a, c, Zi-Hao Qin a,
Yahui Miao a, Ziyao Liu a, Shraya Ethiraj a, Jin-Hua Mou a, Carol Sze Ki Lin a, *
a
School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong, Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China
b
Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Melbourne, Victoria, 3122, Australia
c
Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Control & Treatment of Heavy Metal Pollution, The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology, Clear
Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This communication explores the intricate relationship between food waste and climate change, considering
Climate change aspects such as impacts, projections, and emissions. It focuses on the pressing issue of waste generation and its
Food waste management potential consequences if current trends persist, and emphasises the importance of efficient solid waste man­
Greenhouse gases
agement in improving environmental quality and fostering economic development. It also highlights the chal­
Food security
Sustainable development goals
lenges faced by developing countries in waste collection and disposal, drawing comparisons with the waste
utilisation methods used by developed nations. The review delves into the link between food waste and climate
change, noting the paradoxical situation of food wastage against the backdrop of global hunger and malnutrition.
It underscores the scientific evidence connecting food waste to climate change and its implications for food
security and climate systems. Additionally, it examines the environmental burden imposed by food waste,
including its contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and the depletion of resources such as energy, water, and
land. Besides environmental concerns, this communication also highlights the ethical and socioeconomic di­
mensions of food waste, discussing its influence on Sustainable Development Goals, poverty, and social
inequality. The communication concludes by advocating for collective action and the development of successful
mitigation strategies, technological solutions, and policy interventions to address food waste and its climate
impacts. It emphasises the need for collaboration, awareness, and informed decision-making to ensure a more
sustainable and equitable future.

1. Introduction remaining 15% from non-fossil fuels, perceived as cleaner, still con­
tributes to emissions, recognizing potential environmental impact
Rapid industrialisation worldwide has led to a significant increase in (Abraham et al., 2020).
annual waste generation. The composition of waste, including food The efficient management and handling of solid waste are essential,
waste, glass waste, leather waste, rubber waste, plastic waste, and paper as they offer crucial information regarding waste disposal. Proper solid
waste, varies significantly across different countries because of diverse waste management can enhance urban environmental quality, foster
lifestyles, industrial structures, and waste management regulations economic development, and raise awareness regarding hygiene and
(Abdel-shafy and Mansour, 2018). In countries with higher energy health issues arising from improper waste handling (Yukalang et al.,
consumption demands, economic growth tends to be more pronounced. 2017). Municipal solid waste management (MSWM) deals with
At present, global energy consumption is 542 quadrillion British thermal non-hazardous waste from markets, hospitals, industries, and street
units, with a projected increase of 50% by 2050 (Zahoor et al., 2021). sweeping as well as regular waste from residents. Tackling waste is an
Globally the fossil fuels contribute 85% of energy consumption, ac­ important issue in emerging economies that are expanding quickly.
knowledges for significant greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, while the Waste generation, separation, recycling, collection, transportation, and

☆
This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Christian Sonne.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (C.S.K. Lin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123387
Received 31 October 2023; Received in revised form 22 December 2023; Accepted 16 January 2024
Available online 17 January 2024
0269-7491/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Varjani et al. Environmental Pollution 344 (2024) 123387

treatment of final waste are important MSWM activities (Asibey et al., materials, mitigation of nutritional loss, and recycling of uneatable
2019). Improper MSWM can lead to issues affecting human health, re­ peels, among other aspects. The other subtype is nutrient recovery,
sources, and the environment, such as insect and rodent proliferation, which focuses on methods such as anaerobic digestion, composting, and
water and land contamination, air pollution, and other climatic concerns treatment of rotten food. Energy recovery focuses on biofuels, inedible
(Singh, 2019). Large-scale climatic challenges which are caused by food (e.g., dead animals), and mixed waste. Disposal is aimed at mini­
humans or environment, can escalate into global crises, putting at risk of mising waste disposal when feasible, particularly landfilling and incin­
essential services like electricity, healthcare, and transportation if not eration recovery (Ren et al., 2018; Lee et al., 2017) which not only
properly addressed (Singh and Basak, 2018; Sharma et al., 2021). exacerbate issues of food security but also considerably affect the bal­
Recently, the world has been confronted with an escalating global ance of Earth’s climate systems. The relationship between food waste
challenge of climate change. Its far-reaching consequences affect diverse and climate change has become increasingly evident from accumulating
ecosystems, societies, and economies worldwide (Bos and Gupta, 2018). scientific evidence (Peng and Pivato, 2019). The effects of climate
As the scientific community underscores the severity of this crisis, ur­ change on food waste manifest in different ways, affecting biodiversity,
gent attention is being focused on identifying and tackling its intricate manufacturing and processing, health and cognitive outcomes, &
drivers (Komilis et al., 2017). The quantity of waste generated has a transport and retail. Climate change leads to various adverse phenom­
direct impact on climate change, with food waste emerging as one of the ena, such as nutrient loss, reduced shelf life, yield losses, water borne
main causes of the problem. As shown in Fig. 1, the food waste chain is diseases, poor dietary habits, livelihood stress, droughts, heatwaves, and
linked to various phases for sustainability and resource recovery. The floods, as shown in Fig. 2. The nexus between climate change and global
food waste management process commences with the separation of food warming already exerts comparable impacts on the efficiency of food
waste into surplus food and food waste. Surplus food includes categories production and its global value. However, in general, it is challenging to
such as human redistribution (reuse H) and prevention, with the former distinguish the effects of climate change and global warming from the
involving human distribution, restaurant food, and canned food and the other variables influencing livestock and crop production.
other one focusing on resource reduction and all eatable foods. Reuse A The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has initiated a sys­
entails the reuse of animal feed, energy and nutrition recovery, material tematic capacity-building programme including online learning initia­
recycling, and disposal. Reuse A is focused on inedible food, defective tives, technical support tasks, and regional training events to address
food, and animal feed. Material recycling focuses on the recovery of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). However, there remains a

Fig. 1. Link between food resources, food waste, and surplus food in material recycling (Reuse H: Human distribution; Reuse A: Animal feed. The goal is to first
minimise surplus food, followed by reuse for human consumption. Food waste is considered for reuse for animal feed (reuse A), prioritised over material recycling).

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Fig. 2. Correlation between climate change, food waste, and their impacts on various stages of food production and subsequent health outcomes.

dearth of information on specific SDG metrics, such as the total number change is anticipated to have significant consequences across the board.
of countries covered and data available per country (Peng and Pivato, For example, the Arctic region is experiencing a warming rate of at least
2019; Sadhukhan et al., 2018). Only a few nations conduct surveys of twice that of the rest of the world, and the melting of glaciers is signif­
farms or households, produce inventories of forests, or evaluate fish icantly contributing to the global sea-level rise. Thus, this region rep­
supplies (Mu et al., 2017; Slorach et al., 2019). Additionally, they resents one of the most vulnerable ecosystems to climate change impacts
frequently fail to collect essential information required for critical food (Rantanen et al., 2022). Several organisms exhibit the ability to adapt to
and agricultural metrics. By promoting the collection of such informa­ climate change, as evidenced by the early blossoming of certain plants
tion, the number of countries covered in SDG monitoring can be and the potential global expansion of certain species. However, because
increased (Yang et al., 2020). of the stress imposed by rising temperatures and shifting precipitation
This review paper aims to comprehensively describe the complex patterns, these modifications are occurring too rapidly for numerous
relationship between food waste and climate change by drawing on a organisms (Trottet et al., 2021; Wells et al., 2020). Climate change may
wealth of scientific research, data-driven insights, and case studies. It also facilitate the wider spread of undesirable or invasive species, such
seeks to highlight the multifaceted impact of food waste on global as ticks and lionfish. The marine environment is also undergoing
climate dynamics, biodiversity loss, water scarcity, and land degrada­ transformations. In addition to the shrinking of ice caps and glaciers,
tion, while also exploring its socioeconomic consequences, including heat expansion is contributing to rising sea levels, increasing the risk of
intersections with hunger, food insecurity, and economic inefficiencies. damage and coastal flooding. These alterations in habitats result from
Delving into the core of this pressing global challenge, the review various aspects of climate change (Gobler, 2020). In particular, coral
identifies and evaluates successful mitigation strategies, innovative reefs are susceptible to a variety of climate change impacts, including
technological solutions, and transformative policy interventions that coral bleaching due to warmer waterways, more powerful hurricanes
have the potential to curtail food waste and address its adverse climatic that can obliterate reefs, and sediment suffocation induced by rising sea
impacts. Emphasising the need for collective action, it urges stake­ levels. Coral reefs are home to thousands of organisms that rely on these
holders at all levels to unite in combating food waste and forging a ecosystems for their survival.
sustainable, climate-resilient future. Ultimately, this review aims to
inspire greater awareness, collaboration, and informed decision-making 2.1.2. Society
to address this urgent issue and pave the way towards a more equitable Global trends in inequality and climate change are closely related.
and sustainable world for future generations. The most underprivileged and vulnerable people suffer the worst effects
of climate change, despite contributing the least to the situation (Mittal
2. Climate change impacts and projections et al., 2017). Millions of disadvantaged individuals find themselves
disproportionately affected by the consequences of climate change,
2.1. Current impacts including extreme weather; health issues; food, water, and livelihood
security; migration and forced displacement; and loss of cultural identity
2.1.1. Environment (Edmonds et al., 1992). Female-headed households, youngsters, in­
While not all organisms and ecosystems are affected equally, climate dividuals with disabilities, tribal and ethnic minorities, homeless

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populations, migrant workers, refugees, sexual and gender minorities, that negative impacts are substantially greater in poorer, hotter, and
seniors, and various other socially marginalised groups are especially lower-lying countries (Tol, 2018). Food related emissions can be cat­
susceptible to emergencies. Their vulnerability stems from their egorised into four main components: livestock & fisheries, supply chain,
geographical, monetary, social, economic, cultural, and sexual statuses, land use, and crop production, as shown in Fig. 3. The increasing fre­
as well as disparities in their access to assets, amenities, decision-making quency of climate-related disruptions, coupled with the costs of adap­
power, and equity. Impoverished and disenfranchised communities are tation and mitigation measures, can hinder economic growth and
urging for more resolute responses to climate change. Climate change long-term development (Diacono et al., 2019).
represents not only a natural calamity but also a societal crisis,
compelling us to confront injustices on multiple fronts, including those 2.2. Projected impacts
pertaining to gender, age, and the global divided between economically
strong and weak nations. To promote development outcomes, the 2.2.1. Environment
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has emphasised the Based on available reports future climate change projections un­
necessity for climate change solutions that adhere to distributive and derscore the urgency of action. Under different emission scenarios,
procedural justice concepts (Jones et al., 2023). global temperatures are projected to rise significantly, leading to the
further melting of polar ice and rising sea levels (Franca and Bassin,
2.1.3. Economy 2020; Gobler, 2020). Coastal regions, including densely populated cit­
While there were some positive effects of climate change in the early ies, are expected to face heightened risks of flooding and increased
stages, the uninterrupted increase in global temperatures is starting to exposure to storm surges. Biodiversity loss is projected to accelerate,
show negative externalities. Forecasts suggest that global income will with many species facing extinction or migration challenges due to
fall by 23% by 2100, and if mitigation efforts continue in the same changing habitats and limited adaptive capacity (Simatele et al., 2017).
manner as in the past, earnings inequality will worsen. An annual The cycle of biodiversity loss is projected to be unstoppable due to
slowdown of 0.28% in the growth of the world economy is the expected various influencing factors, such as biodiversity loss, low levels of flora
outcome. With food production accounting for about 26% of global and fauna, poor water and land management, high GHG emissions,
greenhouse gas emissions and non-food emissions accounting for the limited carbon capture storage, and low nutrient and soil moisture
remaining 74%, food production is notably notable as a significant levels, ultimately resulting in land degradation, as shown in Fig. 4.
contributor to GHG emissions (Malhi et al., 2021). It has been reported

Fig. 3. Schematic of greenhouse gas emissions in the food production process.

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Fig. 4. Schematic of biodiversity loss cycle due to climate change.

2.2.2. Society failures and changing distribution patterns, can lead to social unrest and
With rising temperatures, heat waves are expected to become more political instability (Mittal et al., 2017). Climate change contributes to
frequent and intense, threatening public health and labour productivity public health challenges, as the warming climate facilitates spread of
(Salimi et al., 2021). Water scarcity will exacerbate existing challenges infectious diseases and exacerbates existing health conditions (Gillett
in providing access to clean water and sanitation, leading to increased et al., 2003).
health risks and potential conflicts over resources. Food security will be
further compromised, particularly in regions already facing hunger and 3. Scientific methods for environmental footprint quantification
malnutrition, as changing climate patterns affect crop yields and food
production (Eden et al., 2017). Climate-induced migration is expected to Scientific methods such as life cycle assessments (LCAs), are used to
increase as people seek better living conditions in the face of environ­ quantify the environmental footprint of food waste. Footprint calcula­
mental degradation and natural disasters (Joseph and Prasad, 2020; tors, material flow analysis, and water footprint assessments are among
Yigitcanlar and Cugurullo, 2020). the tools used to assess resource consumption and environmental stress
(Mobtaker et al., 2021). Additionally, advanced technologies such as
2.2.3. Economy remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) enable the
Economic projections of climate change paint a concerning picture of monitoring and tracking of land use changes and habitat destruction
rising costs and potential losses in various sectors. Extreme weather associated with food waste (Amal et al., 2018). Integrating these sci­
events will pose significant financial burdens on governments and entific methods into research and policy-making allows for a holistic
businesses, requiring increased spending on disaster relief and recovery understanding of the environmental consequences of food loss and
(Margallo et al., 2019; Raggad, 2020). Agricultural productivity may guides the implementation of sustainable solutions (Varjani et al.,
decline in certain regions, leading to shifts in commodity markets and 2021).
food prices. However, Olivier and Greenstone (2007) have reported that Life Cycle Assessments: LCAs play a pivotal role in quantifying the
climate change may increase profits in agricultural sectors. Transition­ comprehensive environmental impact of food loss. By considering the
ing to a low-carbon economy and investing in climate-resilient infra­ entire lifecycle of food, from production to disposal, LCAs can evaluate
structure can present economic opportunities, creating green jobs and its environmental burdens (Lima et al., 2018). These assessments pro­
stimulating sustainable growth (Tomić and Schneider, 2018). Climate vide valuable insights into resource consumption, emissions, and envi­
change is interconnected with other pressing global challenges, forming ronmental stress associated with different food items (Istrate et al.,
complex feedback loops that exacerbate existing problems. Biodiversity 2020). Policymakers and stakeholders can identify environmental
loss, driven by climate change and other human activities, reduces the impact hotspots and develop targeted interventions to reduce food waste
resilience of ecosystems, rendering them more vulnerable to climate and its associated environmental footprint by conducting LCAs on spe­
impacts (Voigt et al., 2020). It has been reported that in the long run the cific food types, regions, and supply chains, (Arun and Dalai, 2020).
effects of climate change to be overall negative, it will likely have a
limited impact on the economy and human welfare in the shorter tun
(Tol, 2018). Food insecurity has been amplified by climate-induced crop

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4. Food waste and emissions environmental impact. Research indicates that food waste is responsible
for approximately 8% of global GHG emissions (Das et al., 2020). When
Food waste has emerged as a significant driver of GHG emissions, food is discarded, every resource used for its production, manufacturing,
exerting substantial stress on the Earth’s climate systems. Considerable transportation, preparation, and storage are similarly wasted. The loss
amount of GHGs are released in various stages of the food supply chain, and waste of food contribute significantly to the climate change
from production to consumption and disposal (Khan, 2020). dilemma due to their substantial GHG impact. Manufacturing, trans­
portation, and processing tasks release considerable amounts of CO2,
4.1. Food waste and GHG emissions and if the food ends up in landfills, it emits methane, a more potent GHG.
The connection between waste and loss of food and climate change is
Researchers have assessed the environmental impact of the food becoming increasingly acknowledged, as is the relationship between
industry by considering GHG emissions during food production (Iqbal climate change and its impact on agriculture and supply chain resilience
et al., 2022). These emissions include carbon dioxide (CO2) released (Vyas et al., 2022).
from fuel combustion and non-energy GHG emissions from animals and
soils. Food production involves a number of procedures, including 5. Environmental footprint of food waste
planting, harvesting, shipping, and storing. Waste from food results in
the waste of all the energy and resources used processes, which increases The consequences of food waste extend beyond GHG emissions, with
GHG emissions that are not essential (Siddiqui et al., 2022b). Huge land significant implications for essential environmental resources such as
is required for food production. Food waste unintentionally promotes water, land, and biodiversity (Pergola et al., 2018). This section
deforestation and changes land use patterns. These actions may comprehensively describes the broader environmental footprint of food
contribute to GHG emissions, releases carbon that has been stored in loss, using sophisticated methods and tools such as LCAs and scientific
plants and soil (Sindhu et al., 2019). Food waste undergoes anaerobic tools to quantify its effects on these critical aspects.
breakdown in landfills, where it produces methane which is a major
contributor to climate change because it has a global warming potential 5.1. Water usage
(Diacono et al., 2019).
Food waste imposes substantial stress on water resources throughout
4.2. Emissions at different stages of the food supply chain the food supply chain. Extensive quantities of water are employed across
multiple stages, spanning agricultural irrigation through food process­
4.2.1. Production stage ing and transportation. When food is wasted, not only the resources used
The production phase of the food supply chain, involving agricul­ for its production go to waste, but the considerable water footprint
tural activities such as livestock farming and crop cultivation, is associated with that food is also lost (Das et al., 2020). This depletion not
responsible for significant GHG emissions (Haltas et al., 2017). For only affects the availability of freshwater for human consumption but
instance, ruminant animals such as cattle(s) emit methane during also exacerbates water scarcity in regions facing water stress and
enteric fermentation, while rice paddies release methane due to anaer­ drought. Understanding the water footprint associated with food loss
obic conditions during cultivation. Furthermore, the use of synthetic plays a vital role in sustainable water resource management and
fertilisers and fossil fuels in agricultural practices leads to nitrous oxide ensuring water security for both human populations and ecosystems
emissions, another potent GHG (Xu et al., 2018). (Papong et al., 2017). The Water Footprint Network (WFN) has estab­
lished international norms for evaluating water usage, which have been
4.2.2. Processing and distribution stage applied to water footprint analysis. These norms describe an item’s
GHG emissions from food manufacturing consist of CO2 (from water usage footprint as the total amount of fresh water consumed
burning in cookers, boilers, and furnaces), CH4, and nitrogen oxides during production, whether directly or indirectly. According to the WFN
from wastewater treatment plants. Sugar, coconut oil, starch, and maize definition, the water footprint is composed of three sub-components:
cultivation are responsible for the majority of overall GHG emissions blue water, green water, and grey water, each representing various
from worldwide food manufacturing (Du et al., 2018). Nevertheless, types of water usage. Blue water in agriculture pertains to the wasteful
large-scale analysis of national food chains reveal that less than 15% of use of water obtained from surface or underground sources for irriga­
the energy consumption and GHG emissions associated with food items tion. Green water is the rainwater directly consumed and evaporated by
are attributable to transport (Crippa et al., 2021). non-irrigated farms, pastures, and woods. Green water consumption
exerts only minor environmental impact as it does not change hydro­
4.2.3. Consumption and retail stage logical processes (D’Ambrosio et al., 2020).
Energy use in various operations and tools employed in food retail,
including storage, preparation, preservation, and display, adds sub­ 5.2. Land use
stantially to GHG emissions. The last stages of food delivery, consump­
tion, and disposal, which primarily rely on consumer behaviour, are Land occupancy, in the context of food cultivation, refers to the
largely beyond the control of manufacturers (Davison et al., 2023; Jes­ amount of land surface utilized for growing crops and maintaining
wani and Azapagic, 2016). Merchants are encouraged to update their grassland. It also encompasses the area of land used for food production
power and environmental management procedures, with a focus on that goes to waste before reaching its final consumption stage. This
reducing emissions associated with refrigerants and adopting renewable metric offers several advantages, as it is quantified in a clear measure­
energy sources (Sadhukhan et al., 2018). Food preparation contributes ment unit, such as hectares (ha), and demonstrates relatively consistent
to GHG emissions owing to the energy used for cooking and refrigera­ values with minimal fluctuations (Nag et al., 2020). It allows us to
tion. Research indicates that home-based food preparation, cooking, and consider land, especially agricultural land, as a finite natural resource
storing contribute to 9% of direct GHG emissions in the UK food chain with a variety of conflicting uses (such as construction of buildings and
and 6% of emissions from catering operations (Haltas et al., 2017). roads). Evaluating land occupancy provides insight into the degradation
of this resource. Land use changes and conversion contribute to soil
4.3. Carbon footprint of food waste compared with other emission sources degradation, the loss of ecosystem services, and reduced agricultural
productivity. Quantifying the land use footprint of food waste enables us
Quantifying the carbon footprint of food waste in comparison with to comprehend its role in habitat destruction and its broader implica­
other major sources of emissions offers valuable insights into its tions for global biodiversity conservation (Mola-Yudego et al., 2017).

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5.3. Habitat destruction regionally, especially between urban and rural areas and between
economically advantaged and disadvantaged regions (Verfuerth et al.,
Food waste is intricately linked to habitat destruction, particularly in 2023). The most marginalised groups, such as children and women,
regions with high rates of food waste. The conversion of natural habitats withstand the worst of the impact of food waste and climate change on
to agricultural land to meet food demand can lead to the destruction of food systems (Fuller et al., 2022; Botreau and Cohen, 2020). Women,
critical ecosystems, pushing vulnerable species to the brink of extinction facing additional disadvantages, experience heightened vulnerability,
(Gholami et al., 2019). As food waste increases, so does the demand for such as unfair gender norms, economic destitution, and societal isola­
land, perpetuating the cycle of habitat destruction and biodiversity loss. tion, as limited access to timely information and extension services di­
Understanding the impact of food waste on habitat destruction is crucial minishes productivity and contributes to increased food waste in their
for designing effective conservation strategies and preserving the livelihoods (Quisumbing and Doss, 2021). However, gender disparities
planet’s rich biodiversity (Negri et al., 2020). in food security do not narrow as country income levels rise (Broussard,
2019). Furthermore, the combination of globalisation, urbanisation,
6. Socioeconomic consequences conflicts, pandemics, climate change, and systemic factors has made
inequality and gender gaps prevalent in every region and country (FAO
6.1. Economic costs and financial implications of food waste and UNICEF, 2023).

Food waste results in significant economic losses, encompassing 7. Mitigation strategies and policy approaches
material, energy, and labour costs, which limit employment opportu­
nities and access to sustenance (FAO, 2021; Tubiello et al., 2021a,b). In The acceleration of efforts to prevent and mitigate food waste is key
addition, the hidden costs of food waste, such as expenses related to against the backdrop of climate change, rising global hunger, and
combating climate change, healthcare, management and waste disposal, surging food prices so as to achieve the SDG 12.3 target and Global
are significant (Munir and Fadhilah, 2023; Springmann et al., 2021a,b). Biodiversity Framework goal, offering tangible benefits for both people
Therefore, the impact of food-waste-induced climate change extends to and the planet (United Nations Environment Programme, 2021; CBD,
declining GDP and rising commodity prices and reverberates throughout 2022). Various strategies can be adopted across industries and regions
agriculture-related sectors, posing challenges to food security and live­ for the prevention, mitigation, and management of food waste.
lihoods (Khan et al., 2020). Addressing the issue of food waste and its
interplay with climate change is becoming increasingly critical from an 7.1. Overall approaches and interventions to reduce food waste
economic standpoint, given global trends, including population growth,
rising incomes, shifting diets, and the potential impact of events such as 7.1.1. Circular economy approach
pandemics and conflicts (Iranmanesh et al., 2022). The circular economy model adheres to the natural ecosystem model
of matter and energy flow (Korhonen et al., 2018). Implementing the
6.2. Exacerbation of food security and nutrition issues by food waste circular economy framework to address climate change resulting from
food waste is crucial (Yang et al., 2023). This approach focuses on waste
As outlined in the UN SDGs, rapid action is required to ensure global reduction, resource reuse, and material recycling, aligning with the goal
food availability. SDG2 establishes aims for 2030 to eradicate hunger, of minimising the environmental impact of food waste (Sabol et al.,
ensure an adequate supply of food, enhance nutrition, and encourage 2023). The application of circular practices in food production, distri­
environmentally friendly farming. These are important global concerns bution, and consumption can reduce GHG emissions linked to food
that will necessitate global collaboration and policy reform (Drew­ waste, conserve energy and resources, and promote sustainability and
nowski, 2022; Fattibene et al., 2020). According to FAO projections, resilience in our food systems (Durán-Romero et al., 2020; Chioatto and
COVID-19 has resulted in an increase in malnutrition, with between 690 Sospiro, 2023). The development of a whole-lifecycle waste manage­
and 783 million people worldwide at risk of hunger in 2022, repre­ ment scheme for food production within the framework of the circular
senting an increase of 122 million people compared to the pre-COVID-19 economy has emerged as a research hotspot (Principato et al., 2019).
pandemic period (FAO and UNICEF, 2023). Achieving SDG2 for a LCA and material flow analysis are commonly used within the circular
hunger-free world will be challenging, considering the projected 4% economy framework to evaluate environmental impacts (Hamam et al.,
increase in worldwide food supply per person by 2030. Due to disparities 2021). Research has unveiled significant linkages between food systems,
in food accessibility, consumers in middle-income countries are ex­ sustainable development, and the circular economy, as depicted in Fig. 5
pected to increase their food consumption the most, whereas diets in (Kiss et al., 2019; Tseng et al., 2019). This observation underscores the
countries with low incomes will remain largely unchanged (Siddiqui systemic aspect of employing circular economy strategies to address the
et al., 2014; Clapp et al., 2022). This will have substantial consequences issues of food waste and climate change.
for malnourished and chronically starving communities, who are the
most vulnerable (Gross et al., 2019). Climate change and the increase in 7.1.2. Food system approach
severe weather events will have an even greater impact on food security, Agriculture and the food system play pivotal roles in global climate
as agricultural production will need to be relocated, causing immediate change responses (Reisch et al., 2021). With improved emission calcu­
oscillations in food supply (Wahbeh et al., 2022). Food safety in lations, integrated policies, and consideration of synergies and
food-importing nations and the rural economy in food-exporting coun­ trade-offs, the food system approach offers a comprehensive perspective
tries will continue to rely on commerce (Roubík et al., 2023; Kubatko on the impact of the food system on climate change, enabling more
et al., 2023). effective strategies and policy development (Beltran et al., 2022).
Combining supply-side actions, such as efficient production, transport,
6.3. Social equity issues and gender differences in food waste and processing, with demand-side interventions, such as the modifica­
tion of food choices and reduction of food loss and waste, can minimise
Food waste affects the availability and accessibility of food, leading GHG emissions and enhance food system resilience (Kugelberg et al.,
to inequitable pricing and distribution of food (Orgut and Lodree, 2023). 2021a,b). In this review, we have compiled existing knowledge on
This disparity can result in food insecurity, nutritional disparities, po­ food-system-based strategies for mitigating and adapting to climate
litical instability, and feedback effects on food waste such as change and outlined concrete measures to reduce food waste (Dora
gender-inclusion-related exacerbation of food waste (HLPE, 2023). et al., 2021; Mithun Ali et al., 2019a,b; Rosenzweig et al., 2020; Shukla
These inequalities, driven by food waste and climate change, vary et al., 2019). We distinguish between supply-side and demand-side

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Fig. 5. Aspects of the food system and circular economy (The numbers in the legend represent the number of contact points, which reflects importance; This figure
was prepared using the R software.

approaches and stress the importance of risk management (Mithun Ali 7.2. Technological innovations for food waste prevention and recovery
et al., 2019a,b). To effectively tackle food waste across the entire system,
a multifaceted approach is essential, involving policies, regulations, Innovative integrated biological approaches and intelligent tech­
economic interventions, and innovative tools. The food system includes nologies have been applied across several domains of the food supply
various components, each with the potential for climate change miti­ chain to prevent food waste (Martin-Rios et al., 2018a,b). Mobile apps,
gation and adaptation, as indicated in Table 1. Specifically, the table intelligent packaging, remote sensing, and GIS have contributed to
outlines the roles of each component of the food system and corre­ enhancing food quantification, traceability, and waste management
sponding aspects and measures aimed at reducing food waste from a (Onyeaka et al., 2023; Odion et al., 2023). Smart devices and digital
climate change response perspective. tools are being used to monitor food quality and safety throughout the
supply chain (Poli et al., 2023). Additionally, active nanomaterials and
7.1.3. Prevention and management biodegradable polymers produced from food waste and byproducts
The prevention and management of food waste within the food represent innovative tools to reduce food waste and minimise their
system are crucial. Preservation and traceability technologies hold sig­ environmental impacts (Siddiqui et al., 2022a; Zainal Arifin et al.,
nificant potential to address the root causes (Cassani and 2023). Moreover, recycled food waste can be converted into valuable
Gomez-Zavaglia, 2022). In addition, efforts to prevent food waste have products through processes such as thermochemistry, hydrolysis,
been extended to consumers, focusing on behaviour cognition and fermentation, and other advanced technologies to mitigate the impact of
emotional perception (Talwar et al., 2022). Table 2 provides compre­ waste on the environment and climate change (Roy et al., 2023).
hensive descriptions of food waste prevention measures at different
stages of the food system, identifying the social factors involved, such as 7.3. Policy measures and regulations to address food waste and climate
farmers, food manufacturers, cooperatives, stakeholders, and retailers. change
The interventions include efficient agricultural practices, optimised
production processes, improved inventory management, fair pricing, Numerous policies and regulations have been implemented globally
wholesale market management, reasonable market access standard, and to reduce food waste and address climate change. For example, the
waste diversion methods. Overall, Table 2 offers a comprehensive European Commission has formulated solutions based on food waste
overview of the strategies to prevent food waste across the entire food hierarchies, emphasising the establishment of a unified monitoring
system. system across member states (Giordano et al., 2020; Caldeira et al.,
2019). Various countries have enacted food waste laws, established

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Table 1 Table 2
Reduction measures of food-system-based waste for climate change mitigation. Food waste prevention strategies across the food system.
Roles in Food Aspects Measures Stages Social Factors Interventions
System
Food Cultivation Farmers Improved agricultural planning;
Supply Side Crop Management Soil Improvement; Pest and Residue Utilisation of entire harvest
Management; Ecological Practices; Governments Fair pricing; Wholesale market
Diversified Planting; Land Use Optimisation; management; Reasonable market
Tillage and Crop Establishment; access standard
Crop–Livestock Integration Cooperatives Cooperative farming and forecasting
Livestock Agroforestry Integration; Livestock Stakeholders Flexibility in size standards; Surplus
Management Innovation; Fattening Improvement; redistribution
Diversification; Feed Management; Methane Product Processors Efficiency in manufacturing;
Reduction; Thermal Stress Control; Health Processing Voluntary actions and regulations
and Parasite Management Governments Surplus management; Cost incentives
Supply Chain Food Storage Infrastructure; Supply Chain Primary Producers Collaborative plan to align production
Management Shortening; Improved Food Transportation with demand
and Distribution; Food Sector Sustainability; Industries and Pick-up routes; Complete harvest
Energy Efficiency; Food Waste Reduction; Distributors purchase; Food cold chain guarantee
Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture; Bioenergy Distribution Store Staff or Data-driven plan to optimise sales;
Utilisation Transportation Managers Donations programme; Staff training
Demand Side Demand Dietary Shifts; Food Resource Preservation; Local Compulsory donation protocols
Management Consumer Positivity; Packaging Reduction; Administrations
Innovative Marketing; Supply Chain Industry Partners Industrial collaboration
Transparency Retail Consumers Buyer education campaigns
Waste Sustainable Food Redistribution Initiatives; Governments Infrastructural improvements
Management Development of Novel Products; Retailers Retailer awareness about food waste
Conventional Waste Disposal Methods prevention; Label policies
Risk Management Early Warning Systems; Climate Risk Consumers Individuals Meal planning; Shopping list creation;
Preparedness; Reduction of Air Pollution and Sharing of leftovers; Preservation and
Acidification; Biodiversity Conservation; transformation of leftover food;
Bioenergy Production; Crop and Livestock Purchasing of less-perishable foods
Insurance; Emergency Management Canteens/Eateries/ Portion size reduction; Doggy bag
Cafeterias promotion; Surplus food
redistribution; Surplus food discounts;
appropriate market standards on food appearance and quality, devel­ Food donation
oped date labelling policies, and promoted new circular business models Schools Change in school dietary guidelines;
Flexible lunch portion sizes;
and tax incentives (Zucchella and Previtali, 2019; Khong and Goh, Education
2022). Social innovation initiatives, such as food banks, food rescue and Hospitals Flexible portion sizes; Selective menu
food surplus entrepreneur networks, can also help address food waste generation, additional nutritional
consequences (Huang and Tsai, 2021). Educational campaigns organ­ support; Better ordering and delivery
systems
ised by governments, NGOs, and other stakeholders, including the
Hotels Wider food choice reduction; Pre-
development of dietary guidelines and establishment of booster groups, booking services; Suggestion of
can inform and motivate consumers to take action against food waste serving portions; Food donation
(Rossi et al., 2023). Redistribution Stakeholders Collaboration and networking;
Awareness and trust building
Governments Formation of regulatory approvals
8. Challenges and future directions and laws; Administrative
simplification; Freezing protocols and
8.1. Interdisciplinary assessment donations
Management Governments and Landfilling; Composting;
Stakeholders Incineration; Animal feeding;
Recent research has highlighted the importance of interdisciplinary
Thermal treatment; Extraction;
studies to understand the complex relationship and consequences of Synthesis; Biorefinery; Biological
food waste and climate change (Conrad et al., 2018). The implementa­ conversion; Chemical conversion
tion of measures that transcend organisational, sectoral, or disciplinary
barriers is of utmost importance to foster societal awareness regarding
the necessity of reducing food waste (UNEP, 2021). Additionally, is crucial (Kleine Jäger and Piscicelli, 2021; Wahbeh et al., 2022). A
existing trade and investment agreements must be reevaluated with notable example of such collaboration is the establishment of a multi­
consideration for dietary healthiness and environmental sustainability stakeholder task force on food waste management in Kigali, Rwanda
(Burgaz et al., 2023). Furthermore, a comprehensive examination of (Malonza and Ortega, 2022). Additionally, when preparing policies
how interventions and management strategies for food waste contribute related to climate, biodiversity, and trade, it is important to incorporate
to social equity, ecological integrity, and economic viability requires measures that prioritise sustainable production, reduction of food loss,
systematic investigation across diverse fields such as economics, soci­ mitigation of food waste, and the promotion of healthy diets within
ology, ecology, and cognitive behaviour (Dora et al., 2021; Mokrane agrifood systems (Cherubini et al., 2023).
et al., 2023).
8.3. Digital transformation
8.2. Stakeholder engagement and collaboration
Digital transformation and cutting-edge automated approaches must
Effective collaboration and engagement among diverse stakeholders be leveraged to address the issues associated with food waste. Artificial
within the global community are essential. To advance food waste intelligence and digitalisation hold significant promise in facilitating the
reduction efforts and address climate change impacts, a collective shift toward a sustainable food system (Marvin et al., 2022; Wu and
approach involving governments, the private sector, civil society, Wen, 2023). At the household level, a digital information system can be
development agencies, research institutions, academia, and consumers used to precisely sort waste, thereby removing impurities from food

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S. Varjani et al. Environmental Pollution 344 (2024) 123387

waste and ensuring efficient processing in the treatment and valorisation Declaration of competing interest
stages (Crome et al., 2023). Furthermore, collaboration between waste
disposal technologies is important to address food byproducts (Dutta The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
et al., 2021). In addition, when designing policies/interventions in these interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
areas, long-term and effective digital monitoring programmes should be the work reported in this paper.
set up to quantify possible negative or unintended effects and implement
appropriate solutions (Corrado et al., 2019; Silvennoinen et al., 2019). Data availability

8.4. Risk management Data will be made available on request.

At present, food supply networks that possess a high level of Acknowledgements

complexity and operate on a global scale are vulnerable to environ­
mental fluctuations, such as trade wars and the COVID-19 (Deliberador This work described in this paper was fully supported by a grant from
et al., 2023a,b). Understanding the response mechanisms of food waste the Research Grant Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative
in the face of environmental unpredictability and the dynamics within Region, China (Project No. CityU C1105-20G), another grant from the
food systems is crucial. Different approaches to systemic risk result in European Union-Hong Kong Research and Innovation Cooperation Co-
different political agenda(s), and at least two different systemic risks funding Mechanism sponsored by the Research Grants Council of the
within the food system have been identified (Bernard de Raymond et al., Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. E-CityU
2021). Developing a robust methodology to identify the causal links 102/20), and by the Applied Research Grant of City University of Hong
between risks is of significance to food system risk management. Such Kong (project no. of 9667250).
methods can promote the formulation of tactics aimed at mitigating
hazards and minimising food waste (Mithun Ali et al., 2019a,b). References

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