SEC-A

1. A protocol is a set of rules and conventions that govern how data is transmitted and received in
computer networks, ensuring effective communication between devices.

2. The data link layer provides services like framing, error detection, and flow control to ensure reliable
point-to-point communication between neighboring network nodes.

3. Data communication is the exchange of data between two or more devices via a transmission
medium. Components include sender, receiver, transmission medium, protocol, and
hardware/software.

4. Asynchronous transmission sends data character by character with start and stop bits, allowing
flexible timing. Synchronous transmission sends data in continuous streams with a shared clock signal
for precise timing.

5. The Internet is a global network of interconnected computers and networks. It enables worldwide
communication, information sharing, and services, using protocols like TCP/IP, and supports web
browsing, email, and more.

SEC-B

1. A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices, such as computers and servers, that
can share data and resources. Types of networks include LANs (Local Area Networks) for small areas,
WANs (Wide Area Networks) for larger geographic regions, MANs (Metropolitan Area Networks) for
cities, and PANs (Personal Area Networks) for personal devices. Additionally, there are wireless
networks like WLANs (Wireless LANs) and cellular networks for mobile devices.

2. Topology refers to the physical or logical layout of devices in a network. Common types include:

- Star Topology: Devices connect to a central hub or switch.

- Bus Topology: Devices share a single communication line.

- Ring Topology: Devices form a closed loop.

- Mesh Topology: Every device connects to every other device.

- Hybrid Topology: A combination of two or more topologies.

3. Transmission media is the physical medium used to transmit data between devices. Types include:

- Twisted Pair: Uses twisted copper wires, with variations like UTP and STP.

- Coaxial Cable: Features a central conductor surrounded by insulation and a metallic shield.

- Fiber Optic: Uses light signals through glass or plastic fibers for high-speed and long-distance
transmission.

- Wireless: Utilizes electromagnetic waves for wireless communication, including radio waves,
microwave, and infrared.

Each type has its advantages and limitations, suitable for specific network requirements.

SEC-C

1. **OSI Model and TCP/IP Model Comparison:**

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and the TCP/IP model are both conceptual frameworks
used to understand and standardize network communication. They have similarities and differences:

OSI Model (7 layers):

1. **Physical**: Manages physical connections and bit-level transmission.

2. **Data Link**: Handles error detection, framing, and MAC addressing.

3. **Network**: Routes data packets using logical addressing (e.g., IP).

4. **Transport**: Provides end-to-end communication, e.g., TCP and UDP.

5. **Session**: Manages sessions and connections.

6. **Presentation**: Translates data formats and encryptions.

7. **Application**: Supports user applications and interfaces.

TCP/IP Model (4 layers):

1. **Link/Network Interface**: Combines functions of OSI's Physical and Data Link layers.

2. **Internet**: Similar to OSI's Network layer, handling routing and addressing.

3. **Transport**: Analogous to OSI's Transport layer, with TCP and UDP.

4. **Application**: Merges Session, Presentation, and Application layers.

 The key difference is that the OSI model has more layers for granularity, while the TCP/IP model is
more practical for internet protocols.

2. **Error Detection and Correction with Even Parity Hamming Code:**

To detect and correct errors in the received Hamming code (110001101), we can use the even parity
Hamming code. First, identify the erroneous bit by detecting the parity violation. In this case, the 9th bit
(1st bit of the code) violates even parity.

To correct the error, flip the erroneous bit. The corrected code becomes (111001101), matching the
transmitted code (111001101). Error correction in Hamming codes is possible because the position of
the error bit corresponds to a specific power of 2.

3. **Stop & Wait Protocol**:

- A simple, reliable data-link layer protocol.

- Sender transmits a frame, waits for an acknowledgment from the receiver.

- Inefficient for high-speed and long-distance links but easy to implement.

- Ensures data integrity but has low throughput due to waiting.

**Sliding Window Protocol**:

- Improves efficiency over Stop & Wait.

- Sender can transmit multiple frames before needing acknowledgment.

- Utilizes a window size to manage in-flight frames.

- Supports flow control and error recovery.

- More complex but suited for high-speed, long-distance communication.