International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) |Volume IX, Issue III, March 2022|ISSN 2321-2705

Landscaping Tribal Culture: Towards A Cultural

Landscape Approach in North-East India
Dr. Samhita Chaudhuri
Assistant Professor, Department of Geography, Bijoy Krishna Girls’ College, Howrah, India

Abstract: North-east India, being the home of numerous The study is mainly based on secondary sources like journals,
indigenous groups of people, always plays a point of attraction books and Census Reports of India. These sources are utilized
for anthropologists and social scientists all over the world. The for detailed analytical construct. Number of people in
land with magnificent natural beauty and cultural heritage also different racial groups and people speaking a particular
form an ideal destination for a large number of tourists every
language has been calculated in percentage to get a clear
year. As any natural landscape, when modified by culture group,
forms a particular cultural landscape; thus North-east India picture of proportion of people under each category.
provides a special type of cultural landscape if we look through North East India- Demographic Importance
the lenses of cultures and traditions of numerous indigenous
people of this region. The human-nature interaction gets a new This is the homeland of a large number of ethnic groups.
vista in this part of India. The present paper deals with some There are wide diversity in racial stock, language, socio-
facts regarding human and nature relationships which take part cultural traditions. The region plays an important transition
among various groups of tribal people in ecological setting of zone between India and its neighbouring countries like China,
North-east India to formulate a cultural landscape approach Tibet, Burma and Bangladesh. The physical features of
based on these human-nature interactions.
different tribes of North-East India suggest that the Australoid
Key Words:- Natural landscape, Tribes, Human-nature elements are present in some of the tribes. It has been stated
interaction, Cultural landscape that long ago one section of the Indo-Mongoloids spread over
I. INTRODUCTION the whole of the Bramhaputra valley, North Bengal and East
Bengal (now Bangladesh) giving rise to various tribal groups

T he north eastern region is surrounded by foreign

territories like Bhutan, Tibet, China, Burma, and
Bangladesh on the north, south and the east except for a long
inhabiting this region. The diverse Mongoloid groups in
course of time settled down in different habitats and
ecological settings of the north-eastern region crystallized into
narrow passage in the west which connects the region with distinct entities which are referred to as tribes today.
West Bengal and the rest of India. North East India occupies
an area of 255,000 sq km. This largely hilly area comprises III. CULTURAL LANDSCAPE
about 7 percent landmass of India with the Bramhaputra In 1925, Carl Sauer introduced the term „cultural landscape‟
valley of Assam is the most extensive plain area in North-East in an essay on „The Morphology of Landscape‟. He
India. This part of the country occupies a distinguishing place introduced the term to express the ways of life in a place. In
due to its geographical, historical, social, cultural and political his words, “the cultural landscape is fashioned from a natural
features. The region comprises seven states- Arunachal landscape by a culture group. Culture is the agent, the natural
Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland area is the medium, the cultural landscape is the result”
and Tripura. This is the homeland of a large number of ethnic (Sauer, 1925). In this way, he distinguished between natural
groups who came from different directions at different and social aspects of an area or a landscape and it may be
historical times. These groups belong to different racial introduced that landscapes are formed or natural land area and
stocks, speak different languages and have varied socio- shaped by human being with their history and culture.
cultural traditions. This region has been occupied by different
streams of the Mongoloid people who came from the north In other words, landscape of any form cannot arise
and the east at different periods. The Australoids came to this spontaneously rather it is the result of cultural beliefs and
region before the coming of the Mongoloids who partially or values of those who create the landscape. Thus, the landscape
fully absorbed the Australoid strains. refers to the look and style of the area or land which
developed through the socio-cultural interrelationship with
II. OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY nature. Hence, landscape does not only refers to mere the
The present research will focus on two objectives - 1] to house types, tree and road arrangements rather the socio-
describe the distribution of major tribes of North –East India cultural „significance‟ of makeup. Such a bridge between
nature and culture recognises that the present landscape is the
and 2] to find out the extent of linguistic parameter in framing
product of long-term and complex relationships between
a specific cultural landscape of this region.
human being and surrounding environment.

www.rsisinternational.org Page 59
International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) |Volume IX, Issue III, March 2022|ISSN 2321-2705

Major Tribes in North East States Tangkhul 15.30

Assam- In Assam, 23 tribal communities constituting about Kabui 8.90

12.28% of State‟s population are recorded during 2001 Mao 8.00
census. Among them important are- Boro or Kachari, Karbi,
Vaiphei& Zou 5.76
Koch-Rajbanshi, Mishing, Mishimi, Rabha and so on. Assam
may broadly be divided into Plain tribes and Hill tribes. The Paite 4.76
Plain tribes mainly inhabit the plain areas of the state and the State- Nagaland
hill tribes are mainly concentrated in the hilly areas. Boro Tribal groups Population in Percentage
Kacharis constitute the largest tribal group in Assam
constituting about 35 percent of the state‟s tribal population. Naga 97.47
Kuki 1.10
Arunachal Pradesh – This state is India‟s land of rising sun
Garo,
as it is situated on the easternmost tip of the country. Kachari,Mikir
0.91
Arunachal Pradesh shares its international boundary with State- Tripura
Bhutan, China and Burma and national border with Assam
and Nagaland. Most of its population is of Asiatic origin and Tribal groups Population in Percentage
shows physical affinities with the people of Tibet and Tripura,
Tripuri, 50.76
Mayanmar hill region. A large number of tribes and subtribes Tippera
are found in Arunachal Pradesh. Important among them are Riang 16.13
Adis, Nishi or Dafla, Sulung, Sherdukpen, Aka, Apatani,
Monpa etc. Jamatia 7.14
Chakma 6.84
Meghalaya - The state of Meghalaya has 7 administrative
districts namely West Garo Hills, East Garo Hills, West Khasi State- Sikkim
Hills, East Khasi Hills, Ri-Bhoi, South Garo Hills and the Tribal groups Population in Percentage
Jaintia Hills. The bulk of the people belong to three major Bhutia
tribal groups – the Khasis, the Garos, and the Syntengs (including
(Pnars) who are more popularly known as the Jaintias. The Chumbipa,
Dopthapa,
term Khasi is applied to the group of matrilineal and Mon- Dukpa,
Khmer speaking people who presently inhabit the East and the 33.73
Kagatey,
West Khasi Hills and the Jaintia Hills district of Meghalaya. Sherpa,
The Garo is a term used by others to refer to a particular group Tibetan,
Tromopa,
of people who are mainly concentrated in the Garo hills. The Yolmo)
term Jaintia is a generic term which includes the Limboo 26.02
Pnars/Synteng and other sub groups. While another section of
the population is made up of such other tribal groups as the Lepcha 20.79
Rabhas, the Hajongs, the Tiwas and the Koches, there is also a Tamang 18.27
sizeable number of non-tribals scattered in different parts of State- Mizoram
the state.
Tribal groups Population in Percentage
Table: Important Tribal Groups in North East States Mizo (Lushai)
70.93
tribes
State- Assam
Chakma 9.36
Tribal groups Population in Percentage
Pawi 4.96
Boro,
35.06
Borokachari Lakher 4.14
Miri 17.52 Hmar 2.86
Kachari, Lalung 11.22 Paite 2.24
Karbi 11.08 State- Arunachal Pradesh
Rabha 7.63 Tribal groups Population in Percentage
Garo 3.50 Nyishi 26.25
State- Manipur Galong 8.33
Tribal groups Population in Percentage Adi 7.13
Thadou 18.49 Tagin 6.61
Poumai&Kacha
16.58 Wancho 5.98
Naga

www.rsisinternational.org Page 60
International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) |Volume IX, Issue III, March 2022|ISSN 2321-2705

Apatani 4.60 Mon, Wokha, Phek Zunheboto, Kohima and Dimapur. The
Mishmi, Idu, predominant Naga tribes are the Angami, Ao, Chakesang,
3.38
Taroan Chang, Chirr, Konyak, Lotha, Khiamngam, Makware, Phom,
Nocte 3.64 Rengma, Sangtam, Sema, Yimchunger and the Zeliang.
Source: Census, 2011 Tripura - It is an ancient land, which has ever been a melting
pot for tribal and non-tribal cultures producing an exotic
Mizoram - Mizoram has the most variegated hilly terrain in cultural synthesis. The capital of Tripura, Agartala, is
the eastern part of India. Till 1972, it was just another district surrounded on three sides by hills. Tripura, a land-locked
of Assam and known as the Lushai Hills. There are, more or state, lies to the south-west of Assam, and to the east of
less, six to seven parallel ranges of hills from north to south, Bangladesh. This is a land of transition; satisfying
tending to be higher in the middle of the territory. The valleys compromise between the old order and the new; a fusion of
are hot and wet during the summer, but up in the hills it is styles and cultures of the hills and plains. Today, Tripura is
pleasant and cool. The Mizo are divided into several tribes – largely dominated by Bengali community which forms a
the Lusei, Pawis, Paites, Raltes, Pangs, Hmars etc. The major chunk of population, inspite of having a sizeable
present population is composed of 15 broadly divided population of Scheduled Tribes. The tribals, with a rich and
communities. Groups like the Ngente, Khiangte, Chawngthu, varied culture, belong mainly to the Reang, Chakma,
Renthlei, Zowngte and Khwlhring are no longer considered as Deobarma, Halam and Usai communities.
separate groups having identities of their own. The
communities that still maintain a sort of identity of their own IV. LANGUAGE – A PART OF CULTURE
are Lusei, Hmar, Paite, Pawi, Mara, Bawm, Tlau, Ralte, Pang,
A cultural landscape is a set of ideas and practices embedded
Hualngo and the Baite.
in a place. The „ideas and practices‟ are what make it cultural;
Manipur - Manipur was made an integral part of the Indian the „place‟ is what makes it a landscape. It is commonly
Union in 1949. Bounded by the states of Nagaland, Assam accepted that language is a part of culture. Language
and Mizoram, Manipur shares an international boundary on simultaneously reflects culture, and is influenced and shaped
the east with Myanmar. The Manipur valley was remote, by it. Generally two main linguistic sub-families exist in
inaccessible and existing in isolation and yet migratory North East India among its tribal population, which are
movements of Aryans from the west and Mongoloid people Austro-Asiatic group and Tibeto-Burman Group. Khasi is the
from south-east-Asia were evident through the terrain of the only group belonging to Austro-Aiatic group in this region,
valley. Manipur is inhabited by 29 communities of which 22 whereas the Tibeto-Burman family is widespread and
are Scheduled Tribes, (75.86 per cent as against the national represented by the Adi, Apatani, Boro, Chutia, Deuri, Garo,
average of 13.72 per cent). There are 3 distinct human Hajong, Kuki, Maran, Mech, Rabha, Tripuri etc. The other
conglomerates in this state. The Meiti as a population group groups are the Tai groups and the Indo-Aryan speakers.
alsoincludes the Loi, Pangal, Yaithibi and Thanga. The other
The members of a society can communicate through language
older group is the Naga consisting of the Kabui, Kacha,
which implies a system of mutually comprehensible verbal
Tangkhul, Mao, Maram, Marim and Tarao. The third group is
symbols. In anthropological terms as a part of culture,
the Kuki-Chin which includes the Gangte, Hmar, Paite,
language is also a historically consequent system of cognizant
Thadou, Vaiphei, Zou, Aimol, Chiru, Koiring, Kom, Anal,
and sub-conscious patterns shared and transmitted by the
Chote, Lamgang, Koirao, Thangal, Moyan and Monsang. The
members of a particular society. At the same time, language
two distinct parts of Manipur valley are dominated by the
as an exclusive component of communication can act in part
Meitei, Pangal, Loi and Yaithibi and immigrant groups like
as a code, in part as a symbolic organization of experience-
the Nepali and the hill area is inhabited by the Naga group and
which is interwoven with other cultural subsystems.
the otherby the Kuki Chin groups.
Furthermore, language performs a singular role in the process
Nagaland - The state consists of eight administrative districts, by which individuals and groups identify themselves and are
inhabited by 16 major tribes along with other subtribes. Each defined simultaneously by others. The rise of nationalism is
village of Nagaland has its own definitive population, area openly linked with question of linguistic status and linguistic
and administration. Not surprisingly Nagaland is sometimes boundaries (Friedrich P, 1962). Linguistic uniformity as one
described as a conglomeration of „village republics‟. Each of the quantifiable characteristics of nationalism (Karl
tribe is distinct in character from the other in terms of Deutsch, 1966).
customs, language and dress. the state is predominatly
This family of language is mainly spoken in the northern and
inhabited by the Naga communities and hence it forms a
north east regions of India. Since the languages spoken by this
single cultural region generally definable by a common
family of tribes is also similar to that of the language spoken
culture andlinguistic traditions. Nagaland comprises the
in Myanmar (earlier Burma) hence the name of the said set of
former Naga districts of Assam and the former Tuensang
language is Tibeto-Burman. Nine languages of the Bodo sub-
frontier divisions. Nagaland lies to the south of Jorhat in
family of the Tibeto-Burman language family constitute the
Assam, and is home to myriad tribes and sub tribes. Nagaland
largest group of tribal languages in the country.
is divided into eight main districts of Mokokchung, Tuensang,

www.rsisinternational.org Page 61
International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) |Volume IX, Issue III, March 2022|ISSN 2321-2705

Bodo, Garo, Tripuri, Mikir, Rabha, Dimasa, o Zou, dialect of the zou/zomi people.
LANGUAGES Lalung, Deori and Koch, Lushai/Mizo, Thado o Poula, dialect of the Poumai Naga
and Paite
o Thadou, dialect of Thadou people, the second
Brahmaputra valley, North Cachar Hills in language in the state after Meiteilon during the
SPOKEN GROUP
Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura
Colonial Period.
SEPARATE Tibeto Himalayan, Assam Burmese and North o Vaiphei, dialect of Vajphei people.
BRANCHES Assam o Tangkhul, dialect of Tangkhul people
o Paite, dialect of Paite people
These languages have some common attributes (Bhimkanta Boruah, 2003) o Hmar, dialect of Hmar people
The members of these languages are members of particular o Mao, dialect of Mao people
tribe and geographical region of the tribe. Some of these o Lianglad, dialect of Liangmai Naga People
languages are principally vocal as the words are monosyllabic. o Maring, dialect of Maring Naga/Maring,
Hence the structure of language becomes very specific, the MaringKhoibu, MaringNarum-saibol people
presence of the said form is not familiar to the mainstream o Maram, dialect of Maram Naga
population. o Gangte, dialect of Gangte people etc.
There is an extensive multiplicity of theoretical approaches to Meghalaya- Khasi is a branch of the Mon-Khmer family of
analyse ethnolinguistic identity perspective, multicultural the Austroasiatic stock. Garo language has a close affinity
attitudes and interactions. In cross-cultural research, Berry‟s with the Koch and Boro languages. Garo, spoken by the
(Berry, 1990; Berry & Sam, 1997) model of cultural relations majority of the population, is spoken in many dialects such as
in multicultural societies has been broadly used to understand Abeng or Ambeng, Atong, Akawe (or Awe), Matchi Dual,
the consequences of cultural and linguistic contact. It helps to Chibok, ChisakMegam or Lyngngam, Ruga, Gara-Ganching
expand the concept of acculturative attitudes of individuals as and Matabeng. Several other languages are spoken in
well as communities in to preserve and protect individual Meghalaya. For example, Pnar language is spoken by many
identity, culture, language and way of life (Berry, 2003). people of the Jaintia hills. The language is related to the
Khasi language. The Pnar, or Jaintia, language is spoken,
V. LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY: STATE LEVEL ANALYSIS along with Khasi, by the Khynriam, Bhoi, Pnar and War
Assam -Assam is populated by several tribes that co-exist tribal groups. Another example is the Biate language spoken
peacefully, each unique in its traditions, culture, dress and by many people of the Saipung Constituency Jaintia Hills.
exotic ways of life. Most tribes have their The language is closely related to the Biate of Dima Hasao,
own language although Assamese is the principal language of Assam. Nepali is found in almost all parts of the state.
the state. The Rabhas who live in the forest villages have Nagaland –All the major Naga tribes have their own
retained their original Rabha dialect to a great extent. The language. Naga languages in the Tibeto-Burman family is
Rabha dialect belongs to Boro group of languages of Assam- divided into three groups – the western sub-group, the central
Burmese branch. sub-group and the eastern sub-group. The western sub-group
Arunachal Pradesh –The vast majority of languages comprises Angami, Sema, Rengma and Chakhesang
indigenous to modern-day Arunachal Pradesh belong to the languages; The central sub-group include Ao, Lotha and
Paleao-Mongoloid with Tibeto-Burman groups of language Phom languages; While the eastern sub-groups is made up of
family. It is the home to at least 30 and possibly as many as 50 among others, Chang and Konyak languages.
distinct languages in addition to innumerable dialects and Tripura –The Tripuri people mainly speak various dialects
subdialects thereof. The language of Aka tribe belongs to called Kokborok, the standard dialect of the Debbarma tribe
the Tibeto- Burman family. The most commonly spoken around Agartala and the second official language
spoken languages in Arunachal Pradesh are Dafla, Mishri, Adi of Tripura. There are estimated to be 1,000,000 speakers of
Gallong, Monpa, Aka, Nocte, Khamti, Nishi, Wancho and the various dialects of Tripuri in Tripura, others being
Tagin. in Mizoram & Assam in India and Sylhet and Chittagong Hill
Mizoram -Mizo is the official language and the most widely Tracts in Bangladesh.
used language for verbal interactions, but English, being Therefore, it can be said that, the North East India may be
important for education, administration, formalities and consider as the living museum of human being, which has
governance, is widely used. The Duhlian dialect, also known diverse population speaking different languages, adopting
as the Lusei, was the first language of Mizoram and has come different socio-economic-cultural lifestyles and professing
to be known as the Mizo language. The language is mixed divergent religious faiths.
with other dialects like the Hmar, Mara, Lai, Paite, Gangte,
etc. Towards a Cultural Landscape in North East India
Manipur –There are 29 different dialects spoken in Manipur. It is necessary to connect the landscape ecology with cultural
Important dialects are: attributes of local human population as indigenous people do
not draw clear distinction between „natural‟ and „cultural‟

www.rsisinternational.org Page 62
International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI) |Volume IX, Issue III, March 2022|ISSN 2321-2705

aspects of life. It helps to A landscape gradient approach ideas. Such a flow of culture and ideas influence the holistic
seems helpful to facilitate this integration. Landscape development of the region maintaining its own identity and
gradients can be constructed in a number of different ways. cultural diversity.
Two general approaches are relevant to the case in point. A)
REFERENCE
The first is the landscape modification gradient approach,
which reflects the increasing human influences on the [1] Bijukumar, V. (2013). Social Exclusion and Ethnicity in Northeast
structure and function of landscapes like natural landscape, India.The NEHU Journal.
[2] Berry, J.W. (1990). Psychology of acculturation, In J. Berman
managed landscape, cultivated, suburban and urban (Ed.), Cross-cultural perspectives: Nebraska symposium on
landscapes and so on. B) The second is the regenerative motivation, Vol. 37 ( pp. 201-234). Lincoln, NE: University of
capacities based approach which classifies landscapes Nebraska Press.
according to their energy inputs and self-organizing and [3] Berry, J.W. (2003). Multicultural attitudes and identities in
Canada. In J.W. Berry, R.C. Mishra & R.C. Tripathi (Eds.),
regenerative capacities through the photosynthetic conversion Psychology in human and social development (pp. 138-154). New
of solar energy. As for example, solar powered semi-natural Delhi: Sage.
and managed landscapes, intensive agro-industrial landscapes, [4] Berry, J.W. & Sam, D.L. (1997). Acculturation and adaptation. In
technosphere landscapes etc. Based on such landscape J.W. Berry; M.S. Segall, & C. Kagitcibasi (Eds.), Handbook of
Cross-cultural psychology: Vol. 3, Social behavior and
gradients, different cultural landscapes can be compared, and applications (2nd ed., pp. 291-326). Needham Heights, MA:
our understanding of landscape sustainability can be Allyn& Bacon
improved. [5] Deutsch K (1966) Nationalism and Social Communication: An
Enquiry into the Foundations of Nationality, Cambridge
VI. CONCLUSION [6] Friedrich P (1962) Language and Politics in India Daedalus,
Current Work and Controversies 91:3: 543-559
The North-East India is a region with high linguistic diversity [7] Khema, Sonowal. (2014). Tribes of North-East India: A Study on
and blessed with diverse ethnic and cultural characteristics. To „Hajongs‟ In Global Journal For Research Analysis.
[8] Rajput, Madhu ed. (2012). Social and Cultural Stratification in
preserve the cultural attributes, varieties of plans and
North East India. Manak Publications Pvt Ltd., New Delhi.
strategies have been adopted at State and Central level. In [9] Rocky, Raile (2013). Tribes and Tribal Studies in North East:
2001, a separate department was set up to fulfil the Deconstructing the Philosophy of Colonial Methodology. Journal
development needs of the region. This Department of North- of Tribal Intellectual Collective India. December.
[10] Tripura, Biswaranjan. (2013). Tribal Question in Tripura:
East Region (DoNER) upgraded to Ministry of Development
Dialogue Between Its Past and Present. Journal of Tribal
of N E Region (MDoNER) in 2004. This Ministry was also Intellectual Collective India, December.
responsible for policy change of the region through planning [11] Wu, Jianguo. (2010). Landscape of culture and culture of
execution and monitoring of various development plans for landscape: does landscape ecology need culture?. Landscape
Ecology, 25.
the region. The North-Eastern Vision 2020 along with North-
[12] http://www.indianetzone.com/39/north-east_indian_languages.htm
Eastern Council in 2008- all set out for the holistic [13] http://www.iitg.ernet.in/rcilts/phaseI/n_e.html
development of the North East Region. Besides, the Asian [14] http://www.bangladeshsociology.org/BEJS%208.2%20Conceptual
Development Bank in the areas of urban renewal and road ising%20Northeast%20India.pdf
[15] http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2001/fmay2001/f030520011.html
construction helped in development of regional economies
along with flow of capital, culture, information and people‟s

www.rsisinternational.org Page 63