A natural component constituting the interaction of biotic and abiotic factors to shape the habitat and

ecosystem of an organism.
Constitutes physical (water, air), biological(biomolecules), and chemicalinteractions (chemical
cycles) that affect an organism or a group of organisms.
All organisms depend on the environment to carry out their natural life processes and meet their
physical requirements (food, energy, water, oxygen, shelter, etc.).
Habitat
Physical environment in which an organism lives. Multiple organisms may share a common habitat,
depending on common requirements.
Multiple habitats together make up the environment. All habitats constitute environments, whereas not
all environments are habitats.
Biotic- Living organisms, dead and decaying matter, etc.
Abiotic -Physical factors, inorganic and non-living parts like temperature, water, proteins, etc.
Humus -The organic component of soil formed by the decomposition of plant material.
Soil usually has biotic (dead and decaying matter) and abiotic components (humus, minerals, etc.)
Organic Compounds obtained directly or indirectly from plants and animals (biomolecules having at
least one carbon-hydrogen bond)
Inorganic Compounds obtained from minerals (lack carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds).
Limiting factor-Anything that constrains a population's size and slows or stops it from growing. Eg:
competition with other organisms for resources, salinity, etc.
Ecosystem
Definition: functional unit of nature, where living organisms interact among themselves and with the
surrounding physical environment in which they live, such that energy is exchanged and system level
processes, such as the cycling of elements, emerge.
All ecosystems are environments, but not vice versa.
Components of an Ecosystem:
Biotic Components: living components of an ecosystem. Eg: plants, animals, humans, etc.
Abiotic Components: non-living components of an ecosystem. Eg: air, water, soil, minerals, sunlight,
temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity, etc

Biotic Components
Primary Producers/Autotrophs- Organisms that acquire theirenergy from sunlight and materials from
non-living sources for producing their own food. Self-nourishing green plants, certain bacteria and
cyanobacteria/blue-green algae that carry out photosynthesis. In aquatic ecosystems, microscopic
algae (plankton) are the primary producers.
Consumers/ Heterotrophs- Consumers (other-nourishing),incapable of producing their own food.
Depends on organic food derived from plants, animals, or both.
Two types: namely micro and macro consumers.
Macro Consumers-
Herbivores: primary consumers that feed mainly on plants. (sheep, rabbit, etc.)
Secondary consumers: feed on primary consumers. (wolves, dogs, snakes, etc.)
Tertiary consumers: Carnivores that feed on both primary and secondary consumers (lions,snakes etc.)
Omnivores: organisms that consume both plants and animals.(man, bear, etc.)
Micro Consumers-
Phagotrophs: tiny organisms that feed by ingesting organic matter or organisms.
Osmotrophs: organisms that obtain their nutrients through the uptake of dissolved organic matter
from the ambient medium through osmosis.
Saprotrophs / decomposers: bacteria and fungi (e.g.mushrooms) which obtain energy and nutrients
from dead organic substances (detritus).
Detrivores: Earthworms and certain soil organisms (such as nematodes and arthropods) are detritus
feeders and help decompose organic matter.
Effect of Abiotic Components on Terrestrial Autotrophs
Light - High intensity favours root growth more than shoot growth, resulting in increased
transpiration, short stems, and smaller, thicker leaves.
Low-intensity light retards growth, flowering, and fruiting.
When the light intensity is less than the minimum, the plants cease to grow due to the accumulation
of CO2.
Of the visible part of the spectrum, only red and blue are effective in photosynthesis.
Plants grown in blue light are small; ultraviolet light are dwarf; red light results in the elongation of
cells (etiolated plants).
Frost - Freezing of soil moisture kills the plant due to increased transpiration and lack of moisture
supply by roots. Increased concentration of salts, dehydration of cells, and canker formation (various
plant diseases with similar symptoms are caused by different fungi, bacteria, and viruses).
Snow - Shortens the period of vegetative growth.Acts as a blanket, prevents a further drop in
temperature, and protects seedlings from excessive cold and frost.
Temperature -High-temperatures result in the death of plants due to coagulation of protoplasmic
proteins, except for some bacteria that can survive high temperatures. High temperatures disturb the
balance between respiration and photosynthesis and result in the desiccation of plant tissues and
depletion of moisture.
Nitrogen -Plants compete with microbes for the limited nitrogen available in the soil. Thus, nitrogen is
a limiting nutrient for both natural and agricultural ecosystems.
Dieback: It is the progressive dying, usually backward from the tip of any portion of the plant
(adaptive mechanisms to avoid adverse conditions like drought). Generally, the root remains alive for
years together, but the shoots die. E.g. sal, red sanders, silkcotton tree etc.
ECOLOGY
Branch of biology dealing with the study of relations of organisms to one another (energy flow and
mineral cycling) and their physical surroundings (environment).
Studies individuals, organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems, biomes, and biospheres
(various levels of ecological organisation).
Levels of Ecological Organisation
Individual and Species
-Individual: An organism that can act or function independently.
-Species: a group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging genes
(interbreeding). e.g., Homo sapiens.
Basic unit of taxonomy
Population: Community of interbreeding organisms (same species) occupying a defined area during a
specific time.
Community - Named after the dominant plant form. Eg:, a grassland community is dominated by
grasses, though it may contain herbs, trees, etc.
Major Communities: largesized and relatively independent.
They depend only on the Sun’s energy from outside. E.g., Tropical evergreen forests.
Minor Communities: depend on neighbouring communities and are often called societies. They are
secondary aggregations within a major community. E.g., a mat of lichen on a cow dung pad.
Stable community: does not show much variation in productivity from year to year. It is resilient to
occasional disturbances (natural or human-made) and invasions by alien species.
Ecosystem- The structural and functional unit of ecology where the living organisms interact with
each other and the surrounding environment
Biome -A large geographical area of distinctive plant and animal groups that are adapted to that
particular environment.
Biosphere -The region on, above, and below the Earth’s surface where life exists.
Ecological Niche- Unique functional role and position of a species in its habitat or ecosystem z
No two species in a habitat can have the same niche because of competition with one another until
one is displaced.
Many species occupy the same habitat, but they perform different functions:
Habitat niche—where it lives,
Food niche – what it eats or decomposes and what species it competes with,
Reproductive niche—how and when it reproduces,
Physical and chemical niche – temperature, land shape, land slope, humidity, and other requirements.
Niche knowledge plays an essential role in the conservation of organisms.
Biome
A large area characterised by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife.
Five major types of biomes: aquatic, grassland, forest, desert, and tundra.
Biomes are distinct from habitats; a biome can comprise a variety of habitats.
Plants and animals in a biome have common characteristics due to similar climates and can be found
on various continents. Eg: taiga forestsare found beyond the temperate regions of all the continents in
the northern hemisphere.
Ecotone-Zone of transition between two biomes where two communities meet and integrate (diverse
ecosystems). It has characteristics of both ecosystems. Eg: mangrove forests (between marine and
terrestrial ecosystems); grassland (between forest and desert).
May be narrow (between grassland and forest) or wide (between forest and desert).
Zone of tension: conditions intermediate to the adjacent ecosystems.Far greater productivity than
natural ecosystemsdue to wide-ranging species from the adjacent ecosystems being present in the
ecotone.
Well-developed ecotone may contain some organisms entirely different from those of the adjoining
communities.
Ecocline- Zone of gradual but continuous change from one ecosystem to another.No sharp boundary
between the two in terms of species composition. It occurs across the environmental gradient (gradual
change in abiotic factors such as altitude, temperature, salinity, depth, etc.)
Edge Effect and Edge Species
The appearance of diverse ecological characteristics, a high number of species and population density
in the ecotone compared to either community is termed the edge effect.The species that occur
primarily or most abundantly in this zone are known as edge species. Eg: in terrestrial ecosystems, the
edge effect is especially applicable to birds. The density of birds is greater in the ecotone between the
forest and the desert.
BIOSPHERE
The biological components (supporting life) of the Earth include the lithosphere, hydrosphere and
atmosphere (all living organisms and dead organic matter produced by them).
Absent at extremes of the North and South poles, the highest mountains, and the deepest oceans
(hostile conditions). Occasionally, spores of fungi and bacteria do occur at a great height beyond
8,000 metres, but they are metabolically inactive (dormant life.)
Principles of Ecology
Adaptation Appearance/behaviour/structure/mode of life of an organism that allows it to survive in a
particular environment.
Types:
Morphological e.g., the Fennec fox living in the desert has large ears (allows heat radiation from the
body to allow its cooling); mammals from colder climates generally have shorter ears and limbs to
minimise heat loss. (This is called Allen’s Rule).
Physiological e.g., venomous animals produce poison to catch their prey, to protect themselves or to
ward off predators
Behavioural - Hibernation as a winter survival technique. E.g., the phenomenon of hibernation
observed in Bats, bears and rodents.
Variation - Changes in genetic makeup due to the addition or deletion of specific genes. Eg:
difference in the colour of skin, and type of hair among different ethnic groups. Mutations, changes in
climate, geographical barriers etc., induce variations over a period of time.
Adaptive radiation: process in which organisms diversify from an ancestral species into new forms
under new environmental challenges or new environmental niches.
Speciation - Process of formation of new species.
A species comprises many populations. Often, different populations remain isolated due to geographic
barriers.
Over a period, geographic isolation leads to speciation, i.e., geographic speciation or allopatric
speciation.
 Sympatric speciation: New species develop spontaneously (maybe due to different food sources)
despite no physical barriers to inter-breeding.
Mutation - Changes in genetic material that result from an error in DNA replication, causing the rise
of new genes. As a result, members of the same species show ‘variation’ and are not identical.
Natural Selection - Proposed by Darwin and Wallace, it is a process by which species adapt to their
environment.
An evolutionary force that selects among variations, i.e. genes that help the organism to have better
chances of surviving, reaching reproductive age and passing on suitable adaptations to their progeny.
Evolution - The process by which living organisms change over time through changes in the genome.
May give rise to new species and make the organism better suitable for the present environment
through natural selection, variation etc.
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace: Theory of Evolution in 1859. This theory has been extended in
light of progress in genetics and is known as Neo-Darwinism.
Extinction - The complete disappearance of a species from Earth primarily due to environmental
changes, biological competition or inability to evolve fast enough to cope with the changing
environment.
Currently, the 6th Mass Extinction (Anthropogenic Extinction – human-induced) is in progress,
exacerbated by mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss of natural
habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution, and global climate change.

Functions of an Ecosystem
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
The process where plant and animal communities in an area change over time due to large-scale
changes or destruction. Its speed is influenced by geographical location and occurs faster in areas in
the middle of large continents.
Stages in Ecological Succession: Involves directional changes in vegetation.
Pioneer Community: The first plant to colonize an area.
Successional Stages/Seres: Progressive series of changes where one community replaces another.
Transitional communities are also replaced (seral community) and characterized by increased
productivity, nutrient shift, organism diversity, and food web complex.
Climax Community: Final stage, stable and mature. It is more complex and long-lasting.
Primary Succession
Occurs in areas where no previous community existed i.e. bare, often harsh environments (rock
outcrops, sand dunes).Pioneer species: Hardy species like microbes, mosses, and lichens (symbiotic
association of Fungi and algae).
Pioneers alter the habitat through growth and development. Relatively slow, starting from barren
conditions.
Secondary Succession
Follows complete or partial destruction of an existing community by natural events like floods,
droughts, fires or by human interventions like deforestation, agriculture etc.
Well-developed soil already present at the site. Hardy grasses initially, followed by herbaceous plants
and eventually trees.
Faster, as it builds upon existing soil and community remnants.
Autogenic succession: brought about by biotic components (living inhabitants) of that community
itself.
Allogenic succession: brought about by the abiotic components (fire, flood) of the ecosystem.
Succession in Plants:
Xerarch Succession: Occurs on land with low moisture content (e.g., bare rock)
Pioneers: Colonizing plants adapted to arid conditions
Progression: Succession leads to mesophytic habitat (moderate water)
Hydrarch Succession: takes place in water bodies (ponds, lakes)
Pioneers: Phytoplankton in primary succession
Progression: Phytoplankton → Floating angiosperms → Rooted hydrophytes → Sedges/grasses →
Trees.

HOMEOSTASIS (FEEDBACK CONTROL MECHANISMS)

Tendency for a biological system to resist changes and maintain equilibrium, through which
ecosystems can self-regulate species’ structure and functional processes.
For example: In a pond ecosystem, if the zooplankton population increases, it leads to phytoplankton
scarcity, causing zooplankton starvation, and if the zooplankton population decreases, phytoplankton
increases, causing the zooplankton population to rise. Thus, the negative feedback mechanism (an
increase in one factor leads to a decrease in another) induced by the limiting resource (here, food
scarcity) maintains stability in an ecosystem.
Homeostasis in Organisms-
Maintenance of stable equilibrium through physiological functions, like sweating for cooling,
migration for temperature regulation etc.
Conform: Bodily changes in the internal environment of the organisms influenced by the changes in
the surroundings. For example: most animals cannot maintain a constant body temperature, their body
temperature changes with the ambient temperature outside.
Regulation: Most birds and mammals perform homeostasis, i.e., keep their internal environment
constant through behavioural (e.g. animals migrating to under tree shade to avoid summer heat) and
physiological means(e.g. increase in metabolism to keep the body warm) to ensure thermoregulation.
Regulatory Challenges: Thermoregulation and osmoregulation are energetically expensive; small
animals face challenges due to the high surfaceto-volume ratio; small animals are rare in polar regions
due to energy expenditure.
Migration: Movement to more hospitable areas temporarily (e.g., migratory birds).
Suspension: Formation of spores in bacteria, fungi, and lower plants.
Escape Strategies: Hibernation(Winter Sleep) in polar bears during winter; Aestivation(Summer
Sleep) in snails and fish to avoid summer-related problems; Diapause(Suspending Growth) in
zooplankton during unfavourable conditions.
Seed Formation: Higher plants use seeds for stress survival and dispersal.
ENERGY FLOW THROUGH THE FOOD CHAIN
Trophic level represents energy flow in an ecosystem. A trophic level is a position occupied by an
organism in a food chain.
Unidirectional Energy Flow: Energy in an ecosystem flows in a unidirectional manner, typically from
the lower trophic levels to the higher ones. This means that energy is transferred from producers
(plants or autotrophs) to consumers (herbivores, carnivores, etc.) and rarely moves in the opposite
direction.
Energy Loss in Trophic Levels: At each trophic level, there is a significant loss of energy, primarily in
the form of heat, during the process of metabolism and other life activities. This is often represented
by the ecological pyramid, where the energy decreases as you move up the trophic levels.
The trophic level interaction involves three concepts, namely:
Food Chain, Food Web, Ecological Pyramids.
Food Chain- Feeding relationship between species based on who eats whom.
Types of Food chains-
Grazing food chain: Starts from live plants.Grasses → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle;
Diatoms → Crustaceans (Krills, Prawns, Lobsters, Crabs, Barnacles, Copepods) → Herrings (small
Fish).
Detritus food chain: Starts from dead organic matter. Some detritivores are Earthworms, Millipedes,
and Woodlice.
On Earth, the grazing food chain is dominant in the marine ecosystem.
In the terrestrial ecosystem, the detritus food chain is more dominant.
Food Web
Interconnected networks of food chains are known as food web.
Types of Biotic Interactions in a Food Web-
Net Positive Outcome:
Mutualism: When both the species benefit from the association. E.g. coral and zooxanthellae.
Commensalism: When one species benefits while the other is neutral, E.g. the relationship between
trees and epiphytic plants.
Antagonism Outcome (Compensatory Interaction)-
Parasitism: Beneficial to one species (parasite) and harmful to the other species (host).
Predation: One species (predator) benefits, while the second species (prey) is harmed.
Negative Outcome-
Competition: Adversely affects both species.
Amensalism: One species is inhibited, while the other species is unaffected, E.g: Bread mould and
fungi Penicillium; a large tree shades a small plant, retarding the growth of the small plant, while the
small plant has no effect on the large tree.
Ecological Pyramids
Graphical presentation of the relationship between various trophic levels. Horizontal bars depict
specific trophic levels, with the length of the bar indicating the total number of individuals, biomass,
or energy at each trophic level.
Categories of Ecological Pyramids:
Pyramid of Numbers: Represents the number of individuals at each trophic level. Generally, numbers
decrease as you move up the pyramid.
Pyramid of Biomass: Depicts total biomass (dry weight) of organisms at each trophic level. Generally,
biomass decreases as you move up due to energy loss.
Pyramid of Energy or Productivity: Represents energy flow through trophic levels. Generally, energy
availability decreases moving up the pyramid, hence the pyramid is always upward.
Movement of Non-Degradable Pollutants in Ecosystems-
Non-degradable pollutants (persistent pollutants) cannot be easily broken down by detritivores. For
instance, Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Perfluoro Chlorides) are particularly damaging and long-lasting.
The movement of these pollutants involves:
Bioaccumulation: Bioaccumulation is the gradual buildup of pollutants in an organism. It occurs when
the rate of substance loss through breakdown or excretion is slower than the rate of accumulation.
Persistent organic pollutants like DDT pose a high risk of bioaccumulation due to their long-lasting
nature.
Biomagnification: Biomagnification is the progressive increase in pollutant concentration at each
trophic level over time(progressive bioaccumulation). For this pollutants require a long biological
half-life (long-lived) and insolubility in water but solubility in fats (e.g., DDT). Pollutants soluble in
water get excreted, while those soluble in fats are retained for a long time.
NUTRIENT CYCLING (BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES)
Energy flow and nutrient circulation are critical functions of ecosystems. Energy is lost as heat and is
not recoverable, while nutrients from food matter can be recycled indefinitely.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus are major elements in living organisms.
Nutrient cycling involves the circular movement of elements between living and nonliving
components of the ecosystem.
Types of Nutrient Cycles-
Nutrient cycles can be classified as perfect or imperfect based on the replacement period.
Perfect Nutrient Cycle: Nutrients are replaced as fast as they are utilized. Gaseous cycles are typically
perfect, with fast replacement of nutrients.
Imperfect Nutrient Cycle: Nutrients are not replaced as fast as they are utilized. Generally associated
with sedimentary cycles. Some nutrients are lost and locked in sediments, making them temporarily
unavailable.
Gaseous Cycle: Reservoir is the atmosphere or hydrosphere. Examples include the water cycle,
carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, methane cycle, etc.
Sedimentary Cycle: Reservoir is the soluble element in the earth’s crust. Examples include the
phosphorus cycle, sulfur cycle, calcium cycle, magnesium cycle, etc.
Gaseous Cycles
Carbon Cycle-
It involves an exchange between the atmosphere and organisms. Typically considered a short-term
cycle.
Cycle steps include:
Carbon is mainly in the form of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Photosynthesis absorbs carbon into green plants and phytoplankton.
Respiration and decomposition return carbon to the atmosphere.
Some carbon enters a long-term cycle in marshy soil, aquatic sediments, or fossil fuels. Long-term
carbon may take a long time to be released, such as in marshy soil or bottom sediments. In deep
oceans, carbon can remain buried for millions of years until geological movements expose rocks
above sea level.
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas) are organic compounds that were buried before getting
decomposed. Through geological processes, they transformed into fossil fuels. When burned, the
stored carbon is released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia, nitrites, or nitrates in the nitrogen cycle.
Sources of Nitrogen: Lightning, ultraviolet radiation, industrial processes, forest fires, automobile
exhausts, and thermal power-generating stations contribute to atmospheric nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2,
N2O).
Animal waste like urea, uric acid, dead vegetation& organisms add nitrogen as nitrates directly into
the soil.
Burning coal releases CO, CO2, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Oxides of nitrogen fall on earth
as smog and acid rain. Acidic rain is a complex mixture of nitrous, nitric, sulphurous, and sulfuric
acids.
Nitrogen Cycle Steps: N2 Fixing → Nitrification → Ammonification → Denitrification.
Nitrogen fixation is done by N2-fixing microbes, industrial processes, and lightning.
N2-fixers: Microbes with nitrogenase (nitrogen reduction enzyme) fix atmospheric nitrogen into
ammonia and ammonium ions. Examples include free-living soil bacteria (e.g., Azotobacter),
symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium), and some cyanobacteria.
Nitrification oxidizes ammonia to nitrites and nitrates. Ammonium ions are oxidized to nitrites and
then to nitrates by specialized nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus, Nitrobacter).
Nitrates are absorbed by plants and reduced to ammonia in leaves, forming amino acids.
Ammonification: Bacteria convert nitrogenous waste products (urea, uric acid) and dead remains into
ammonia/ammonium ions.
Denitrification reduces nitrates to elemental nitrogen, e.g by special denitrifying bacteria
(pseudomonas and thiobacillus). This nitrogen escapes into the atmosphere, thus completing the cycle.
Methane Cycle-
Methane (CH4) is a more potent greenhouse gas (GHG) than carbon dioxide (CO2). Despite its
potency, methane has a shorter atmospheric lifetime than carbon dioxide.
Natural Sources of Methane:
Wetlands: Methanogens (prokaryotic archaebacteria) in hypoxic conditions produce methane during
the decomposition of organic matter. Wetlands contribute to about 80% of global CH4 emissions from
natural sources.
Termites: Microbes in guts of termites produce methane through anaerobic fermentation during
digestion.
Oceans: Methane sources from oceans include anaerobic digestion in marine zooplankton, fish, and
methane produced in sediments/drainage areas.
Methane Hydrates: Formed when hydrogenbonded water and methane gas come into contact at high
pressures and low temperatures in oceans. Found in form of crystalline ice, and also trapped in
permafrost. Ocean acidification, climate change, or any other anthropogenic disturbance can
destabilise the methane hydrates and lead to the release of an immense amount of methane — can lead
to mass extinction.
Human Sources of Methane Emissions: Globally, 50-65% of total CH4 emissions come from human
activities, with significant contributions from: Agriculture (40%), Fossil Fuels (35%), Waste (20%).
Specific Human Sources:
Landfills: Methane is generated in landfills as waste decomposes under anaerobic conditions.
Wastewater Treatment: Treatment processes produce methane if done without oxygen (anaerobic
conditions).
Fossil Fuels: Released during production, storage, and transmission of natural gas.Methane trapped in
coal deposits released during mining (Coalbed Methane).
Livestock:Domesticated livestock, such as cattle, produce methane during digestive processes.
Rice Cultivation: Flooded rice cultivation produces methane during the decomposition of organic
matter.
Biomass Burning:Incomplete burning of organic matter results in methane emission.
Human source > Natural Source
Natural Source: Wetlands > Termites > Oceans > Methane Hydrates
Human Source: Agriculture > Fossil Fuels > Waste
Methane Sink: Soils act as a major sink for atmospheric methane through methanotrophic bacteria
that use methane in a process called Methane Oxidation.
Removal from Atmosphere: Methane is removed from the atmosphere by reacting with the hydroxyl
radical (OH), converting it to CO2 and water vapor.
Hydroxyl radicals (cleanser of the atmosphere) are a form of sink because they scrub the atmosphere
clean of pollutant molecules and break them down.
Impact of Methane: Contributes to the formation of ground-level ozone, a dangerous air pollutant.
Methane hydrates can release a significant amount of methane with warming, contributing to climate
change.
Sedimentary Cycles
Phosphorus Cycle-
Phosphorus cycle involves the movement of phosphates from rocks to rivers and oceans, then back to
the crust through geological processes.
Sources of Phosphorus: Phosphorus occurs as a mineral in phosphate rocks, unlike carbon and
nitrogen that come primarily from the atmosphere.
Phosphorus Cycle Steps:
Weathering, erosion, and mining release phosphates, which enter rivers and oceans.
In the ocean, phosphates accumulate on continental shelves as insoluble deposits.Over millions of
years, crustal plates rise from the seafloor, bringing phosphates to the crust, and the geochemical
phase of the cycle repeats.
Phosphorus plays a central role in aquatic ecosystems and water quality, contributing to
phytoplankton blooms in lakes and eutrophication.
Sulphur Cycle -The sulphur cycle includes atmospheric input, deposition as acid rain, plant uptake,
transfer through the food chain, and return to soil and water through excretion and decomposition.
Sources of Sulphur: Sulphur is locked in organic (coal, oil, peat) and inorganic (pyrite rock, sulphur
rock) soil deposits as sulphates, sulphides, and organic sulphur.
Released by weathering of rocks, erosional runoff, and decomposition of organic matter, it is carried
to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solutions.
Steps in the Sulphur Cycle-
Atmospheric Input: Sulphur enters the atmosphere as sulphur dioxide from volcanic eruptions,
combustion of fossil fuels, ocean surfaces (Dimethyl Sulfide - DMS), and gases released by
decomposition. DMS is an organosulfur compound derived from marine algae, plants, and animals,
serving as a primary source of marine sulphate aerosols.
Atmospheric Deposition: Sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere is carried back to the earth as weak
sulphuric acid (acid rain).
Plant Uptake: Sulphates in the form of atmospheric deposition or other sources are taken up by plants.
Incorporation into sulphur-bearing amino acids occurs through metabolic processes.
Food Chain Transfer: Sulphur, incorporated into amino acids, passes through the grazing food chain.
Return to Soil and Water: Sulphur bound in living organisms is returned to the soil, bottom of ponds,
lakes, and seas through excretion and decomposition of dead organic material.
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Ecosystem services-
Diverse benefits provided to humans by the natural environment and from healthy ecosystems.
Four broad categories: cultural, provisioning, regulating and supporting.
Ecosystem goods- natural products harvested by humans from the environment, such as wild fruit and
nuts, forage, timber, game, natural fibres, medicines, etc.
Regulating-Air quality, water runoff, erosion, natural hazards, pollination
Supporting-Nutrient cycling, water cycling, soil formation, Cultural photosynthesis, Ethical values,
existence values recreation and ecotourism
Provisioning-Food, fiber, biomass fuel, freshwater, and natural medicines
Natural Capital: ecosystems providing invaluable ecosystem services. E.g., Flood protection by
mangroves.
Ecosystem Valuation-Economic process assigning monetary value to an ecosystem and its services;
tool for policymakers to evaluate management impacts and compare a cost-benefit analysis of
potential policies.
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) - Study hosted by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) and led by Indian environmental economist Pavan Sukhdev.
Objectives: to establish a global standard for natural capital accounting, mainstream the values of
biodiversity and ecosystem services into decisionmaking at all levels, and highlight the growing cost
of biodiversity loss
CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS
There are broadly two types of ecosystems:
Natural Ecosystem: An assemblage of plants and animals which functions as a unit and can maintain
its identity on its own.
Terrestrial Ecosystem /Biomes
Aquatic Ecosystem
Artificial Ecosystem: human-made structures where biotic and abiotic components are made to
interact with each other for survival. It is not self-sustaining and can perish without human help. Eg:
aquariums, agriculture fields, zoos, etc.
TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
These are exclusively land-based ecosystems.The terrestrial part of the biosphere is divisible into
enormous regions called biomes. No two biomes are alike. Major Biomes are:
Tundra-
Two types of tundra – Arctic and Alpine.
Devoid of trees due to permafrost, the lowest form of vegetation like mosses and lichens are sparsely
found on bare rocks, coastal lowlands have reindeer moss which provides the only pasturage for
reindeer.
Animals: reindeer, arctic fox, wolves, musk ox, polarbear, lemming, arctic hare, and arctic willow.
Reptiles and amphibians are almost absent. Most animals have a long life, thick cuticle and epidermal
hair or fur. Mammals have a large body size, small tails and ears to avoid heat loss from the surface.
Forest:
Taiga or Boreal Biome (Evergreen Coniferous forests)-
Lowest productivity amidst all forest ecosystems(harsh weather, thin and poor soils for
agriculture.i.e., podzols).
Podzols are very poor because weathering of rocks proceeds slowly in cold climates; litter derived
from conifer leaves decomposes very slowly and is not rich in nutrients (low humus and organic
matter, acidic soil, poor drainage, low pH); conifers do not shed their leaves frequently.
Vegetation: evergreen coniferous forest with species such as spruce, fir, and pine(require little
moisture).
Animals: Siberian tiger, wolverine, lynx, wolf, bear, red fox, squirrel, and amphibians like Hyla,
Rana, etc.
Temperate Deciduous Biome (North Western Europe – British Type Climate)-
Podzolic and fairly deep soil.
Vegetation: deciduous (trees shed their leaves in the cold season); adaptation for protecting
themselves against winter snow and frost. Shedding begins in autumn. Growth begins in spring. Eg:
oak, elm, ash, birch, beech, and poplar.
Temperate Rainforest Biome-
Less percentage of area covered over Earth (north-western coast of N. America from N. California
through S. Alaska; small areas in S. Chile, New Zealand, Australia and a few other places worldwide)
Vegetation: Large coniferous trees including Douglas fir, Western red cedar, Mountain hemlock,
Western hemlock, Sitka spruce, Lodgepole pine, mosses and lichens often growing as epiphytes (a
plant that grows harmlessly upon another plant (commensalism)).
Sub-Tropical Deciduous Biome in Eastern China, South Eastern USA-
Luxuriant vegetation: Lowlands- both evergreen broadleaved forests and deciduous trees (hardwood).
Highlands- various species of conifers, such as pines and cypresses.
Temperate Deciduous Biome (Mediterranean Climate)-
Xerophytic (drought tolerant) plants due to heat, dry air, excessive evaporation, and prolonged
droughts. Small broad-leaved trees are widely spaced, never very tall. Low, broad-leafed evergreen
trees (mostly evergreen oaks) in regions of adequate rainfall. Frequent fire episodes, adaptations of the
plants enable them to regenerate quickly after being burnt.
Tropical Deciduous Biome (Monsoon Climate)-
Drought-deciduous/dry deciduous/tropical deciduous forests.
Vegetation: Teak, neem, bamboo, sal, Sheesham, sandalwood, khair, mulberry
Tropical Rainforest Biome -
High temperatures, abundant rainfall, luxuriant evergreen rainforests (lungs of the Earth), large
number of species and epiphytes.
Vegetation: mahogany, ebony, dyewoods, etc., mangrove forests (salty water).
All plants, including epiphytes, struggle upwards for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement
(canopy).
In recent years threatened by deforestation and burning, 17 per cent of the entire rainforest and about
20 per cent of the Brazilian rainforest have been deforested.
If a tropical rainforest is removed, it does not regenerate quickly as compared to a tropical deciduous
forest. This is because the soil of the rainforest is deficient in nutrients.
Importance of Rainforests-Produce ~20% of the earth’s oxygen and act as Carbon sink.
Precipitation: responsible for creating 50-75 % of their precipitation through evapotranspiration.
Source of many rivers: Amazon, Mekong, and Congo (Zaire) are fed by the rainforests.
Biodiversity: >30 million species of plants and animals (half of the earth’s wildlife and at least ⅔ rd of
its plant species)
Commercial Agriculture: Conducive climate for cultivating coffee, cocoa, palm, rubber, etc. (100-200
cm of rainfall).
Indigenous communities: depend on it for their food, shelter, medicines and subsistence agriculture
(slash-and-burn agriculture).
Controls local and regional climates as well as influences the circulation of ocean currents.
Grassland- Steppe or Temperate Grassland Biome
Practically treeless, grasses are much shorter, fresh, and nutritious. Poleward, transition to a zone of
wooded steppes due to increase in precipitation (some conifers may gradually appear). Do not have
much animal diversity.
Savanna or Tropical Wet and Dry Biome (Tropical Shrublands and Grasslands)
Characterised by tall grass and short trees(deciduous, umbrella-shaped broad trunks with water-
storing devices, shed leaves in the cool dry season to prevent water loss through transpiration, e.g.,
acacias. Rich in mammal, bird, and reptile diversity.
Managed Fires: Lighting dry savanna grasslands is a key ecosystem management activity by cattle
farmers and authorities to stimulate the growth of fresh, nutritious grass for their animals, control the
numbers of parasitic ticks or manage the growth of thorny scrub.
Fires in savannahs are carbon-neutral: burn mainly dry grasses (CO2 released is reabsorbed by
growth of new grass).
Desert-Tropical and Mid-Latitude Desert Biome
Vegetation: xerophytic or drought resistant. Eg: cacti, thorny bushes, long-rooted wiry grasses,
scattered dwarf acacias.
Herbs and grasses: Thick, tough skins of seeds to protect them while they lie dormant.
Shrubs: long, well-spaced roots to gather moisture and search for groundwater.
Plants: Few or no leaves; waxy, leathery, hairy, or needle-shaped foliage to reduce water loss through
transpiration.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystems present in a body of water. Broadly classified into three sub-groups based on salinity:
Freshwater Ecosystem: low salt content due to continuous recycling of water; < 5 ppt). 2 types:
Static/still water (Lentic) ecosystems: ponds, lakes, bogs and swamps
Running water (Lotic) ecosystems: springs, streams, rivers, etc.
Marine Ecosystem: salt concentration equal to or > seawater (i.e., 35 ppt or above). E.g., shallow seas
and open oceans.
Brackish water ecosystems: salt content between 5 - 35 ppt. e.g., estuaries, salt marshes, mangrove
swamps and mangrove forests.
Classification of Aquatic Organisms -(Based on the zone of occurrence)
Neuston: Live at the air-water interface, e.g. floating plants.
Periphyton: Remain attached to stems and leaves of rooted plants or substances emerging above the
bottom mud, such as sessile algae.
Plankton: Microscopic floating organisms such as algae (plant-like protists), diatoms, protozoans,
larval forms, etc.
Includes microscopic plants like algae (phytoplankton – primary producers or autotrophs), animals
like crustaceans and protozoans (zooplankton – heterotrophs).
Locomotory power of the planktons is limited so that their distribution is controlled, essentially, by
currents in the aquatic ecosystems.
Nekton: Powerful swimmers that can overcome water currents.
Benthos: Found living at the bottom of the water mass.
Factors Limiting Productivity of Aquatic Ecosystems
Sunlight- Determines the extent of plant distribution according to light penetration- photic and aphotic
zones.
Photic (euphotic) zone): extends from the water surface down to where the light level is 1% of that at
the surface. Photosynthetic activity is confined to the photic zone.
Aphotic (profundal) zone: light penetration and plant growth are restricted. It extends from the end of
the photic zones to the bottom of the lake. No photosynthesis.
Dissolved Oxygen-
Freshwater: the average concentration of dissolved oxygen is 10 ppm by weight(150 times lower than
the concentration of oxygen in an equivalent volume of air). Oxygen enters: through the air-water
interface and the photosynthetic activities of aquatic plants. Dissolved oxygen escapes: through the
air-water interface, respiration, and decomposition of organisms.
Winterkill: fish mortality event due to appearance of a layer of ice on top of a water body that
effectively cuts off the light. Photosynthesis stops, but respiration continues causing depletion of
dissolved oxygen, and the fish die.
Impact of Global Warming on Dissolved Oxygen- The amount of dissolved oxygen retained in water
is indirectly proportional to temperature. Oxygen is less soluble in warm water.
Warm water also enhances decomposer activity which further increases the rate at which oxygen is
depleted in water. If dissolved oxygen levels fall below 3-5 ppm, many aquatic organisms are likely to
die.
Temperature -Aquatic organisms are more prone to survival threats compared to terrestrial organisms
owing to narrow temperature tolerance limits.
Eutrophication
Process of over-enrichment of water body with nutrients(nitrogen, phosphorus), leading to the
plentiful growth of simple plant life(algae, plankton) eventually leading to anoxic conditions for the
seagrass and other organisms.
WETLAND ECOSYSTEM-
Transition zones between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
According to Ramsar Convention and Wetlands (Conservation and Management) Rules 2017, an area
of marsh, fen, peat land or water; whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water
that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at
low tide does not exceed six meters, is considered as a wetland.
E.g. All lakes and rivers, lake littorals (marginal areas between the highest and lowest water level of
the lakes), floodplains (areas lying adjacent to the river channels beyond the natural levees and
periodically flooded during high discharge in the river), underground aquifers, swamps and marshes,
wet grasslands, peatland, oases, estuaries, deltas, tidal flats, mangroves and other coastal areas, coral
reefs, and all human-made sites such as fishponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans.
Characteristics- Hydric soils (not enough O2), periodic flooding from adjacent deepwater habitats and
plant life (hydrophytes) adapted to shallow waterlogged soils.
Importance-
Habitats for aquatic flora and fauna and numerous species of native and migratory birds.
Resource for sustainable tourism.
Water purification and filtration of sediments and nutrients from surface water (Kidneys of the Earth)
Nutrient recycling, groundwater recharging and stabilisation of the local climate.
Flood mitigation by controlling the rate of runoff.
Buffer shorelines (act as a riparian buffer) against erosion and pollutants.
Genetic reservoir for various species of plants (especially rice).
Carbon sink.
Reasons for the Depletion of Wetlands-
Excessive pollutants (Industrial effluents, domestic waste, agricultural runoff etc.) are being dumped
into wetlands beyond the recycling capacity.
Habitat destruction and deforestation create ecological imbalance by altering the population of
wetland species. Conversion of wetlands for agriculture and encroachment by public and mafia.
Overfishing and fish farming (aquaculture).
Overgrazing in marshy soils.
Removal of sand from beds near seas (vulnerable to wave action and tidal bore).
Mitigation of Wetland Destruction-
Demarcation using technology, strict law enforcement and stringent punishments for violators.
Preventing unsustainable aquaculture and cultivation of shellfish.
Treating industrial effluents and water from farmlands before discharge
Giving enough time for natural regeneration and preventing grazing in the periphery of wetlands.
Artificial regeneration
Afforestation, soil conservation, weed control, and preventing invasive/exotic species are the key to
wetland conservation.
Wildlife conservation, sustainable tourism, ecotourism and sensitising the local populace.
Eutrophication abatement
Involving the local population in the conservation
Measures to Protect Wetlands of India
National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems (NPCA)-
Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) to implement integrated and cross-sectoral conservation of
aquatic ecosystems (lakes and wetlands); halting and reversing the continued degradation and loss of
wetlands
Formed by merging the National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCA) + National Wetlands Conservation
Programme (NWCP).
Funding pattern of 70:30 (90:10 for the NE States). MOEF coordinates, and provides guidelines and
financial and technical assistance to the state govt. State/UT governments manage the aquatic
ecosystems.Criteria for identifying wetlands of national importance under NPCA are similar to those
under the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands.
Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2010-
MoEF notified legally enforceable rules under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986, to ensure that there is no further degradation of wetlands.Central Wetland Regulatory Authority
(CWRA) (chairmanship of the Secretary, MoEF): ensure implementation of the Rules.Wetlands
classification for better management and easier identification. Specify and prohibit harmful activities
to wetlands (industrialisation, construction of permanent nature, solid waste dumping etc.)
Activities like aquaculture, agriculture, harvesting of living and non-living resources, dredging to
remove siltation, etc., may be carried out in the wetlands but only with prior permission from the
concerned authorities.
Central Government may permit any prohibited activities or non-wetland use in the protected wetland
on the recommendation of CWRA.
Encompasses the drainage area or catchment regions of the wetlands as determined by the authority.
Wetlands (Conservation Management) Rules 2017
Replaced the 2010 rules. Decentralised wetlands management: states/UTs have powers to identify
and notify wetlands within their jurisdictions, keep a watch on prohibited activities.Advisory role for
the National Wetland Committee: guide the state bodies on the integrated management of wetlands
based on the wise-use principle, review the progress of integrated management of Ramsar Convention
sites.
National Wetlands Committee (NWC – headed by the MoEF Secretary: oversee the work carried out
by States, nodal advisory body for the National Plan for Conservation of Aquatic Eco-systems
(NPCA).
Wetlands (Conservation-Management) Rules 2017
State Wetland Authority- Headed by Environment Minister. It includes experts from the fields of
wetland ecology, hydrology, fisheries, landscape planning and socioeconomics.
Wetland management, identification and notification of the wetlands for protection within the
stipulated time.
Develop a comprehensive list of activities to be regulated and permitted within notified wetlands and
their zone of influence. Recommend additional prohibited activities for specific wetlands.
The State authorities also need to prepare lists of :
All wetlands of the state or union territory within three months
Wetlands to be notified within 6 months
Comprehensive digital inventory of all wetlands within 1 year, to be updated every 10 years.
Not deemed to be a wetland-River channels, paddy fields, human-made water bodies, aquaculture, salt
production, recreation, irrigation projects, wetlands and protected areas falling within areas covered
under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972
and the Coastal Regulation Zone Notification,2019.
Prohibited activities-
Conversion of wetlands for non-wetland uses.
Setting up industry and expansion of existing industries.
Manufacture/handling/storage/disposal of hazardous substances and construction and demolition
waste.
Solid waste dumping.
 Discharge of untreated wastes and effluents from industries, cities, towns, villages and other
settlements.
Encroachment, poaching, or permanent construction, except for boat jetties.
Concerns -Silent on the appeal process. An appeal could be made to NGT under the 2010 Rules.
Subjective definition of the term “wise use”: to be determined by the State Wetland Authority (prone
to manipulation by vested interests).
Ramsar Convention- International treaty established by UNESCO for “ maintenance of ecological
character for sustainable use of wetlands” signed on the 2nd Feb (World Wetlands Day), 1971, in the
city of Ramsar in Iran. Covers over 2,400 Ramsar Sites, 2.5 million sq km worldwide. The number of
parties is 172. India has been a party since 1982. After acceding to the convention, a party must
designate at least one wetland as a Wetland of International Importance.
2023 theme: It’s Time for Wetlands Restoration.
World’s first site: the Cobourg Peninsula in Australia (1974)
Countries with the most Ramsar Sites: United Kingdom (175) and Mexico (142).
Country with the largest area under Ramsar protection: Bolivia
India’s Ramsar wetlands are spread over 11,000 sq km — around 10% of the total wetland area in the
country — across 18 States.
Largest Site in India: Sundarbans (West Bengal)
Criteria for Identification of Wetlands-
Unique wetland: contains rare or unique examples of a natural or near-natural wetland type.
Endangered species: supports threatened, vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species/
communities.
Essential species: supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for maintaining
biological diversity.
Species protection: supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life cycles or
provides refuge during adverse conditions.
Waterbirds: regularly supports 20,000+ water birds.
Single species of water birds: regularly supports 1% of the individuals in a population of one species
or subspecies of water birds.
Indigenous fish: supports a significant proportion of indigenous fish subspecies.
Multirole: is an essential food source for fishes, spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path.
Ecotourism: is an essential source of food and water resources, increased scope for recreation and
ecotourism.
Removal from list-
Upon urgent national interest of contracting party (delete or restrict boundaries)
Deletions/restrictions to be compensated by creating additional nature reserves in the same area or
elsewhere.
No Ramsar Site has ever been “deleted”. Parties have only extremely rarely restricted the boundaries
of a Site on this basis (success of Ramsar Convention).
Transboundary Sites-In these cases, COP allows the establishment of Ramsar Sites along with the
agreement of authorities on both sides of the border to collaborate on-site management.
Montreux Record- Register of Ramsar sites where changes in ecological character have occurred, are
occurring, or are likely to occur as a result of technological developments, pollution or other human
interference. Currently, two wetlands of India are in Montreux record: Keoladeo National Park
(Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
Contracting Parties (COP)to Ramsar Convention- Policy-making organ. Meets every 3 years at the
Conference of the Contracting Parties (COP).
COP14 (2022): held in a hybrid format in Wuhan, China, and Geneva, Switzerland. Wuhan
Declaration and 2025-2030 Global Strategic Framework for Wetlands Conservation were adopted.
Responsibilities of the Contracting Parties-z to identify, and place suitable wetlands onto the Ramsar
List, expected (not mandated) to manage their Ramsar Sites to maintain their ecological character and
retain their essential functions and values for future generations.
International Organisation Partners (IOPs)
The Ramsar Convention works closely with six organisations:
Birdlife International
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
International Water Management Institute (IWMI)
Wetlands International
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)
International Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust (WWT)
Wetlands International -Global non-governmental organisation (NGO) to sustain and restore wetlands
and their resources for people and biodiversity: includes research, advocacy, engagement with
governments, corporate, etc.
Estuary-
Definition: partially enclosed coastal area of brackish water (salinity of 0-35 ppt) where a river or a
stream opens into the sea (freshwater carrying fertile silt and runoff from the land mixes with salty
seawater). Eg: river mouths, coastal bays, tidal marshes, lagoons, and deltas.
Formed due to: rise in sea level, movement of sand and sandbars, glacial processes, and tectonic
processes. They are greatly influenced by tidal action and are periodically washed by seawater once or
twice a day based on the number of tides.
In some narrow estuaries, tidal bores are significant (damage to the estuarine ecology).
Ecological Importance of estuaries-
Most productive (more productive than other wetlands) water bodies in the world due to mixing of
freshwater and saline water zones where marine organisms of both ecosystems meet.
Refuge from the open sea: due to minimal wave action, ideal for the survival of numerous aquatic
species. Mangrove forests on the seaward side of an estuary act as a barrier for the coastal habitat to
check the wind speed during cyclones and high-velocity landward winds.
Precipitation of clay and alluvium particles: due to exposure to saline water. Mangroves trap
suspended mud and sand carried by rivers which leads to delta formations around estuaries.
Nutrient storage and recycling: trap sediment; buffer between coastal catchments and the marine
environment; absorb, trap and detoxify pollutants, acting as a natural water filter.
Economic Importance of Estuaries-
~60% of the world’s population live along estuaries and coasts.
Rich in natural resources, including fisheries.
Ideal locations for the construction of ports and harbours: deep and well protected from marine
transgressions
Estuarine Vegetation-
Salinity and flooding determine the distribution (diversity and density) of organisms.
Diverse habitats: mangroves, salt marshes, seagrass, mudflats etc.
Terrestrial plants and animals: wood storks, pelicans, coniferous and deciduous trees, and butterflies
etc.
Aquatic plants and animals: sea turtles, sea lions, sea catfish, salt grasses, seagrass, bulrush, etc.
Phytoplankton: diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, and blue-green algae.
Towards the seacoast: algae and seagrasses.
Near the mouth of the rivers and deltas: mangrove forests.
Indian Estuarine Ecosystem
14 major, 44 medium, and 162 minor rivers drain into the sea
Majority of major estuaries occur on the east coast.
Estuaries on the west coast are smaller.
Serve as locations of major seaports. E.g., Mormugao Port on the Zuari Estuary.
Threats Faced -by the Estuarine Ecosystem
Changes in water flow due to modifications of the catchments (E.g., Hooghly, Godavari, Pulicat,
etc.).
Pollution through industries, city sewage discharge, feeding stocked fish and prawns in pens (Chilka).
Navigation, dredging and shipping (e.g. Hooghly).
Expansion of urban and rural settlements, mining and industries, agriculture and dumping of solid
wastes.
Intensive aquaculture in pens and obstructing the migratory routes of fish and prawns (e.g., Chilka,
Pulicat).
Biodiversity destruction through prawn seed collection through small-meshed nets (e.g., Hooghly,
Chilka, Pulicat).
Submergence of catchment areas due to water level rise.
Lagoon -
Stretch of salt water separated from the sea by a low sandbank or coral reef. E.g.: backwaters in
Kerala where seawater flows inwards through a small inlet that is open towards the sea.
Lagoons formed due to falling sea levels (emergent coastline): Kerala (Malabar) Coast, Odisha
(Utkal) Coast, Chilika Lake and Tamil Nadu (Coromandel) Coast.
 Lagoons formed due to rising sea levels(submergent coastline): Mandovi and Zuari estuarine
systems(Goa) and Konkan coast.
No fresh water source, hence lagoons are more saline than estuaries.
The water is shallower and flows sluggishly compared to fast-flowing water in estuaries.
MANGROVES
Salt-tolerant (halophytes) evergreen shrubs or small trees (vary in height from 8 to 20 m) that
represent a characteristic littoral (near the seashore) forest ecosystem.
Grow below the high water level of spring tides.
Best locations are where abundant silt is brought down by rivers or on the backshore of accreting
sandy beaches. Includes brackish waters of sheltered low-lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats, tidal
creeks, backwaters, marshes and lagoons of tropical and subtropical regions.
Decreasing order of productivity: Mangroves, grasslands, lakes, oceans
‘Kharai camel’: a breed found in India, capable of swimming upto 3km in seawater, grazes on
mangroves.
Adaptive Mechanism of Mangroves-
Display morphological (shape and structure) and physiological (functional) evolutionary adaptations
to survive lack of oxygen, high salinity, and diurnal tidal inundation.
Some of the adaptations exhibited by mangroves are:
Succulent leaves (thick leaves adapted to store water and reduce evapotranspiration),
Sunken stomata (to protect from drying winds),
Leaves with salt-secreting glands (to flush out the excess salt)
Aerial breathing roots called pneumatophores (blind roots),
Viviparous mode of reproduction (seeds or embryos germinate in the tree itself before falling to the
ground),Stilt and prop roots (they are fibrous support roots)
Buttresses (large, wide support roots on all sides of a shallow- rooted (mangrove) tree).
The adventitious roots (prop and stilt roots), which emerge from the main trunk above ground level,
act as support roots. The complex root system helps mangroves overcome the strong wave action,
diurnal tidal inundation and the respiration problem in anaerobic (low oxygen anoxic) soil conditions
(a classic example of adaptation).
Some species (e.g., Rhizophora) of mangroves send arching prop roots into the water. While
others(e.g., Avicennia) send vertical pneumatophores (air roots) up from the mud.
Mangroves in India-
Mangroves of Sundarbans
The name received from the Sundari mangrove tree.
Largest single block of tidal halophytic mangroves in the world.
Eco-geography is dependent on the tidal effect: deposits silt back on the channels, raising the bed and
forming new islands and creeks.
Only mangrove forests are inhabited by the tigers.
Major fauna: Royal Bengal tiger (EN), saltwater crocodile (LC), river terrapin, olive ridley turtle
(VU), Ganges river dolphin (EN), hawksbill turtle, mangrove horseshoe crab, etc.
Mangrove Forests on the East Coast-
Mangroves of Bhitarkanika (Orissa): 2nd largest in India, cover the area of Brahmani and Baitarani
river deltas.
Godavari-Krishna deltaic regions of Andhra Pradesh.
Pichavaram and Vedaranyam are degraded due to aquaculture ponds and salt pans.
On the West Coast of India-
Mostly scrubby (stunted) and degraded, occur along the intertidal region of estuaries and creeks
inMaharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka.
Kerala: very sparse and thin.
Gujarat (north-west coast): Gulf of Kutch and the Kori Creek region (paleo delta of the Indus River
(once upon a time, it was part of the Indus delta)).
Global Status-
FAO’s Global Forest Resource Assessment, 2020:113 countries have mangrove forests covering
~14.79 million ha (1% of the tropical forests), primarily in tropical and subtropical regions.
Largest mangrove area is in Southeast Asia(5.55 mha), followed by Africa, the Americas and Oceania
(1.30 mha).
>40 per cent of the total area in just four countries: Indonesia (19%), Brazil (9%), Nigeria (7%) and
Mexico (6%).
Confined to the tropics and subtropics (intertidal regions between latitudes 24° N and 38° S) as
adaptive mechanisms are energy-intensive and require high solar radiation.
Importance-Highly productive ecosystems, rich biodiversity.
Protecting the coastal areas from tsunamis, stormsurges (produced by cyclones) and soil erosion due
to complex root system
Slow down water flow and act as a zone of land accretion by enhancing sediment deposition.
Reduce inundation of coastal lowlands by moderating monsoonal tidal floods,
Riparian buffer and trap pollutants, including heavy metal contaminants. They enhance natural
nutrient recycling, also act as carbon sinks.
Safe and favourable environment for breeding, spawning, and rearing several fishes.
Essential source of livelihood for the coastal communities(collection of honey, tannins, wax,
firewood, medicinal plants, edible plants, and fishing).
Threats to Mangroves-
Aquaculture, Agriculture and Salt Ponds
Threat: Being nutrient-rich, it is highly favourable for agriculture, shrimp farming and mariculture.
Hence thousands of hectares of mangrove forests have been cleared for the commercial production of
shrimp and other species, cultivation of crops, and creation of salt ponds.
Consequence: Specific diet including chemicals is fed to shrimps that enter the food chain. Extra
nutrients from the concentration of food and animals cause eutrophication.
Coastal Development and Lumbering
Threat: The direct use of mangrove wood and leaf products (high-quality charcoal) and the conversion
of wetland habitats for coastal development projects lead to deforestation.
Consequence: Habitat loss and climate vulnerability. Imbalance between fresh and saltwater, loss of
species and genetic diversity.
Climate Change
Threat:Coastal wetlands act as carbon sink thus when these forests are cleared, it compounds the
climate change problem, releasing even more carbon into the atmosphere.
Consequence: sea-level rise, with some treespecies unable to tolerate the influx of saltwater or escape
the surging tides.
Replantation Does not Produce Optimum Results
In comparison with tropical forests, mangroves are not species-rich. In areas where replanting is
attempted, it is limited to one species other than the mix of species that initially existed. Thus
reforestation/afforestation cannot reverse the habitat loss.
Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching
Coral reefs compose calcareous skeletons formed by coral polyps, tiny marine organisms belonging
to the phylum Cnidaria. Polyps, which are related to anemones and jellyfish, extract calcium salts
from seawater to create hard, tubular skeletons
Ideal Condition: Stable Climatic Conditions, Perpetually Warm Waters(around 20°C) ShallowWater,
Clear Salt Water, Abundant Plankton, Little or No Pollution.
More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and
Philippines; Coral reefs host far more animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests.
In India coral reefs are present in the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Andaman & Nicobar,
Lakshadweep Islands.
Causes for Coral Bleaching-
Temperature Changes, Ocean Acidification, Increases Inorganic Nutrients are the major causes.
Subaerial Exposure: Exposure to the atmosphere during low tides or sea level drops induces
bleaching.
Xenobiotics: Exposure to high concentrations of contaminants like copper, herbicides, and oil can
cause bleaching.
Epizootics: Coral diseases, although not directly related to bleaching, may cause adverse effects on
coral health.
Biorock Technology for Coral Restoration -Biorock technology, involving mineral accretion or
electro-accumulation on steel structures, is used for coral restoration.
Passing electrical current through electrodes in the water results in the formation of biorock, aiding
coral growth
Marine Organisms Plankton

• The group of creatures that float on the surface of rivers, lakes, and seas is referred to as
"plankton."
• All aquatic ecosystems, with the exception of some swiftly flowing waters, contain both
microscopic animals and plants called zooplankton and phytoplankton.
 • Planktons have a limited range of motion, therefore currents in aquatic habitats essentially
regulate where they move.
• Tropical seas, particularly those near mangroves, have high rates of plankton growth,
productivity, and species diversity.
Phytoplankton

• Phytoplankton, which is derived from the Greek words phyto (plant) and plankton (made to
wander or drift), refers to microscopic plant organisms that dwell in freshwater and saltwater
aquatic habitats.
• Protists, bacteria, and single-celled plants make up some phytoplankton. Cyanobacteria,
silica-encased diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae, and chalk-coated coccolithophores are a
few examples of frequent types.
• More than 60% of the oxygen produced by all plants is produced by phytoplankton.
• All phytoplankton have chlorophyll, which they use to absorb sunlight and convert it into
chemical energy, just like land plants.
• They exhale oxygen while consuming carbon dioxide. All phytoplankton photosynthesize, but
some also consume other species to gain additional energy.
• All seas and oceans, including the Polar Regions, have these microalgae in the littoral zones.
• They act as "pasture grounds" in the aquatic environment and have biomass that is several
times bigger than the combined biomass of all plants on land.
Zooplankton

• Planktons that are heterotrophic and occasionally detritivores are called zooplankton.
• They are heterotrophic, which means they must eat other plants or animals because they are
unable to make their own food. This specifically means that they consume phytoplankton.
• Zooplankton play an important role in the food web, nutrient recycling, and the transfer of
organic matter from primary producers to secondary consumers such as fish.
• They are more abundant in mangrove waterways than in adjacent coastal waters, and a large
proportion of mangrove juvenile fish are zooplanktivorous.
• The quantity of fish stock is determined by zooplankton.
• As a result, zooplankton communities are used to assess the productivity of the ecosystem in
relation to its fishery resources, fertility, and health status.
• The zooplankton contains a wide variety of species, including the single-celled Radiolaria as
well as the eggs or larvae of herrings, crabs, and lobsters.
• Protozoa and copepods, which are essential sources of food for larger animals, are examples
of permanent plankton, or holoplankton.
• Holoplankton, also known as permanent plankton, includes copepods and protozoa, which
are crucial sources of food for larger creatures.
• Young starfish, clams, worms, and other bottom-dwelling creatures are examples
of temporary plankton, or meroplankton, which live and feed as plankton until they depart
to develop into adults in their appropriate environments.
 Zooplankton Groups
Sea-Grass

• These are flowering plants that can be found on the seafloor and in our oceans.
• It belongs to the class of marine angiosperms. They frequently spend their entire lives
underwater.
• They have tiny blooms and strap-like or oval leaves, and photosynthesis depends on sunshine.
• Despite the fact that seagrasses may grow on anything from mud to rock, muddy and sandy
substrata are where the majority of the rich green seagrass beds are found.
• Important Species: Sea Cow Grass (Cymodocea serrulata), Thready Seagrass
(Cymodocea rotundata), Needle Seagrass (Syringodium isoetifolium), Flat-tipped
Seagrass (Halodule uninervis), Spoon Seagrass (Halophila ovalis), and Ribbon Grass are
a few of the significant seagrass species (Enhalus acoroides).
• These are currently in danger despite once being in great abundance in the Gulf of Mannar
region.

Sea-Grass
Seaweeds

• The term "seaweed" is used to refer to a huge variety of marine plants and algae that can be
found in rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water in addition to the ocean.
• The term refers to a few more varieties of macroalgae from the Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta
(brown), and Chlorophyta (green) families.
• Other species, including planktonic algae, play a crucial role in collecting carbon, creating at
least 50% of Earth's oxygen.
• Seaweed species like kelps provide crucial nursery habitats for fisheries and other marine
creatures and hence protect food sources.
Sea Cucumber:

• These are part of a larger animal group called echinoderms and are invertebrates that live on
the seafloor.
• Their body shape is similar to a cucumber, but they have small tentacle-like tube feet that are
used for locomotion and feeding.
• There are about 1,250 species of sea cucumber, all of which belong to the taxonomic class
Holothuroidea.
• They are found in all marine environments throughout the world, from shallow to deep-sea
environments. Sea cucumbers are benthic, meaning they live on the ocean floor.
• They excrete inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, enhancing the productivity of benthic
biota.
• Reproduction:
o Sea cucumbers exhibit sexual and asexual reproduction.
o Unlike most terrestrial animals, sea cucumber eggs undergo external fertilization—
females release eggs into the water that are fertilized when they come into contact with
sperm that males have released.
• Conservation status
o Wildlife Protection Act of 1972: Schedule I
o CITES: Appendix II

Recently, nearly 105 kilograms of sea cucumber was seized by the Indian Coast Guard (ICG) near
Attangarai in the Ramanathapuram district of Tamil Nadu.
BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, encompassing the diversity of species, ecosystems, and
genetic diversity within species. It is measured by two components:
Species Richness: A measure of the number of different species present in a particular ecological
community, ecosystem, or area.
It quantifies the diversity of species and provides information about the variety of life within a
specific habitat.
Tropical rainforests in the terrestrial ecosystem and coral reefs in the marine ecosystem have the
highest degree of species richness.
Species Evenness: A measure of how evenly individuals are distributed among the different species in
a given area.
It assesses the balance in the abundance of each species, indicating whether one or a few species
dominate the ecosystem or if the distribution of individuals is more uniform across various species.
Example: A sample forest A has 2 tigers, 6 deer and 7 rabbits and sample forest B has 1 tiger, 6 deer
and 8 rabbits. Both samples have the same richness (3 species) and the number of individuals (15).
However, sample forest A has more evenness than sample forest B.
TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY
Genetic Diversity: encompasses the variety of genetic characteristics within a species. For example, in
Homo sapiens, diverse genetic characteristics are evident among different ethnic groups, such as
Chinese, Indian, and African. This diversity is crucial for species adaptation to changing
environments, ensuring survival through significant environmental changes.
Species Diversity: a measure of the diversity within an ecological community, considering both
species richness and the evenness of their distribution. It quantifies the ratio of one species’ population
to the total number of organisms across all species in a biome.
A diversity index of ‘0’ represents infinite diversity, while ‘1’ indicates only one species present.
Generally, species diversity decreases from the equator toward the poles, with some exceptions.
Ecological Diversity: refers to the variety of habitats within a region. For example, India exhibits
significant ecological diversity with deserts, rainforests, mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, estuaries,
and alpine meadows.
R H Whittaker Classification of Biodiversity:
Alpha Diversity: The diversity within a specific area or ecosystem, typically represented by the
number of species (species richness) present in that particular ecosystem.
Beta Diversity: The measure of diversity that compares the changes in the number of species between
different ecosystems. It examines the variations in species composition between distinct habitats or
areas.
Gamma Diversity: The overall diversity encompassing all the different ecosystems within a particular
region. It provides a comprehensive view of the total biodiversity across various habitats in a larger
geographic area.
Types of Species:
Keystone Species: A species with a disproportionately large impact on its ecosystem, influencing
biodiversity and maintaining ecological balance. Their addition or removal triggers significant
changes, impacting the occurrence of other species. Losing a keystone species can lead to the
degradation of the entire ecosystem. Example: Sea otters in kelp forests—their presence controls sea
urchin populations, preserving kelp and supporting diverse marine life.
Indicator Species: Species that reflect the overall health of an ecosystem, serving as indicators of
environmental conditions. Example: Frogs and amphibians, which are sensitive to changes in water
quality and habitat conditions.
Endemic Species: Species native and restricted to a specific geographic area, found nowhere else in
the world. Example: The kiwi bird in New Zealand, which is not found in any other country.
Invasive Alien Species: Non-native species introduced to a new environment, often causing harm to
local ecosystems, economy, or human health. Example: The European starling in North America,
impacting local bird populations and ecosystems.
Flagship Species: Species chosen to represent a conservation cause, often charismatic, to raise
awareness and garner support. Example: Giant pandas, used to highlight the importance of conserving
bamboo forest habitats.
Umbrella Species: Species selected for conservation of an entire ecosystem to indirectly protect the
broader biodiversity of their habitat. Example: Protecting the habitat of the Bengal tiger can benefit a
wide range of species sharing the same ecosystem.
Foundational Species: Species that play a fundamental role in shaping and maintaining their
ecosystem. E.g. Beavers, which build dams that create wetlands, influencing water flow and
supporting various species.
Endemism- Endemism refers to the ecological condition where a species is exclusively found in a
specific defined geographic area, such as an island, nation, country, or distinct habitat. If organisms
native to a particular place are also found in other locations, they are not considered endemic. The
contrasting concept to endemism is a cosmopolitan distribution, where a species is widespread and
found across various regions or habitats.
Bioprospecting- Exploration of biodiversity to discover commercially valuable genetic resources and
biochemicals. Involves deriving economically important products by exploring molecular, genetic,
and species diversityin nations rich in biodiversity.
Biopiracy- Unauthorized taking of genetic resources and traditional knowledge from biodiverse
developing countries. Stolen traditional knowledge benefits non-indigenous entities through products
or patents without compensating the indigenous people.
Regulation: Addressed by the Nagoya Protocol to the Convention on Biological Diversity, ensuring
fair and equitable sharing of benefits from using traditional knowledge and genetic resources.
Biodiversity of India-
Mega-Diverse Country: India is classified as a megadiverse country, characterized by extraordinarily
rich biodiversity that supports a significant portion of the Earth’s species. These countries,
constituting only about 10% of the Earth’s surface, house around 70% of terrestrial biological
diversity.
UN-identified Mega-Diverse Countries: According to the World Conservation Monitoring Centre
(WCMC) of the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), India is among 17 megadiverse
countries, alongside Australia, Brazil, China, and others.
Biodiversity Statistics: India possesses 24.62%of its area under forest and tree cover. Despite
occupying only 2.4% of the global land area, India harbors nearly 7-8% of recorded species while
supporting almost 18% of the human population.
Biogeographic Diversity: India represents two realms, five biomes, ten biogeographic zones, and
twenty-five biogeographic provinces. It is home to 91,000 species of animals and 45,500 species of
plants.
Endemism: A notable feature is the high endemism, with 12.6% of mammals, 4.5% of birds, 45.8%
of reptiles, 55.8% of amphibians, and 33% of Indian plants being endemic to the region.
Biogeographic Realms: Large spatial regions where ecosystems exhibit broadly similar biota or
biological communities. Globally, there are eight recognized terrestrial biogeographic realms. The
Indian region is situated in two biogeographic realms:
Himalayan Region: Represented by the Palearctic Realm.
Rest of the Subcontinent: Represented by the Malayan Realm.
Biomes:Main groups of plants and animals in areas with specific climate patterns, depicting
interactions among animals, vegetation, and soil.
Indian Biomes:Tropical Humid Forests, Tropical Deciduous Forests (Monsoon Forests), Warm
deserts and semi-deserts, Coniferous forests, Alpine meadows.
Biogeographic Provinces: Ecosystemic or biotic subdivisions of realms. India is divided into 25
biogeographic provinces.
Biogeography: Study of the geographical distribution of plants and animals. 10 Biogeographic Zones
in India: Trans Himalaya, The Himalaya, The Indian Desert, The Semi-Arid, The Western Ghats, The
Deccan Peninsula, The Gangetic Plain, The Coasts,Northeast India, Islands.
Biodiversity Hotspots-
Initiator: Coined by British biologist Norman Myers; adopted by Conservation International (CI).
Conservation International Criteria for Hotspots-
Must have at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics (> 0.5% of the world’s total).
Must have lost at least 70% of its original habitat (30% or less of its original natural vegetation).
Number of Hotspots: Initially, 25 hotspots were identified in 1999; currently, 36 hotspots cover 2.5%
of the Earth’s land surface.
Significance: Hotspots support over half of the world’s plant species as endemics and nearly 43% of
bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species as endemics.
India’s Biodiversity Hotspots:
Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region and neighbouring countries.
Indo-Burma: Covers North-Eastern India, the Andaman Islands, and several Southeast Asian
countries.
Sundalands: Encompasses Nicobar Islands, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and the
Philippines.
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka.
Loss of Biodiversity-
IUCN Red List -Documents the extinction of 784 species in the last 500 years.
Examples include the Passenger Pigeon, Steller’s Sea Cow, and three tiger subspecies (Bali, Javan,
Caspian).
Mass Extinctions- Five episodes of mass extinctions occurred over more than 3 billion years.
The ongoing Sixth Extinction (anthropogenic) is estimated to be 100 to 1,000 times faster than pre-
human times.
Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES):
IPBES, based in Bonn, Germany, comprises 130 member countries, including India.Estimated 8
million species on Earth, with 1 million threatened with extinction, including 40% of amphibians,
33% of reef-forming corals, and over a third of marine mammals.
IPBES is often termed the “Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for biodiversity.”
IPBES ‘Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services 2019
Nearly half of the natural ecosystems vanished due to human activities. Impacts include land
degradation, agricultural expansion, sea-level rise, greenhouse gas emissions, and plastic pollution.
100-300 million people are at increased risk due to the loss of coastal habitat protection.
Living Planet Report 2022- Biennial report released by WWF, reports a 69% decline in wildlife
populations globally over the last 50 years.
The highest decline (94%) was in Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa recorded a 66% fall, and
the Asia-Pacific recorded a decline of 55%.Freshwater species populations globally were reduced by
83%.
State of the World’s Birds-BirdLife International’s annual report indicates that 48% of bird species
worldwide are suspected to be undergoing population declines.
1 in 8 bird species is threatened with extinction.The trophic cascade effect (a side-effect when a
trophic level (species) of the ecosystem is reduced or removed) is identified as a major threat.
Causes Behind Biodiversity Loss-
Natural Ecological Disturbances:Weather, wildfires, floods, and volcanic eruptions cause temporary
ecosystem changes.Natural disturbances are part of ecological succession and are usually adapted by
ecosystems.
Evil Quartet - Major Causes
Habitat Loss: Reduction in space for species, often due to activities like deforestation and
urbanization.
Overexploitation: Excessive use of natural resources, leading to depletion of species like fish and
trees.
Alien Species: Introduction of non-native species that disrupt ecosystems.
Secondary Extinction: Extinction of one species triggers the loss of others dependent on it.
WWF’s Six Key Threats: Agriculture, hunting, logging, pollution, invasive species, and climate
change contribute to biodiversity loss.
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
In-situ Conservation-Conservation of genetic resources in natural populations. Examples: Biosphere
reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected forests, and nature reserves.
Wildlife Sanctuaries-Areas safeguarding endangered species in their natural habitat. Declared
through a notification (no need to pass legislation) by the respective state governments and protected
under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
Certain rights like grazing and firewood collection may be permitted but strictly regulated. However,
mining is not permitted - Supreme Court.
A sanctuary can be promoted to a National Park.
Tiger Reserves: Same protection status as wildlife sanctuaries.
Monitored by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) under Project Tiger.
National Parks-Strict protection, no rights permitted. Clearly defined boundaries (unlike wildlife
sanctuaries), can be changed by the state legislature on the recommendation of the National Board of
Wildlife. Protected under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
Biosphere Reserves: Large protected areas involving terrestrial, marine, and coastal ecosystems.
Designated under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme. Learning places for sustainable
development. Managed under the sovereign jurisdiction of countries. The most important strategy for
the conservation of biodiversity together with traditional human life.
Seville Strategy- Adopted in 1995, emphasizing a community-based approach for biosphere reserves.
Includes social, cultural, spiritual, and economic needs alongside scientific research.
Core Buffer Strategy-
Core Area: Strictly protected with no human activity.
Buffer Zone: Limited human activity allowed for research, monitoring, and education.
Transition Area: Permits ecologically sustainable human settlements and economic activities.
Protected Areas in terms of protection: Protected forests < Reserved forests < Wildlife Sanctuaries <
National Parks.
Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs)- ESZs, notified by the Ministry of Environment, aim to enhance
protection around national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.
Purpose: Act as a buffer to minimize forest depletion and human-animal conflict.
Regulations and Notifications: Mandated by the National Wildlife Action Plan (2002–2016) for state
governments to declare land within 10 km of parks and sanctuaries as ESZs.
Width and regulations vary; areas beyond 10 km can also be notified as ESZs for ecologically
important corridors.
Supreme Court’s directive in June 2022:Mandatory minimum one km ESZ from boundaries. ESZs
follow the core and buffer model.
Legal Status-The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Environment Rules, 1986 allows the
Government of India to restrict areas where certain industries,operations, or processes can be carried
out, subject to specific safeguards.
Activities Prohibited/Restricted/Allowed in ESZs:
Prohibited: Commercial mining, sawmills, polluting industries, commercial firewood use, major
hydropower, aerial tourism, and waste discharge.
Regulated: Tree felling, agriculture changes, commercial water use, hotels, and resorts.
Permitted: Local agriculture, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, green technology adoption, and
renewable energy uses.
Conservation Reserves-State Governments can declare Conservation Reserves in areas they own,
especially those adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries. Declaration involves consultations with
local communities to ensure their involvement.
Community Reserves- State Governments can declare Community Reserves on private or community
land where individuals or communities volunteer for wildlife conservation. Excludes land within
National Parks, Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves. Rights of people within these reserves
remain unaffected.
Protected Areas (PAs)- Defined in the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. Encompass National Parks,
Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves.
Sacred Groves- Tracts of forests preserved by ancient societies for religious and cultural reasons.
Trees and wildlife within are venerated and protected by communities.
Found in various regions, including Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan,
Western Ghats of Karnataka and Maharashtra, and Chanda and Bastar areas of Chhattisgarh.
Ex Situ Conservation-Involves relocating threatened animals and plants from their natural habitat to
protected environments for special care.
Examples include Zoological Parks, Botanical Gardens, Wildlife Safari Parks, and Seed Banks.
Cryopreservation Techniques: Advancements in ex-situ conservation includecryopreservation for
preserving gametes of threatened species.
Enables the storage of viable and fertile gametes for extended periods.
In Vitro Fertilization and Tissue Culture: Eggs can be fertilized in vitro, and plants can be propagated
using tissue culture techniques.
Seed Banks- Seeds of various genetic strains, especially of commercially important plants, can be
stored for extended periods in seed banks.
The National Gene Bank at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR),Delhi,
is a key institution responsible for long-term conservation of unique accessions, mainly in seed form.
 Preservation of Western and Eastern Ghats: Western Ghats spans six states, showcasing high species
endemism and is recognized as a UNESCOWorld Heritage Site.
Eastern Ghats face threats like deforestation, sand mining, and human encroachment. The Madhav
Gadgil Committee recommended stringent measures for the conservation of the Western Ghats, but
the Kasturirangan Committee diluted some proposals.
October 2018 notification by MoEF aimed to protect the Western Ghats by declaring ~57,000 sq km
as ecologically sensitive areas.
Historic Citizen Movements- Sundarlal Bahuguna, an environmentalist known as the Defender of the
Himalayas andEnvironmental Gandhi, led the Chipko and Tehri dam movements.
The Chipko Movement, starting in 1973, involvedtree hugging to prevent deforestation and led to
people-sensitive forest policies.
The Appiko Movement (1983) in Karnataka and the Anti-Tehri Dam Protest were inspired by the
success of the Chipko Movement.
Women played a crucial role in the Chipko Movement, with Gaura Devi leading in Reni Village.
Sundarlal Bahuguna’s efforts resulted in a 15-year ban on cutting green trees after a meeting with
Indira Gandhi in 1980.
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)- Legally binding multilateral treaty established in 1992
during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Aim to achieve sustainable development through 3 main
goals:
The conservation of biological diversity.
Sustainable utilization of its components.
Fair sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.

196 parties to the Convention- all UN member states, excluding the United States, have ratified.
Cartagena Protocol (On Biosafety)- International agreement adopted in 2000, part of the CBD.
(entered into force in 2003)
Focuses on the safe handling, transport, and use of living modified organisms resulting from modern
biotechnology.
Aims to address technology development, transfer, benefit-sharing, and biosafety issues.
India is a party.
Nagoya Protocol (On Access and Benefit-sharing)-Adopted in 2010, it is a supplementary agreement
to the CBD. Focuses on access to genetic resources and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits
arising from their utilization. Entered into force in 2014, with 137 parties, including India.
International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA):
Known as the International Seed Treaty, aligns with CBD. Aims to guarantee food security through
the conservation, exchange, and sustainable use of plant genetic resources, ensuring fair and equitable
benefitsharing.
Aichi Biodiversity Targets-
Agreed upon at CBD COP 12 in 2014 as a part of Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020. Includes
goals to address underlying causes of biodiversity loss, reduce direct pressures, safeguard ecosystems,
enhance benefits from biodiversity, and promote participatory management.
None of the 20 targets have been met according to CBD’s Global Biodiversity Outlook report.
Sharm El Sheikh Declaration – New Deal for Nature:
Adopted at COP 14 in Egypt.Focuses on integrating biodiversity into legislative and policy
frameworks. Aims to develop a Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework. (after failed Aichi targets)
to achieve the 2050 vision for biodiversity known as New Deal for Nature.
COP-15 of the UN CBD-Adopted the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (post 2020
Global Biodiversity Framework).
Sets four global goals to be achieved by 2050, including reducing extinction rates, sustainable
biodiversity use, fair benefit-sharing, and closing the biodiversity finance gap.
A new Global Biodiversity Framework Fund will be established under the Global Environment
Facility. It targets at least USD 200 billion annually by 2030.
India’s Demands at COP 15: Urgent need for a dedicated fund to assist developing countries.
Emphasis on ‘Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities’ for
biodiversity conservation.
Post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework-4 global goals by 2050: Reducing the extinction rate and
risk of all species tenfold (by 2050); sustainable biodiversity use; fair benefit-sharing; and adequate
finance and technology to implement the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework,
progressively closing the biodiversity finance gap of 700 billion $ annually.
23 targets by 2030, covering threat reduction, sustainable use, implementation tools, and
mainstreaming biodiversity.
Global Partnership on Forest and Landscape Restoration (GPFLR)-
A global network to restore lost and degraded forests (initiated by IUCN). Aligns with the Bonn
Challenge, aiming to restore 150 million hectares by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030.
Bonn Challenge - Launched in 2011(Government of Germany and IUCN), targets restoring 350
million hectares of deforested and degraded land by 2030(under New York Declaration on Forests).
India joined voluntarily, pledging to restore 26 million hectares by 2030.
Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR)-Coined in 2000 by IUCN and WWF, FLR aims to regain
ecological integrity and enhance human well-being in deforested and degraded landscapes. Involves a
planned process focusing on entire landscapes.
XV World Forestry Congress and Seoul Declaration-Held in Seoul with a theme of building a green,
healthy, and resilient future with forests.Held every six years since 1926 under the auspices of FAO
and organised by the government of the host country.
Seoul Declaration stresses a transition to a circular bioeconomy and achieving climate neutrality.
Initiatives by the UN-United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017–2030:
Adopted at the UN Forum on Forests in 2017 and ratified by the UN General Assembly.
Features six Global Forest Goals with 26 associated targets to be achieved by 2030.
Includes a voluntary and universal target to increase global forest area by 3% by 2030, equivalent to a
120 million-hectare increase.
Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030): Proclaimed by the United Nations General
Assembly. Aims to work towards ecosystem restoration from 2021 to 2030.
 Biodiversity Finance Initiative (BIOFIN): Launched by UNDP in 2012 to address the biodiversity
finance gap at the national level. Aids in implementing the National Biodiversity Action Plan (NBAP)
and making progress towards achieving National Biodiversity Targets (NBTs).In India, BIOFIN is
hosted by the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA – MoEF), working with State Biodiversity
Boards, with technical assistance from the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) and the National Institute
of Public Finance and Policy (NIPFP).
Biodiversity of India

• India is recognised as one of the mega-diverse countries, rich in biodiversity and associated
traditional knowledge.
• India has 23.39% forest and tree cover.
• India accounts for nearly 7% of the recorded species despite having only 2.4% of the land area
and supporting nearly 18% of the human population.
• In terms of species richness, India ranks seventh in mammals, ninth in birds, and fifth in reptiles.
• In terms of vertebrate endemism, India ranks tenth in birds with 69 species, fifth in reptiles with
156 species, and seventh in amphibians with 110 species.
• India's crop share is 44%, compared to the world average of 11%.
• India represents:
o Two Realms
o Five Biomes
o Ten Biogeographic Zones
o Twenty-five bio-geographic provinces

What are Realms?

• Biogeographic realms are large geographic areas where ecosystems share a broadly similar biota.
• A realm is a continent or subcontinent-sized area with unifying geographical and fauna and flora
features.
• The Indian region is divided into two realms:
• The Himalayan region is represented by Palearctic Realm;
• The rest of the subcontinent is represented by Malayan Realm.
• Palearctic Realm - The Palearctic, also known as the Palaearctic, is the largest of the Earth's
eight biogeographic realms. It encompasses all of Eurasia north of the Himalayan foothills,
as well as North Africa.
• The realm is divided into several bioregions: the Mediterranean Basin, the Sahara and Arabian
Deserts, as well as Western, Central, and East Asia.
• There are numerous rivers and lakes in the Palaearctic realm, forming several freshwater
ecoregions.
• The term "Palearctic" was coined in the nineteenth century and is still used as the basis for
zoogeographic classification today.
• Malayan Realm - According to the Bioregions 2020 framework, Indomalaya is one of the
world's eight major biogeographical realms and has three subrealms: the Indian Subcontinent,
Southeast Asian Forests, and Malaysia and Western Indonesia, with a total of 18 bioregions.
• With its dense rainforests, this is one of the world's most important areas for biodiversity,
containing one-fifth of all plant, animal, and marine species.
• The region is home to three mega-diverse countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines,
which are home to four of the world's 25 biodiversity hotspots.
• The western Indian Subcontinent is capped by the long, curving Himalayan mountain range and
includes dry forests, scrublands, and deserts up to the Arakan mountain range.
• The Southeast Asia subrealm, dominated by subtropical evergreen forests, extends northward
from the Indochinese Peninsula to the edge of China's Yunnan-Guizhou plateau.
• The South China Sea and the Philippines are also included in this subrealm.
• Further south, the Malaysia & West Indonesia subrealm, which contains hundreds of islands, is
dominated by moist broadleaf forests and coastal mangroves.
Biogeographic Realms

• At the broadest level, referred to as the realm in Udvardy (1975), all of India falls within the
Indomalayan realm, with the exception of the high Himalayas, which fall within the Palearctic
realm.
• The majority of India is part of the Indomalayan realm's "Indian Subcontinent" bioregion, which
includes the majority of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka.
• The bioregion is bounded on the northwest, north, and northeast by the Hindu Kush, Karakoram,
Himalaya, and Patkai ranges; these ranges were formed by the collision of the northward-drifting
Indian subcontinent with Asia 45 million years ago.
• The Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalaya ranges form a major biogeographic barrier between
the Indian subcontinent's subtropical and tropical flora and fauna and the temperate-climate
Palearctic realm.
• The Nicobar Islands, on the other hand, are part of the Indo-Malayan realm's "Sundaland"
bioregion.
• The Himalayas form the southern limit of the Palearctic in South Asia, and it is here that
Palearctic temperate forests transition to Indomalayan subtropical and tropical forests, resulting in
a rich and diverse mix of plant and animal species.

What is a Biome?

• A biome is a large community of vegetation and wildlife that has adapted to a specific climate.
• There are five major types of biomes: aquatic, grassland, forest, desert, and tundra.
• However, some of the above biomes can be further subdivided into more specific categories, such
as freshwater, marine, savanna, tropical rainforest, temperate rainforest, and taiga.
• A biome, also known as a major life zone, is a geographical area that contains communities of
plants and animals that have adapted to the same environment.
• The biome is the largest geographical biological unit, containing a variety of communities named
after the region's major features, such as grasslands, deserts, or forests.
• Temperature, soil, and water are all factors that influence the type of life that exists in a biome.
• Terrestrial, freshwater and marine biomes are the three types of biomes found on Earth.

Importance of Biomes

• The animals and plants with whom we will interact are determined by the biome in which we live.
• The resources we can use to build with, the foods we can find, cultivate, and hunt for, the clothing
we need to wear, and so on are all influenced by the biome in which we live.
• When people in a biome can grow their own food and have access to nutritious, safe, and
sufficient food to live a fit and healthy life, the region is considered food secure.
• Biomes provide important services and roles such as water catchment, biodiversity reserves,
cultural and recreational needs, and possibly a carbon sink to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Biome Examples

• Terrestrial biomes include grasslands, deserts, and tropical rainforests.

• Freshwater biomes include polar freshwaters, great lakes, tropical and subtropical coastal rivers,
temperate coastal rivers, and other freshwater biomes.
• Examples of marine biomes include continental shelves, tropical coral reefs, and kelp forests.
• When biome boundaries converge, an ecotone is formed. Two common examples are riparian
zones and salt marshes.

Biomes in India
India's biomes can be broadly classified into the five categories listed below:

• Tropical evergreen and semi-evergreen forests

• Tropical deciduous forests
• Tropical thorn forests
• Montane Forest
• Littoral and swamp forests

Tropical Evergreen and Semi-evergreen Forests

Location

• Tropical evergreen forests can be found on the western slopes of the Western Ghats, as well as in
the hills of the north eastern region and on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• They live in warm, humid climates with annual precipitation of more than 200 cm and mean
annual temperatures above 22 degrees Celsius.
Characteristics

• Tropical evergreen forests are well stratified, with layers closer to the ground, and are covered
with shrubs and creepers, with short structured trees followed by tall trees of various species.
• Trees in these forests can grow to heights of 60 m or more.
• There is no set period for trees to shed their leaves, flower, and bear fruit. As a result, these forests
appear green all year.
Species

• Rosewood, mahogony, aini, ebony, and other species are found in these forests.

Semi-evergreen Forests
Location

• Semi-evergreen forests are found in less rainy areas of these regions.

• These forests contain a mix of evergreen and moist deciduous trees.
Species

• The main species are white cedar, hollock, and kail.

Tropical Deciduous Forests

• These are India's most common forests.

• They're also known as monsoon forests.
• Location: They are found in areas where rainfall ranges from 70 to 200 cm.
• These forests are further classified as moist or dry deciduous based on the availability of water.

Moist Deciduous Forests

Location

• Moist deciduous forests are more prevalent in areas with rainfall ranging from 100 to 200 cm.
• These forests can be found in the north-eastern states along the Himalayan foothills, the Eastern
Ghats, and Odisha.

Species

• The main species of these forests include teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum,
and sandalwood, among others.

Dry Deciduous Forest

Location

• It covers large areas of the country where rainfall averages 70-100 cm.
• It transitions to moist deciduous forests on the wetter margins and to thorn forests on the drier
margins.
• These forests can be found in the rainier areas of the Peninsula as well as the plains of Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar.
Species

• Common trees in these forests include tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axlewood, and others.

Tropical Thorn Forests

Location

• Tropical thorn forests grow in areas where the annual rainfall is less than 50 cm. These include a
variety of grasses and shrubs.
• It includes semi-arid areas of south-west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
and Uttar Pradesh.
Features

• Plants in these forests are leafless for most of the year, giving the appearance of scrub vegetation.
Species

• Important species discovered include babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas,
and others.

Montane Forests

• Mountain forests are divided into two types: northern mountain forests and southern mountain
forests.
• The Himalayan ranges exhibit a succession of vegetation from tropical to tundra, which changes
with altitude.
• The Himalayan foothills are home to deciduous forests.
• Wet temperate forests at elevations ranging from 1,000 to 2,000 metres.
• Pine forests are also well-developed in this zone between 1500-1750 m, with Chir Pine being a
very useful commercial tree.
• Deodar, a highly valued endemic species, grows primarily in the western Himalayan range.
Deodar is a long-lasting wood that is primarily used in construction.
• Similarly, the chinar and walnut, which sustain the famous Kashmir handicrafts, are native to this
region.
• Blue pine and spruce appear at elevations ranging from 2,225 to 3,048 metres.
• Temperate grasslands can also be found in many areas of this zone.
• Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch, and rhododendrons, among others, grow between 3,000 and
4,000 metres.
• These pastures are extensively used for transhumance by tribes such as the Gujjars, Bakarwals,
Bhotiyas, and Gaddis.
• Mosses and lichens are part of the tundra vegetation at higher altitudes.
• The southern mountain forests include forests found in three distinct areas of Peninsular India: the
Western Ghats, the Vindhyas, and the Nilgiris.
• Temperate forests are known as Sholas in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai, and Palani hills.
• Other economically important trees in this forest include magnolia, laurel, cinchona, and wattle.
Such forests can also be found in the Satpura and Maikal ranges.

Littoral and Swamp Forests

• Mangroves grow along the coasts in salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats, and estuaries. They are
made up of several salt-tolerant plant species.
• These forests, which are crisscrossed by creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows, provide habitat
for a diverse range of birds.
• Mangrove forests cover 6,740 square kilometres in India, accounting for 7% of the world's total.
• They are well developed in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and West Bengal's Sunderbans. The
Mahanadi, Godavari, and Krishna deltas are also important

Biogeographic Zones of India

Trans-Himalayan Region

• It accounts for 5.6% of the total geographical area.

• Indian part of it includes the high altitude, cold, and arid mountain areas of
o Ladakh,
o Jammu and Kashmir,
o North Sikkim,
o Lahaul, and Spiti areas of Himachal Pradesh.
• This zone has sparse alpine steppe vegetation that supports several endemic species and is a
suitable habitat for the world's largest populations of wild sheep and goats, as well as other
rare fauna such as the Snow Leopard and the migratory Blacknecked Crane (Grus nigricollis).
• This zone's cold, dry desert is an extremely vulnerable ecosystem.
Himalayan Zone

• It accounts for 6.4% of the total geographical area and contains some of the highest peaks in the
world.
• The Himalayan zone makes India one of the richest areas in terms of habitats and species.
• Location: East, northwest, west, and central Himalayas
• The alpine and subalpine forests, grassy meadows, and moist mixed deciduous forests provide
diverse habitat for endangered bovid species such as Bharal (Pseudois nayaur), Ibex (Capra
ibex), Markhor (Capra falconeri), Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlabicus), and Takin
(Budoreas taxicolor).
• Other rare and endangered species restricted to this zone include Hangul (Cervus eldi
eldi) and Musk Deer (Moschus moschiferus).
Indian Desert Zone

• The extremely arid region west of the Aravalli hill range, which includes both Gujarat's salty
desert and Rajasthan's sand desert.
• The Indian desert forms India's northern boundary, encompassing primarily the western and
northwestern regions of Rajasthan, as well as a portion of the Kachchh region of Gujarat in the
southwest.
• It is 350-450 metres above sea level in the east at the Aravalli range, 100 metres in the south and
west, and 20 metres in the Rann of Kachchh.
• It has large expanses of grassland that support several endangered species of mammals such as
Wolf (Canis lupus), Caracal (Felis caracal), Desert Cat (Felis libyca), and birds of conservation
 interest such as Houbara Bustard (Chamydotis undulate) and the Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis
nigriceps).
Semi-arid Zone

• The semi-arid region accounts for 16.6% of the total geographical area.
• It is a transition zone between the desert and the dense forests of the Western Ghats.
• Peninsular India has two large semi-arid regions. This semi-arid region also has several artificial
and natural lakes, as well as marshy lands.
• This zone includes the Punjab plains, Delhi, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir's fringes, Himachal
Pradesh's western edges, eastern Rajasthan, eastern Gujarat, and northwest Madhya Pradesh.
• The area is distinguished by discontinuous vegetation blanketed with bare soil and soil water that
is in short supply all year.
• The dominant grass and palatable shrub layer in this zone supports the most wildlife biomass.
• In Western India, the Semi-arid zone is characterised by savannah woodland, dry deciduous
forest, and tropical thorn forest.
• The heart of this zone is the Aravalli System, which is home to two types of vegetation: tropical
dry deciduous forest and tropical thorn forest.
• The cervid species Sambar (Cervus unicolor) and Chital (Axis axis) are restricted to better
wooded hills and moister valley areas, respectively.
• The Lion (Panthera leo leo), an endangered carnivore species (restricted to a small area in
Gujarat), Caracal (Felis caracal), Jackal (Canis aureus), and Wolf (Canis lupus) are among the
endangered species found in this region.

Western Ghats

• The Western Ghats account for 4% of the total geographical area.

• It is one of India's major tropical evergreen forest regions.
• The Western Ghats zone is one of the world's 25 biodiversity 'hotspots' and one of India's major
tropical evergreen forested regions, with enormous plant diversity.
• The Western Ghats run along the west coast of peninsular India from the Tapti river in the north to
Kanyakumari in the south, passing through the states of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
• The region is home to nearly 4000 species of flowering plants, accounting for nearly 27% of
India's total flora. Over 1500 of these species are endemic.
• The Western Ghats region is a significant genetic estate with a diverse array of ancient lineages.
• The Western Ghats are home to viable populations of most of the vertebrate species found in
peninsular India, as well as an endemic faunal element.
• Nilgiri Langur (Presbytis jobni), Lion Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus), Grizzled Giant Squirrel
(Ratufa macroura), Malabar Civet (Viverricula megaspila), Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus bylocrius),
and Malabar Grey Hornbill (Ocycerous griseus) are all endemic to this region.
• The Travancore Tortoise (Indotestudo forstem) and Cane Turtle (Heosemys silvatica) are two
endangered species found only in a small area of the central Western Ghats.

Deccan Plateau
• The Deccan Plateau is India's largest biogeographic region, accounting for 42% of the total
geographical area.
• It is a semi-arid region located in the rain shadow of the Western Ghats.
• The zone is relatively homogeneous, with climates ranging from semi-arid to moist-
deciduous/semi-evergreen.
• This bio-geographic zone of peninsular India is by far the most extensive, covering India's finest
forests, particularly in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Odisha.
• The Vindhya and Satpura hill ranges, the Chhota Nagpur Plateau, the Eastern Ghats, the Tamil
Nadu Plains, and the Karnataka Plateau are all part of the central highlands. The Vindhya and
Satpura hill ranges are famous for their diverse flora.
• The majority of the forests are deciduous, but there are areas of greater biological diversity in the
hill ranges. The zone, which includes deciduous forests, thorn forests, and degraded scrubland, is
home to a variety of wildlife species.
• Species found in this region include:
o Chital (Axis axis), Sambar (Cervus unicolor), Nilgai (Boselapbus tragocamelus), Chousingha
(Tetracerus quadricornis), Barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), Gaur (Antilope cervicapra),
Elephant (Elephas maximus) in Bihar-Orissa and Karnataka-Tamil Nadu belts.
o Wild Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in a small area near the border of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, and
Maharashtra.
o The hard ground Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), which is now restricted to a single locality
in Madhya Pradesh.

Gangetic Plain

• The Gangetic Plain accounts for about 10.8 percent of the total geographical area. The
Gangetic plain is topographically homogeneous for hundreds of kilometers.
• The Gangetic divide, the Upper Gangetic Plain, the Middle Gangetic Plain, and the Lower
Gangetic Plain are all part of this zone.
• This zone, which stretches from eastern Rajasthan through Uttar Pradesh to Bihar and West
Bengal, is mostly agricultural and has a dense human population.
• The Gangetic plain encompasses the Terai-Bhabar tracts of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West
Bengal.
• Teak, Shisham, Sal, Khair, and other trees from these forests have some of the highest population
densities and topographic uniformity.
• This region's fauna includes the Rhinoceros unicornis, Elephant (Elephas maximus), Buffalo
(Bubalus bubalis), Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli), Hog-Deer (Axis porcinus), and Hispid Hare
(Carprolagus bispidus).

North East Region

• The North East Region accounts for 5.2 percent of the total geographical area.
• This region is a transition zone between the Indian, Indo-Malayan, and Indo-Chinese bio-
geographical regions, as well as a meeting point for the Himalayan mountains and Peninsular
India.
• The North-East is thus a biogeographical 'gateway' for much of India's fauna and flora, as well as
a biodiversity hotspot (Eastern Himalaya).
• Many of the species that contribute to this biological diversity are either restricted to the region
itself or to smaller localised areas of the Khasi Hills.

Islands

• This zone, which accounts for 0.3% of India's total geographical area, is one of the three
tropical moist evergreen forest zones.
• The islands are home to unique flora and fauna. These islands are high endemism hotspots, with
some of India's finest evergreen forests and a diverse range of corals.
• The islands are divided into two major groups: the Lakshadweep Islands and the Andaman
Islands.
• Andaman Islands
o The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are a 348-island group in the Bay of Bengal that runs
north-south.
o The Andaman Islands are about 190 kilometres from the nearest point on the mainland, Cape
Negrais in Burma.
o The Great Andaman (300 km long) is made up of five islands that are close together, with
the Little Andaman to the south.
o The Nicobar groups of islands are separated from the Andamans and from one another by
800 m deep channels.
o Some of the endemic fauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands include the Narcondam
hornbill and the South Andaman krait.
• Lakshadweep Islands
o The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of 27 small islands located in the Arabian Sea. They
are 320 kilometres from Kerala's coast.
o The Lakshadweep is made up of 25 coral islets with a typical reef lagoon system rich in
biodiversity. However, the densely populated Lakshadweep islands have almost no natural
vegetation.

Coastal Region

• The coastal region accounts for 2.5 percent of total geographical area, and its sandy beaches,
mangroves, mud flats, coral reefs, and marine angiosperm pastures make it India's wealth and
health zone.
• The coastline from Gujarat to the Sunderbans is estimated to be 5,423 kilometres long.
What is Fauna?

• Fauna refers to local animal life. Fauna or "Faunus" is the name of the fertility goddess in Roman
mythology. Another source is "Fauns," which means "Forest spirits."
• The animal kingdom is made up of various animal life forms. As a result, fauna classification is
far more complex than floral classification. As a result, for simplicity,
o Birds - Avifauna
o Fish - Pisci Fauna
o Microorganisms (eg: bacteria and viruses) - Microfauna
o Unknown and undiscovered animals - Cryptofauna
• In India, the kingdoms Animalia and Protista (previously classified as Animalia) contain 1,02,718
species, of which 99,173 are classified as Animalia.
• There are 6,350 vertebrates and the rest are invertebrates. This means that invertebrates account
for nearly 94% of India's fauna.

Fauna Classification
Vertebrates

• Vertebrates are animals with backbones and spinal columns.

• Vertebrates are the most advanced organisms on the planet.
• Although vertebrates make up a very small proportion of all animals, their size and mobility often
allow them to dominate their environment.
• The subphylum Vertebrata (fishes, amphibians, birds, reptiles, and mammals) accounts for 6.4%
of all animals in India, with fishes being the largest group.
• Factors such as habitat destruction, overexploitation, invasive alien species, and climate change
pose serious threats to their survival.
1. Fish

• Fish are cold-blooded creatures that live in water and breathe through their gills rather than their
lungs.
• They also have scales and fins and lay eggs.
2. Amphibians

• Amphibians are cold blooded.

• They live on land and water and have webbed feet.
• They breathe with lungs and gills.
• They have moist smooth skin and lay eggs.
• They have four legs and sometimes none.
3. Reptiles

• Reptiles are cold blooded and have scales.

• They have dry skin and usually lay eggs.
• Have ear holes instead of ears, and have four legs or no legs.
4. Birds/Aves

• Aves are warm-blooded and have feathers and wings.

• They lay eggs and have two legs.
• They have ear holes instead of ears.
5. Mammals

• Mammals are warm blooded.

• They have hair or fur and they give birth.
• Mammal mothers nurse their young one with milk.
• They breathe with their lungs.
• Mammals live on land and have four legs (or two legs and two arms) and protruding ears.

Invertebrates

• Invertebrates lack a backbone.

• Invertebrates account for more than 98% of all animal species on the planet.
• Invertebrates lack a bone-based internal skeleton.
• Many invertebrates, such as jellyfish and worms, have a fluid-filled, hydrostatic skeleton.
• Others, such as insects and crustaceans, have a hard outer shell.
• Invertebrates are vital components of the ecosystem, performing functions such as pollination,
organic matter decomposition, nutrient cycling, and soil formation. They play an important role in
both land and water food webs.
• Arthropoda is the largest Invertebrate phylum, and Mollusca is the second largest.
1. Annelids

• Annelids have segmented bodies.

• They have highly developed internal organs.
• Can be found almost anywhere in the world.
• They lack limbs.
• Examples include earthworms, leeches, and roundworms.
2. Mollusks

• Most mollusks have a soft, skin-like organ covered by a hard outer shell.
• Mollusks such as the snail and slug live on land.
• Other mollusks that live in water include the oyster, mussel, clam, squid, and octopus.
3. Echinoderms

• Echinoderms are marine animals that live in the ocean.

• Most echinoderms have arms or spines that radiate from the centre of their bodies.
• Common echinoderms include the sea star, sea urchin, sand dollar, and sea cucumber.
4. Protozoa

• Protozoa are single-celled animals.

• They are the tiniest of all animals.
• Most protozoa are microscopic.
• They do, in fact, breathe, move, and reproduce like multicelled animals.
• Examples include Amoebas, flagellates, and so on.
5. Arthropods

• Arthropods have limbs with joints that enable them to move.

• In addition, they have an exoskeleton, which is a hard, external skeleton.
• Arthropods include crustaceans, insects, and arachnids.
6. Arachnids

• Spiders, scorpions, ticks, and mites are examples of common arachnids.

• Antennae do not exist in arachnids.
• Arachnids have two bodies and four pairs of legs.
7. Crustaceans

• Crustaceans are mostly found in the ocean or other bodies of water.

• Crustaceans have a tough outer shell that protects their bodies.
• The crab, lobster, and barnacle are the most well-known crustaceans.
8. Insects

• Insects have an exoskeleton that surrounds their entire body.

• An insect has three body parts, six legs, and antennae.
• Beetles, butterflies, moths, dragonflies, bees, wasps, and praying mantis are some examples.

What is Flora?

• Flora means "Goddess of the Flower" in Latin.

• Flora is a collective term for a group of plant life found in a specific geographic area. This name
represents the entire plant kingdom.
• Many factors influence how flora is classified and differentiated. The best one is the location
where they grow or are found.
• Some grow in deserts or in water, others in hills, and still others are endemic to a specific
geographic location.
• Some have adaptations based on the environment in which they grow. Cactus plants, for example,
are found in deserts.
o To conserve water and protect themselves from predators, they have developed adaptations such
as modified leaves or prickles.
• The agricultural flora is made up of plants that have been cultivated for human consumption.
• Horticulture is the cultivation of ornamental and decorative flowers, also known as garden flora.

Floral Diversity in India

• Floral diversity refers to the variety of plants found in a given region at a given time. It generally
refers to the variety of indigenous or native plants that occur naturally.
• To date, a total of 215,644 plant species have been catalogued on Earth, out of the 298,000
predicted.
• Out of an estimated 16,600 plant species, 8,600 have been recorded from the ocean.
• India, as a tropical country, is home to 54,733 species, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi.
• Floral diversity in India is concentrated in four phytogeographically distinct regions: the
Himalayas, the Western Ghats, Northeast India, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The Indian Flora accounts for 11.4% of all recorded plant species in the world, with
approximately 28% of plant species being endemic to India.
• Angiosperms are the most numerous plant group in India, accounting for 39.92% of the
country's floral diversity.
• Fungi, with 15,504 species, account for the remaining 28.33%. The country also has a high
diversity of cryptogam (Bryophytes and Pteridophytes).
• So far, 1,310 Pteridophytes species and approximately 2,791 Bryophytes species have been
identified in India.
• The Himalayas, Nilgiris, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
also abundant in bryophytes (mosses and liverworts).
• In India, algae and fungi are widely distributed.
• The diversity of marine algae appears to be highest on the Gujarat coast's Okha-Dwarka region
and the Tamil Nadu coast's Mandappam-Pamban region.
• Lichens are composite organisms made up of symbiotic algae and fungi that can be found in
abundance in the Western Ghats, the Eastern and Western Himalayas, and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. So far, 2,961 Lichene species have been identified in India.
• The majority of ferns and gymnosperms (including cycads, pines, firs, and junipers) grow in the
cool temperate zones of the Himalayas and in the mountainous regions of southern India,
particularly in the Western Ghats.
• Current estimates place the Indian flora at nearly 12% of the global floral diversity (excluding
viruses).

Important Floral Groups in India

Algae

• Algae are green non-differentiated plants with chlorophyll. They typically grow in water or in
moist environments.
• Freshwater algae are typically green or blue-green in colour, whereas marine algae are red or
brown.
• These are autotrophic plants, meaning they can produce their own food.
Fungi

• Fungi are non-green, non-differentiated plants that lack chlorophyll completely.

• They grow as saprophytes on dead, rotten organic matter or as parasites on other living bodies
known as hosts.
• Saprophytic fungi include moulds and mushrooms.
• The Western Ghats have the most fungi diversity, followed by the eastern and western Himalayas.
Bacteria

• Non-chlorophyllous microorganisms that live a saprophytic or parasitic existence.

• Many of them are pathogenic, but saprophytic bacteria are beneficial.
• They are soil-borne, and many of them are used in industries.
Lichens

• A lichen is a strange hybrid of an alga and a fungus, with the two living together for mutual
benefit.
• They are a group of greyish green plants that grow on rocks, tree trunks, dead wood, and other
surfaces.
• The algae produces food for the fungus, and it absorbs and retains water, keeping the algal cells
moist.
• They are most common in wetlands, rare in rivers and streams, and not found in groundwater.
Bryophytes

• The plant's body is divided into a small stem and simple leaves, but there are no true roots.
• They prefer moist environments. Examples include liverworts and mosses.
• They are India's second largest group of green plants, primarily found in the Eastern Himalaya,
North-eastern India, Western Himalaya, and Western Ghats.
• Mosses are the most abundant species in Indian bryoflora, followed by liverworts and hornworts.
Pteridophytes

• Pteridophytes have distinct plant bodies composed of roots, stems, and leaves. They also have
vascular bundles.
• The majority of them are terrestrial plants that thrive in moist and shady environments, but some
are aquatic.
• This category includes vascular cryptogams such as clubmosses, horsetails, and ferns, which are
found all over the world.
• The north-eastern region (including the Eastern Himalaya) has the most pteridophytic diversity,
followed by south India (including the Eastern and Western Ghats) and north India (including
Western Himalaya).
Gymnosperms

• Gymnosperms are naked-seeded plants (gymnos=naked, sperma=seed).

• They have simple flowers with no accessory whorls, and their stamens and carpels remain
aggregated in cones.
• Ovules are found on the surface of carpels and are pollinated directly by pollen grains.
• There is no such thing as an ovary, style, or stigma, and there is, of course, no fruit.
• Examples include Cycas, Pinus, and Gnetum.
• The largest family is the pine family. Gnetum and Cycas are mostly found in the North East, the
Eastern and Western Ghats, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Angiosperms

• Angiosperms (angeion - a case) are closed-seeded plants.

• These are the most developed plants, with flowers that have prominent accessory and essential
whorls.
• Carpels have the ovary, style, and stigma.
• The ovary usually develops into a fruit and the ovules into seeds in response to fertilisation. As a
result, the seeds remain inside the fruits.
• More than 7% of the world's flowering plants are found in India.
Floral Endemism

• Floral Endemism refers to the phenomenon of flower species being restricted to a specific
geographical area. Its metric defines species diversity at any given location.
• The following is the sequence of floral endemism in India (in descending order):
o Peninsular India, including the Western and Eastern Ghats (about 2,600 species)
o Eastern Himalaya and the north-eastern region (about 2,500 species)
o The north-western Himalaya (about 800 species)
o The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (about 250 species)

Significance of Flora

• The flora produces oxygen, which the fauna uses for respiratory purposes. In turn, fauna liberates
carbon dioxide used by flora for photosynthesis.
• Flora provides enormous benefits to humanity through medicinal and food offerings.
• Flora found all over the world contributes to the earth's aesthetic value.
• People go to biosphere reserves, national parks and zoos, forests, botanical gardens, and other
places to admire the beauty of landmarks.
• Flora also supports local economies through tourism.
What is Flora?

• Flora means "Goddess of the Flower" in Latin.

• Flora is a collective term for a group of plant life found in a specific geographic area. This name
represents the entire plant kingdom.
• Many factors influence how flora is classified and differentiated. The best one is the location
where they grow or are found.
• Some grow in deserts or in water, others in hills, and still others are endemic to a specific
geographic location.
• Some have adaptations based on the environment in which they grow. Cactus plants, for example,
are found in deserts.
o To conserve water and protect themselves from predators, they have developed adaptations
such as modified leaves or prickles.
• The agricultural flora is made up of plants that have been cultivated for human consumption.
• Horticulture is the cultivation of ornamental and decorative flowers, also known as garden flora.

Floral Diversity in India

• Floral diversity refers to the variety of plants found in a given region at a given time. It generally
refers to the variety of indigenous or native plants that occur naturally.
• To date, a total of 215,644 plant species have been catalogued on Earth, out of the 298,000
predicted.
• Out of an estimated 16,600 plant species, 8,600 have been recorded from the ocean.
• India, as a tropical country, is home to 54,733 species, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi.
• Floral diversity in India is concentrated in four phytogeographically distinct regions: the
Himalayas, the Western Ghats, Northeast India, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• The Indian Flora accounts for 11.4% of all recorded plant species in the world, with
approximately 28% of plant species being endemic to India.
• Angiosperms are the most numerous plant group in India, accounting for 39.92% of the
country's floral diversity.
• Fungi, with 15,504 species, account for the remaining 28.33%. The country also has a high
diversity of cryptogam (Bryophytes and Pteridophytes).
• So far, 1,310 Pteridophytes species and approximately 2,791 Bryophytes species have been
identified in India.
• The Himalayas, Nilgiris, Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
also abundant in bryophytes (mosses and liverworts).
• In India, algae and fungi are widely distributed.
• The diversity of marine algae appears to be highest on the Gujarat coast's Okha-Dwarka region
and the Tamil Nadu coast's Mandappam-Pamban region.
• Lichens are composite organisms made up of symbiotic algae and fungi that can be found in
abundance in the Western Ghats, the Eastern and Western Himalayas, and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands. So far, 2,961 Lichene species have been identified in India.
• The majority of ferns and gymnosperms (including cycads, pines, firs, and junipers) grow in the
cool temperate zones of the Himalayas and in the mountainous regions of southern India,
particularly in the Western Ghats.
• Current estimates place the Indian flora at nearly 12% of the global floral diversity (excluding
viruses).

Important Floral Groups in India

Algae

• Algae are green non-differentiated plants with chlorophyll. They typically grow in water or in
moist environments.
• Freshwater algae are typically green or blue-green in colour, whereas marine algae are red or
brown.
• These are autotrophic plants, meaning they can produce their own food.
Fungi

• Fungi are non-green, non-differentiated plants that lack chlorophyll completely.

• They grow as saprophytes on dead, rotten organic matter or as parasites on other living bodies
known as hosts.
• Saprophytic fungi include moulds and mushrooms.
• The Western Ghats have the most fungi diversity, followed by the eastern and western Himalayas.
Bacteria

• Non-chlorophyllous microorganisms that live a saprophytic or parasitic existence.

• Many of them are pathogenic, but saprophytic bacteria are beneficial.
• They are soil-borne, and many of them are used in industries.
Lichens

• A lichen is a strange hybrid of an alga and a fungus, with the two living together for mutual
benefit.
• They are a group of greyish green plants that grow on rocks, tree trunks, dead wood, and other
surfaces.
• The algae produces food for the fungus, and it absorbs and retains water, keeping the algal cells
moist.
• They are most common in wetlands, rare in rivers and streams, and not found in groundwater.
Bryophytes

• The plant's body is divided into a small stem and simple leaves, but there are no true roots.
• They prefer moist environments. Examples include liverworts and mosses.
• They are India's second largest group of green plants, primarily found in the Eastern Himalaya,
North-eastern India, Western Himalaya, and Western Ghats.
• Mosses are the most abundant species in Indian bryoflora, followed by liverworts and hornworts.
Pteridophytes

• Pteridophytes have distinct plant bodies composed of roots, stems, and leaves. They also have
vascular bundles.
• The majority of them are terrestrial plants that thrive in moist and shady environments, but some
are aquatic.
• This category includes vascular cryptogams such as clubmosses, horsetails, and ferns, which are
found all over the world.
• The north-eastern region (including the Eastern Himalaya) has the most pteridophytic diversity,
followed by south India (including the Eastern and Western Ghats) and north India (including
Western Himalaya).
Gymnosperms

• Gymnosperms are naked-seeded plants (gymnos=naked, sperma=seed).

• They have simple flowers with no accessory whorls, and their stamens and carpels remain
aggregated in cones.
• Ovules are found on the surface of carpels and are pollinated directly by pollen grains.
• There is no such thing as an ovary, style, or stigma, and there is, of course, no fruit.
• Examples include Cycas, Pinus, and Gnetum.
• The largest family is the pine family. Gnetum and Cycas are mostly found in the North East, the
Eastern and Western Ghats, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Angiosperms

• Angiosperms (angeion - a case) are closed-seeded plants.

• These are the most developed plants, with flowers that have prominent accessory and essential
whorls.
• Carpels have the ovary, style, and stigma.
• The ovary usually develops into a fruit and the ovules into seeds in response to fertilisation. As a
result, the seeds remain inside the fruits.
• More than 7% of the world's flowering plants are found in India.
Floral Endemism

• Floral Endemism refers to the phenomenon of flower species being restricted to a specific
geographical area. Its metric defines species diversity at any given location.
• The following is the sequence of floral endemism in India (in descending order):
o Peninsular India, including the Western and Eastern Ghats (about 2,600 species)
o Eastern Himalaya and the north-eastern region (about 2,500 species)
o The north-western Himalaya (about 800 species)
o The Andaman and Nicobar Islands (about 250 species)

Significance of Flora

• The flora produces oxygen, which the fauna uses for respiratory purposes. In turn, fauna liberates
carbon dioxide used by flora for photosynthesis.
• Flora provides enormous benefits to humanity through medicinal and food offerings.
• Flora found all over the world contributes to the earth's aesthetic value.
• People go to biosphere reserves, national parks and zoos, forests, botanical gardens, and other
places to admire the beauty of landmarks.
• Flora also supports local economies through tourism.

Crop Genetic Diversity

• Agriculture continues to be a major driver and pillar of India's economic growth.

• The country's large mosaic of distinct agro-ecosystems, defined by differences in edaphic,
climatic, and geographic features, has contributed to diverse cropping patterns and systems.
• In terms of species contribution to agriculture and animal husbandry, India ranks seventh in the
world.
• The National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR) in Delhi is primarily responsible for
the long-term conservation of unique accessions as base collections for posterity, primarily in the
form of seeds.

Classification of Plants
Herb

• Herb is defined as a plant with a stem that is always green and tender and grows to a height of no
more than one meter.
• The banana plant is the largest herb on the planet.
Shrub

• A shrub is a woody perennial plant that differs from a perennial herb in that its stem is persistent
and woody.
• It differs from a tree in its small stature and habit of branching from the base.
• Height must not exceed 6 metres.
Tree

• A tree is defined as a large woody perennial plant with a single well-defined stem and a more or
less distinct crown.
• Bearing lateral branches at a distance from the ground.
Parasites

• An organism that obtains some or all of its nutrition from another living organism. These plants
do not draw moisture or mineral nutrients from the soil.
• They grow on a living plant called a host and penetrate it with their sucking roots
called haustoria.
o Total parasite - draws all of its nourishment.
o Partial parasite - draws a portion of its nourishment.
Epiphytes

• A plant that grows non-parasitically on another plant (such as a tree) and gets its moisture and
nutrients from the air, rain, and sometimes debris that accumulates around it rather than the
structure to which it is attached.
• Grows normally on another plant for support.
• It is not parasitic in nature and relies solely on the host plant for survival.
• Commonly found in tropical rainforests.
Climbers

• Herbaceous or woody plant that climbs trees or other supports by twining around them or holding
on to them with trendrills, hooks, aerial roots, or other attachments.
• Eg: Vine plant.

Classification Based on Life Cycle

Annuals

• These are plants that complete their life cycle in a single season.
• They are typically herbaceous.
• Annual plants include things like corn, rice, wheat, and pulses.
Biennials

• These are plants that require two years to complete their life cycle.
• They are typically herbaceous.
• Biennial plants include carrot, cabbage, onions, and beetroot.
Perennials

• These are plants that have a long lifespan, usually more than two years.
• They are usually woody or herbaceous.
• Perennials include roses, lavender, dianthus, and lilies.

Parts of a Tree
Roots

• Roots transport water and nutrients from the soil to the rest of the plant through a network of
branches and fibres.
Crown

• Made up of the tree's top leaves and branches.

• The crown provides shade for the roots, collects energy from the sun, and allows the tree to
remove excess water via transpiration to keep it cool.
Leaves

• Leaves are a typically green, flattened, lateral structure attached to a stem that functions as a
primary organ of photosynthesis and transpiration in most plants.
• They are also known as the plant's food factory because they contain chlorophyll, which gives the
leaves their green colour and allows plants to absorb energy from light by converting carbon
dioxide and water into carbohydrates.
• Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll, while air containing carbon dioxide and oxygen enters
the plant through the leaf stomata.
Branches

• Arms of the tree, a woody structural member connected to but not part of a tree's central trunk.
• Provides support for efficient leaf distribution, as well as a conduit for water and nutrients, as well
as storage for excess sugar.
Trunk

• Shapes and supports the tree, as well as holding the crown up.
• Water and nutrients from the soil are supplied by its branches, as are sugar from the leaves.

Parts of the Trunk of a Tree

Annual Rings

• Each year, a concentric layer of ring develops inside the trunk of a tree.
• Used to determine the age of the tree (Dentro-Chronology).
• Also known as growth rings.
Bark

• The outside layer of the trunk, branches, and twigs (small offshoot branches are generally
leafless) are classified as inner bark and outer bark.
Cambium

• A thin layer of living cells just inside the bark.

• It is the part of the tree that produces new cells, allowing the tree to grow wider each year.
Sapwood (Xylem)

• Sapwood (Xylem) is a network of living cells that transports water and nutrients up from the roots
to the branches, twigs, and leaves.
• It is the tree's youngest wood; over time, the inner layers of sapwood die and become heartwood.
Heartwood

• Dead sapwood in the centre of the trunk, usually darker than sapwood.
• It is the tree's hardest wood, providing it with support and strength.
Pith

• A tiny dark spot of spongy living cells in the centre of the tree trunk.
• Transports essential nutrients throughout the tree.

What are Abiotic Components?

• Abiotic components in an ecosystem include all physical and chemical elements, i.e., non-living
components.
• These components may differ from region to region and ecosystem to ecosystem. They are mostly
life supporters.
• They determine and limit the population growth, number, and diversity of biotic factors living in
that ecosystem. As a result, they are known as limiting factors.
• However, these components are not consistent; they fluctuate dramatically over time. This can
result in stressful conditions for the ecosystem's biotic elements.
• Abiotic factors can influence the number and type of biotic components in an ecosystem. As a
result, it is necessary to learn to adapt to changing environmental conditions.

Effect of Abiotic Components on Plants

Intensity of Light on Growth of Plants

• Extremely high intensity favours root growth over shoot growth, resulting in increased
transpiration, shorter stems, and smaller, thicker leaves.
• Low light intensity, on the other hand, inhibits growth, flowering, and fruiting.
• When the light intensity is less than the minimum, the plants stop growing due to CO2
accumulation and eventually die.
• Only red and blue in the visible part of the spectrum are effective in photosynthesis.
• Plants grown in blue light are small, while red light causes cell elongation, resulting in etiolated
plants. Plants grown in ultraviolet and violet light are dwarf.
Effect of Frost on Plants

• Killing of young plants - Even a light radiation frost chills the soil, causing the soil moisture to
freeze.
o Plants growing in such soil are killed by increased transpiration when their roots are unable to
supply moisture in the morning when they are exposed to direct sunlight. This is the most
common cause of sal seedling death.
• Plants die as a result of cell damage - Frost causes water in the plant's intercellular spaces to
freeze into ice, which draws water from the interior of the cells.
o As a result, salt concentrations rise and cells become dehydrated.
o Due to the coagulation and precipitation of the cell colloid, the plant dies. This results in the
formation of a canker.
Effect of Snow on Plants

• Snow affects the distribution of deodar, fir, and spruce.

• Snow acts as a blanket, preventing further temperature drops and protecting seedlings from
excessive cold and frost.
• It results in mechanical bending of the tree stem.
• Shortens the period of vegetative growth while also uprooting the trees.
Effect of Temperature on Plants

• Excessive heat causes plant death due to protoplasmic protein coagulation.

• It disrupts the balance between respiration and photosynthesis, causing food depletion and
increased susceptibility to fungal and bacterial attack.
• It also causes desiccation of plant tissues and moisture deficiency.
Die back

• It is the progressive dying of a plant, usually backwards from the tip of any portion of the plant.
This is one of the adaptive mechanisms used to avoid adverse conditions.
• In this mechanism, the root can live for years while the shoots die. Sal, Red sanders, Terminalia
tomentosa, Silk cotton tree, and Boswellia serrata are some examples.
• Causes of dieback include:
o Dense overhead canopy and insufficient lighting
o Dense weak growth
o Uncomposted leaf litter on the surface
o Frost
o Drip
o Drought
o Grazing

Abiotic Factors Influencing Plant Growth

• Temperature and moisture have a significant impact on plant production (primary productivity)
and the amount of organic matter available as food (net primary productivity).
• The synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide is referred to as
primary production.
o It occurs primarily through photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also
occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of chemical compounds
as its source of energy.
o Almost all life on Earth is directly or indirectly dependent on primary production.
 o The organisms responsible for primary production, known as primary producers or autotrophs,
form the foundation of the food chain. These are mostly plants in terrestrial ecoregions and
algae in aquatic ecoregions.
• Net primary productivity is an estimate of all organic matter available for human consumption.
It is calculated by subtracting the total amount of carbon fixed per year from the amount oxidised
during cellular respiration.
o Net primary productivity in terrestrial environments is calculated by measuring aboveground
biomass per unit area, which is the total mass of living plants excluding roots.
o This means that a large proportion of underground plant biomass is not included in this
calculation.
• When considering biome differences, net primary productivity is an important variable to
consider. Aboveground biomass is abundant in highly productive biomes.
• Annual biomass production is directly related to the abiotic components of the environment.
Photosynthesis, plant growth, and the resulting net primary productivity are optimised in
environments with the most biomass. These areas have a warm and wet climate.
• Photosynthesis can proceed at a high rate, enzymes can work more efficiently, and stomata can
remain open without risk of excessive transpiration.
o Together, these factors result in the maximum amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) entering the
plant, resulting in high biomass production.
• Aboveground biomass provides several important resources for other living things, including
habitat and food.
o Dry and cold environments, on the other hand, have lower photosynthetic rates and, as a result,
less biomass.
o The reduction in available food will also have an impact on the animal communities that live
there.
What are Insectivorous Plants?

• These plants are commonly referred to as insectivorous plants since they are excellent at trapping
insects.
• They have a totally distinct way of nutrition from normal plants. However, they never prey on
people or big animals.
• Based on how they get their food, insectivorous plants can be roughly categorized as either active
or passive varieties.
• When insects settle on their leaf traps, the active ones can immediately seal them. Aldrovanda is
an example of an active type.
• The passive plants feature a device known as a "pitfall," which resembles a jar or pitcher and into
which an insect can fall and finally be digested. Nepenthes is an excellent example of passive
insectivorous plants.
• The insectivorous plants frequently use a variety of lures, including vivid colors, delicious
secretions, and other curiosities, to attract unwitting victims

What Makes a Plant Insectivorous?

If a plant exhibits five characteristics, it is said to be "insectivorous":

• If they use traps to catch the prey.

• If the captured prey is killed.
• If they digest the prey that is captured.
• If the killed and digested prey provides them with nutrition.
• If they use those nutrients to grow and develop.

Why Do They Hunt Despite Having Normal Roots and Photosynthetic Leaves?

• These plants are typically found in wet, acidic, water-logged locations with nutrient-poor soils
that have been washed by rain.
• These wetlands are acidic because anaerobic circumstances cause organic materials to partially
decompose, releasing acidic substances into the environment.
• Therefore, the majority of microorganisms required for the complete decomposition of organic
matter cannot survive in such anoxic conditions.
• Ordinary plants struggle to live in such nutrient-deficient environments.
• In such scenarios, hunter plants thrive because they capture insects and consume their nitrogen-
rich bodies to boost their photosynthetic food production.

Insectivorous Plants in India/ The Indian Hunters

Drosera or Sundew

• Drosera, also referred to as sundews, is one of the largest genera of insectivores (carnivorous)
plants, with at least 194 species.
• These members of the Droseraceae family use stalked mucilaginous glands on the surface of their
leaves to attract, catch and eat insects.
• The insects are utilized as a supplement to the plants' inadequate mineral nutrition in the soil.
• All continents, with the exception of Antarctica, are home to a variety of these species that differ
widely in size and form.
• Their leaves develop long tentacles, each of which has a sticky gland at the tip.
• Drosera or sundew thrive in marshy or moist infertile soils.
• The single species of Aldrovanda, a rootless, free-floating aquatic plant, is found in the salt
marshes of the Sundarbans, south of Calcutta.
Aldrovanda

• Aldrovanda also referred to as the waterwheel plant is an insectivorous plant.

• It is the only surviving species in the flowering plant genus of the family Droseraceae.
• This plant uses traps to catch small aquatic creatures.
• The traps are organized in whorls around a stem that is in the center and free to float.
• This is one of the few plant species with the ability to move rapidly.
• The only species of Aldrovanda, a rootless, free-floating aquatic plant, is found in the salt marshes
of the Sundarbans, south of Calcutta.
• It can also grow in bodies of fresh water like lakes, tanks, and ponds.
Nepenthes

• Nepenthes is a genus of insectivore plants sometimes referred to as monkey cups or tropical

pitcher plants.
• There are about 140 species, most of which are indigenous to Australia, Madagascar, and
Southeast Asia.
• Although some are epiphytes, Nepenthes species are perennial herbaceous plants that usually
flourish in extremely acidic soil.
• The majority of the Nepenthes species are located in the Malay Archipelago, with Borneo,
Sumatra, and the Philippines having the highest biodiversity, particularly in the Borneo montane
rain forests.
• Nepenthes khasiana, an evergreen shrub considered to be native to Meghalaya, is the only species
of pitcher plant known to exist in India.
• However, in the neighboring state of Assam's Dima Hasao district, it was reported in 2016.
Utricularia or Bladderworts

• Utricularia is a genus of carnivorous plants with over 233 species that are generally known as
bladderworts.
• Except for Antarctica, they are found as terrestrial or aquatic species in freshwater and moist soil.
• Small hollow sacs that actively collect and digest microscopic creatures including insect larvae,
aquatic worms, and water fleas are characteristic of the bladderwort genus.
• Many bladderwort species are invasive species that have spread to new habitats, and they can be
found in lakes, streams, and waterlogged soils all over the world.
• In contrast to Venus flytraps, waterwheels (Aldrovanda), and many sundews, the trapping
mechanism of Utricularia is entirely mechanical; no reaction from the plant (irritability) is
necessary for the presence of prey (Drosera).
• The continual pumping of water out through the bladder walls by active transport is the only
active process involved.
Pinguicula or Butterwort

• Pinguicula, also referred to as butterworts, is a genus of carnivorous flowering plants in the

Lentibulariaceae family.
• In order to supplement the inadequate mineral nutrition they receive from their environment, they
use sticky, glandular leaves to attract, catch, and digest insects.
• Out of the roughly 80 species currently identified, 13 are native to Europe, 9 are native to North
America, and some are native to northern Asia.
• South and Central America are the continents with the most species.
• These plants use mucilage, which is generated by glands on the surface of the leaf, to
produce sticky or adhesive compounds that are used to attract and capture prey.
• The leaf of a butterwort uses two specialized glands that are dispersed around the leaf surface to
collect and digest insects.
Insectivorous Plants - Medicinal Properties

• Drosera: As early as the 12th century, an Italian physician from the School of Salerno named
Matthaeus Platearius reported sundews as a therapeutic herb for coughs under the name herba
sole.
o Recent research has demonstrated that drosera has anti-inflammatory and antitussive properties.
o Milk can be curdled by Drosera, whose bruised leaves are applied to blisters and used to color
silk.
• Nepenthes: Nepenthes is used in traditional medicine to cure cholera patients, and the liquid
within the pitcher is also used as eye drops and for urinary problems.
o Nepenthes also has long been used as a traditional remedy to cure diabetes, high blood pressure,
hepatitis, gastric ulcers, ureteral stones, diarrhea, and jaundice.
• Utricularia: Utricularia is beneficial for treating wounds, and coughs, and curing urinary
diseases.
o Medicinal tea is brewed using the dried leaves of Utricularia.
o Additionally, they use it to treat edema and fluid retention, as well as to assist in weight loss and
boost gallbladder discharges.
o For burns and swelling, they are occasionally applied straight to the skin (inflammation).
Insectivorous Plants - Threats

• One of the main factors contributing to their decline is gardening trading for medicinal benefits.
• The wetlands that support these plants are the principal victims of the increase in urban and rural
habitation, which is another major cause of habitat degradation.
• Since insectivorous plants cannot tolerate high nutrient levels, pollution caused by effluents
containing detergents, fertilizers, pesticides, sewage, etc. into the wetlands is another major factor
in their decline.
• Additionally, polluted water bodies are dominated by prodigious water weeds, which eliminate
the delicate insectivorous plants

What are Invasive Alien Species(IAS)?

• An alien species is one that has been introduced outside of its natural range.
• Experts claim that alien species become "invasive" when they are unintentionally or knowingly
brought outside of their normal habitats, where they outcompete the local species and disturb the
ecological equilibrium.
• The ability to adapt physiologically to new conditions, also known as phenotypic plasticity, is
one of the most common traits of invasive species.
• These features include rapid reproduction and growth, high dispersal ability, ability to survive
on various food types in a wide range of environmental conditions, and ability to reproduce
quickly.
• The invasive alien species are not a part of the ecosystem and severely damage the economy, the
environment, or even people's health.
• Through their impact on agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and natural systems, which are vital to
people's livelihoods in developing countries, invasive alien species exacerbate poverty and
threaten development.
• Climate change, pollution, habitat loss, and human-induced disturbance exacerbate the damage.

Common Invasive Alien Species

• African apple snail (Achatina Fulica): The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is where the African
apple snail (Achatina Fulica), the most invasive species of foreign wildlife in India, was originally
discovered. It is now widespread across the nation and endangers the habitat of a number of
indigenous species.
• Papaya Mealy Bug (Paracoccus marginatus): It is believed that the papaya mealybug
(Paracoccus marginatus), a native of Mexico and Central America, damaged significant papaya
crops in Assam, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu.
• Cotton Mealy Bug (Phenacoccus Solenopsis): Native to North America, the cotton mealybug
(Phenacoccus Solenopsis) has had a significant negative impact on Deccan cotton production.
• Amazon sailfin catfish (Pterygoplichthys pardalis): The fish population in Kolkata's wetlands
have been decimated by the Amazon sailfin catfish (Pterygoplichthys pardalis).

How are Invasive Alien Species Introduced?

• Exotic species move around the globe in the most surprising ways, establishing themselves in
locations thousands of kilometers from their original homes.
• Sometimes this is the result of purposeful or unintentional human activity, and other times it is
brought on by a natural phenomenon.

Some of the human-related factors are discussed below:

• Wildlife Trade: The primary factor is the trade in exotic plants and animals. According to
the Worldwide Fund for Nature, the illegal trade in wildlife generates between 10 and 20
billion euros annually (WWF).
• Tourism: Whether on purpose or not, traveling to other nations aids in the spread of invasive
alien species.
• Hunting and Fishing: In the past, these two actions were responsible for the introduction of
several animals throughout a significant portion of Europe, including the barbary sheep and the
catfish.
• Transport and International Trade: Invasive species frequently travel undetected in ship hulls,
cargo holds, and aircraft.
• Abandoned Pets: A few instances of exotic pets that have colonized ecosystems after escaping or
being abandoned are raccoons, monk parakeets, and red-eared slider turtles.
• Crops and Fur Industry: Additionally, the horticulture and clothing industries have served
as entryways for animals like the American mink in Europe and for plants like the upright
prickly pear in Africa and Oceania.

Invasive Alien Species - Characteristic Features

• Invading species have distinctive features like "pioneer species" in a variety of environments.
• They can withstand a variety of soil types and climatic conditions.
• They have a wide geographic range, abundant, easily dispersed seed production, robust root
growth, and quick generation times.
• They are widely distributed in their native habitat, have long flowering and fruiting seasons, and
have strong rates of dissemination.
• According to early findings from one fascinating study, invasive species are expected to have
relatively little DNA in their cell nuclei.
• Evidently, compared to species with larger cellular DNA contents, these plants' cells are able to
divide and proliferate more quickly, which allows the overall plant to expand more swiftly. In
disturbed environments, they benefit from having this.
Invasion & Species Richness

• As invading species are added to the current species pool, the invasions may result in an increase
in species richness.
• However, it also causes native species to go extinct, reducing the diversity of species.
• The competition with natives for food and nourishment, which can prevent coexistence, and
predation are the main unfavorable interactions.

Invasive Alien Species - Harmful Effects

Ecological

• By out-competing indigenous species for resources, IAS can directly alter the community
structure and species composition of native ecosystems.
• IAS may also have significant indirect effects on nutrient cycling, ecosystem function, and
ecological relationships among native species.
• When one species affects another via an intermediate species, a shared natural enemy, or a shared
resource, IAS can cause cascading effects. These chain reactions can be challenging to detect and
predict.
• Furthermore, the combined effects of multiple invasive species in an ecosystem can have large
and complex consequences.
• One of the top five causes of biodiversity loss worldwide, biotic invasion is on the rise as a result
of tourism and globalization.
• Through competitive exclusion, niche displacement, or hybridization with closely related native
species, invasive species may drive local native species to extinction.
• Alien invasions may have significant effects on the structure, composition, and worldwide
distribution of the biota at the places of introduction in addition to their economic effects.
• This could eventually result in the homogenization of the world's wildlife and plants and the
extinction of biodiversity.
Environmental

• IAS can have a direct impact on human health. Infectious diseases are frequently IAS imported by
travelers or vectored by exotic bird, rodent, and insect species.
• IAS also has indirect health effects on humans because pesticides and herbicides infiltrate water
and soil.
• Public health effects from invasive species and related control measures may last for a while.
• For instance, insecticides used to control a specific pest species may contaminate the soil and
nearby surface waters.
• Human encroachment into formerly inaccessible environments has made the general public more
aware of rare diseases like HIV.
• Introduced species of birds, rodents, and insects, such as mosquitoes, fleas, louse pests, and tsetse
flies, can act as carriers and reservoirs for human illnesses.
• These vectors have been used to spread outbreaks of human diseases throughout recorded history,
including typhus, yellow fever, malaria, and bubonic plague.
• The spread of the West Nile virus, which killed humans, birds, animals, and reptiles, is an
example of an invasive disease.
• Ballast water is frequently used for the transportation of agents that cause damaging algal blooms
and waterborne diseases like cholera bacteria (Vibrio cholerae).
Economical

• An annual cost of 1.4 trillion dollars is incurred worldwide to manage and eradicate invasive
species.
• Some invaders may have a negative impact on the local economy.
• Early discovery and quick action are frequently cited as being essential to decrease the expenses
associated with invasive species harm and management.
• This indicates that maintaining the invasive population when it is widespread and already causing
harm is less expensive than incurring the initial expense of looking for and detecting an invasive
species and immediately controlling it when the number is tiny.
• To cut costs, an aggressive search for the invader is only necessary when the invasive species is
not often reintroduced into the managed region and is easy to find.
Invasive Species in India

• The World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) estimates that 1,604,000 species have been
documented globally.
• As a result, India is responsible for 8% of the world's biodiversity, which covers only 2.4% of its
land area.
• 4900 out of 15000 flowering plant species, or 33 percent, are said to be endemic to the current
political boundaries of this country.
• India is a significant hub for agri-biodiversity, having contributed 167 species to global
agriculture and serving as the native habitat for 320 species of wild crop relatives.
• The 173 species of invasive alien plants in India are the subject of the current investigation.
• The most harmful invasive species, such as Alternanthera philoxeroides, Cassia uniflora,
Chromolaena odorata, Eichhornia crassipes, Lantana camara, Parthenium hysterophorus, Prosopis
juliflora, and others, are included in this group.
Invasive Alien Species - Law in India

• India is attempting to combat invasive alien species for the first time through legislation.
• The Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 was updated in 2021 with a new amendment that addresses
invasive alien species.
• The Wildlife Protection Act's reach is expanded by the bill's introduction of "Alien Invasive
Species."
• The Central Government has the authority to control or outlaw the import, trade, possession, or
spread of invasive alien species that endanger India's wildlife or habitat under Section 62A(i).
• According to the Bill, "invasive alien species" refers to any animal or plant species that is not
indigenous to India and whose introduction or expansion may endanger or negatively affect
wildlife or its environment;"

Medicinal Plants - Background

• Long before the prehistoric period, plants were used for medicinal purposes.
• Herbs were described in ancient Unani manuscripts, Egyptian papyrus, and Chinese writings.
• For over 4000 years, Unani Hakims, Indian Vaids, and European and Mediterranean cultures have
used herbs as medicine.
• Herbs were used in healing rituals by indigenous cultures such as Rome, Egypt, Iran, Africa, and
America, while others developed traditional medical systems such as Unani, Ayurveda, and
Chinese Medicine in which herbal therapies were used systematically.
• India was known to be a rich repository of medicinal plants among ancient civilisations.
• The Indian forest is the primary repository of a large number of medicinal and aromatic plants,
which are primarily collected as raw materials for the production of drugs and perfumery
products.
• In India, approximately 8,000 herbal remedies have been codified in AYUSH systems.
• The major indigenous medicine systems are Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha, and Folk (tribal)
medicines.
• Ayurveda and Unani Medicine are the most developed and widely practised of these systems in
India.

What are Medicinal Plants?

• The term "medicinal plant" refers to a variety of plants used in herbalism ("herbology" or "herbal
medicine"). It is the use of plants for medicinal purposes, as well as the research into such uses.
• These medicinal plants are also used as food, flavonoid, medicine, or perfume, as well as for
spiritual purposes.
• Traditional medical systems are still widely used for a variety of reasons.
• Population growth, insufficient drug supply, prohibitive treatment costs, side effects of several
synthetic drugs, and the development of resistance to currently used drugs for infectious diseases
have all contributed to a greater emphasis on the use of plant materials as a source of medicines
for a wide range of human ailments.
• According to the World Health Organization, 80 percent of people worldwide use herbal
medicines for some aspect of their primary health care needs.
• According to the World Health Organization, approximately 21,000 plant species have the
potential to be used as medicinal plants.
• Treatment with medicinal plants is thought to be very safe because there are no or few side
effects.
• The fact that these remedies are in sync with nature is the most significant advantage. The fact is
that the use of herbal treatments is not restricted to any age group or gender.

Medical Plants - Benefits

• They take a holistic approach and help with absorption and digestion.
• They are not disease specific but act as a preventive medicine that positively effects the overall
health and well-being by boosting the immune system.
• They are on par with allopathic medicines and have been shown to be effective in the treatment of
diseases such as cancer and autoimmune diseases.
• They are non-toxic and harmless because they are self-contained and nutritive in nature.
• It is concerned with overall well-being and strives to achieve harmony between mind, body, and
soul.
• Ayurvedic medicines and treatments can treat a variety of metabolic and chronic conditions with
no side effects.
• Medicinal plants are thought to be a rich source of ingredients that can be used in the
development of pharmaceutical, non-pharmacopoeial, or synthetic drugs.
• Aside from that, these plants play an important role in the development of human cultures all over
the world.
• Furthermore, some plants are regarded as important sources of nutrition, and as a result, they are
recommended for their therapeutic properties. These plants include ginger, green tea, walnuts,
aloe, pepper, and turmeric, among others.
• Some plants and their derivatives are regarded as important sources of active ingredients used in
aspirin and toothpaste, among other things.
• Herbs are used in a variety of applications, including natural dye, pest control, food, perfume, and
tea.
• Many countries use various medicinal plants/herbs to keep ants, flies, mice, and flees away from
homes and offices.
• Medicinal herbs are now important sources of pharmaceutical manufacturing.

Medicinal Plants in India

Beddomes Cycad / Perita / Kondaitha

• Distribution: Eastern Peninsular India

• Uses: Local herbalists use the plant's male cones to treat rheumatoid arthritis and muscle pain. It
is also fire resistant.
Blue vanda / Autumn Ladies Tresses Orchid

• Distribution: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, and Nagaland are the states in
which it is found.
• Vanda is one of the few botanical orchids with blue flowers, which is highly valued for producing
interspecific and intergeneric hybrids.
Kuth plant

• Distribution: Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh are the main distribution areas.
• Uses: It is used as an anti-inflammatory medication and as a component of traditional Tibetan
medicine.
• The plant's roots are used in perfumery.
• Dry roots (Kuth, Costus) are strongly scented and produce an aromatic oil that is used in the
manufacture of insecticides.
• The roots contain a medicinally important alkaloid known as 'saussurine.'
Ladies Slipper Orchid

• Uses: These orchids are primarily used as collector's items, but lady's slipper is occasionally used
today, either alone or as a component of formulas intended to treat anxiety / insomnia (scientific
evidence is not present).
• This is also used topically as a poultice or plaster to relieve muscular pain.
Red vanda

• Distribution: Manipur, Assam, and Andhra Pradesh

• Uses: Orchids are collected in large quantities to meet the ever-increasing demand of orchid
collectors, particularly in Europe, North America, and Asia.
Sarpagandha

• Distribution: Sub-Himalayan tract from Punjab eastwards to Nepal, Sikkim, Assam, Eastern &
Western Ghats, parts of Central India, and the Andamans.
• Uses: Rauvolfia roots have enormous medicinal value and are in high demand. It is used to treat a
variety of central nervous system disorders.
• The pharmacological activity of rauvolfia is due to the presence of several alkaloids, the most
important of which is reserpine, which is used for its sedative action in mild anxiety states and
chronic psychoses.
• It has a depressant effect on the central nervous system, causing sedation and lowering blood
pressure.
• The root extracts are used to treat intestinal disorders, particularly diarrhoea and dysentery, as
well as as an anthelmintic.
• It's used to treat cholera, colic, and fever.
• The juice of the leaves is used to treat corneal opacity.
• Sedation, hypertension, brodyeardia, myosis, ptosis, and tremors are all effects of total root
extracts, which are typical of reserpine.
Ceropegia species

• Eg: Lantern Flower, Parasol Flower, Parachute Flower, Bushman's Pipe

• These plants are used as ornamental plants.
Indian Podophyllum/ Emodi

• Eg: Himalayan May Apple, India May Apple.

• Distribution: Lower elevations in and around the Himalayas.
• Uses: The drug is composed of rhizomes and roots. The dried rhizome is the source of medicinal
resin. Podophyllin is toxic and highly irritating to the skin and mucous membranes.
Tree Ferns

• Distribution: Lower elevations in and around the Himalaya.

• Uses: The pith of the Soft Tree Fern can be eaten cooked or raw. It is a good source of starch.
Cycads

• A Gymnosperm plant. All are classified as living fossils.

• Distribution: Western ghats, Eastern ghats, North East India, and the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands.
• Uses: Cycads have been used as a starch source as well as in socio-cultural rituals.
• There is some evidence that regular consumption of cycad starch contributes to the development
of Lytico-Bodig disease, a neurological disease with symptoms similar to Parkinson's disease and
ALS.
• Threats: Overharvesting, deforestation, and forest fires are all threats.
Elephant’s foot

• Distribution: The species is found throughout the North Western Himalayas.

• Uses: Commercial source of Diosgenin (a steroid sapogenin, is the product of sapogenin
hydrolysis by acids, strong bases, or enzymes of saponins, extracted from Dioscorea wild yam
tubers).
• Diosgenin is a sugar-free (aglycone) steroid that is used in the commercial synthesis of cortisol,
pregnenolone, progesterone, and other steroid products.

National Medicinal Plants Board

• The National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB) is an organisation established by the

Government of India to support policies and investigate issues concerning medicinal plants in
order to promote their trade, export, and cultivation.
• The NMPB is part of the Ministry of Ayurveda, Yoga, Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha, and
Homeopathy (AYUSH).
• The Government of India established the National Medicinal Plants Board on November 24th,
2000.
• Its mandate is to promote the medicinal plant sector by developing a suitable mechanism to
support policies and programmes for the cultivation and export of medicinal p

e-CHARAK Platform for Medicinal Plants

• e-Channel for Herbs, Aromatic, Raw Material, and Knowledge (e-CHARAK) is a platform for
information exchange among various stakeholders involved in the medicinal plants sector.
• The National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB), the Ministry of Ayush, the Government of India,
and the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) collaborated to develop e-
Charak.

Animal Diversity

• Numerous small and large plants and animals coexist in the world's diverse geographical,
environmental, and climatic conditions.
• Organisms of the same species that survive in different environments are modified or adopted
differently. As a result, animals and plants evolved from a common ancestor with diverse
characteristics.
• Animal diversity refers to the diversity that has arisen among animals as a result of adaptations
and essential modifications to their external and internal morphology, size, shape, behaviour, and
so on in order to survive and disseminate successfully in various geographical regions.
• Various animal species have emerged as a result of this diversification.
Features of Animal Kingdom

• Despite the fact that members of the animal kingdom are extremely diverse, most animals share
certain characteristics that set them apart from organisms in other kingdoms.
• All animals are eukaryotic, multicellular organisms with complex tissue structures that include
differentiated and specialized tissues.
• Most animals are mobile, at least at certain stages of their lives.
• All animals require a food source and are thus heterotrophic, ingesting other living or dead
organisms; this distinguishes them from autotrophic organisms, such as most plants, which
synthesise their own nutrients via photosynthesis.
• Animals classified as heterotrophs can be carnivores, herbivores, omnivores, or parasites.
• Most animals reproduce sexually, and their offspring go through a series of developmental stages
that shape their body plan.

Critically Endangered Mammals

When is a Species Considered Critically Endangered?

• The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) Red List categorises wild species as
critically endangered.
• There are five quantitative criteria for determining whether a taxon is threatened.
• A taxon is considered critically endangered if the best available evidence indicates that it meets
any of the following criteria:
o Populations have declined or will decline by more than 80% in the last ten years or three
generations.
o The estimated extent of occurrence is less than 100 km2, or the estimated area of occupancy
is less than 10 km2.
o The population is estimated to be less than 250 mature individuals, with a continued decline
of at least 25% expected within three years.
o It is estimated that the population has fewer than 50 mature individuals.
o Quantitative analysis reveals that the likelihood of extinction in the wild is at least 50% within
10 years, or three generations.
Critically Endangered Mammals

• Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania)

• Andaman White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis)
• Jenkin's Andaman Spiny Shrew (Crocidura jenkinsi)
• Nicobar White-tailed Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica)
• Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana)
• Elvira Rat or large rock rat (Cremnomys elvira)
• Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi)
• Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina)
• Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)
• Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus)

Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania)

• It is the world's smallest wild pig, with adults weighing only 8 kg. This species builds a nest all
year.
• It is one of the most useful indicators of the management status of grassland habitats.
• The grasslands where the pygmy hog lives are critical for the survival of other endangered species
such as Indian Rhinoceros, Swamp Deer, Wild Buffalo, Hispid Hare, Bengal Florican, and Swamp
Francolin.
• A captive breeding programme for the species was started in Assam in 1996, and some hogs were
reintroduced in the Sonai Rupai area in 2009.
• Its habitat includes tall 'terai' grasslands, relatively undisturbed.
• Previously, the species was more widely distributed along the southern Himalayan foothills, but it
is now restricted to a single remnant population in Manas Wildlife Sanctuary and its buffer
reserves.
• The Pygmy hog-sucking Louse (Haematopinus oliveri), a parasite that only feeds on Pygmy
Hogs, will also be classified as critically endangered because its survival is linked to that of the
host species.
• The main threats to this species are grassland loss and degradation, dry-season burning, livestock
grazing, and grassland afforestation. Hunting is also a threat to the remaining populations.
Andaman White-toothed Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis)

• (Crocidura jenkinsi) and the Nicobar White-tailed Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica) are both
endemic to India.
• They are typically active at dusk or at night and have specific habitat requirements.
• Its habitat includes leaf litter and rock crevices.
• The Andaman White-toothed Shrew can be found on Mount Harriet in the South Andaman
Islands.
• Jenkin's Andaman Spiny Shrew can be found on Wright Myo and Mount Harriet in the South
Andaman Islands.
• The Nicobar White-tailed Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica) is found in the southern tip of Greater
Nicobar Island and has also been recorded in the area extending from Campbell Bay National
Park to the Galathea River in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
• Threats include habitat loss due to selective logging, natural disasters such as the tsunami, and
drastic weather changes.

Kondana Rat (Millardia kondana)

• It is an Indian nocturnal burrowing rodent. It has been observed building nests on occasion.
• It shabitat includes tropical and subtropical dry deciduous forests and tropical scrub.
• Distribution: Only known from the Sinhagarh Plateau (about one square kilometre) near Pune,
Maharashtra. It was reported from an elevation of approximately 1,270 metres above mean sea
level.
• The most serious threats are habitat loss, vegetation overgrazing, and disturbance from tourism
and recreational activities.
Large Rock Rat (Cremnomys elvira)

• It is a medium-sized, nocturnal, burrowing rodent that is endemic to India.

• Its habitat includes tropical dry deciduous shrubland forest with rocky outcroppings.
• Distribution: Only found in Tamil Nadu's Eastern Ghats. Recorded at an elevation of
approximately 600 metres above mean sea level.
• Threats include habitat loss, forest conversion, and fuel wood collection.
Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi)

• It is a one-of-a-kind (the only one in its genus) flying squirrel that lives in a single valley in
Arunachal Pradesh's Namdapha National Park (or) Wildlife Sanctuary.
• Its habitat includes tropical forest.
• Distribution: Found only in Arunachal Pradesh's Namdapha Tiger Reserve.
• Threats: Being hunted for food.
The Malabar Civet (Viverra civettina)

• It is one of the world's rarest mammals.

• It is endemic to India and was first discovered in Travancore, Kerala.
• It is nocturnal and only found in the Western Ghats.
• Habitat: Wooded plains and hill slopes of evergreen rainforests serve as habitat.
• Distribution: Western Ghats.
• Threats: Deforestation and commercial plantations are major threats.
Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis)

• It is the smallest and most endangered of the five rhinoceros species.

• It is now thought to be extinct in India, though it was once found in the Himalayan foothills and
north-east India.
• The Javan Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) is also thought to be extinct in India, with only a
few individuals remaining in Java and Vietnam.
Kashmir stag/ Hangul (Cervus elaphus hanglu)

• It is an Indian subspecies of Red Deer.

• It is the only surviving subspecies of Elk (Cervus Canadensis) which is native to Kashmir.
• Habitat/Distribution - Dense riverine forests, high valleys, and mountains of Himachal
Pradesh's Kashmir valley and northern Chamba.
• Threats include habitat destruction, overgrazing by domestic livestock, and poaching.
About Marine Mammals

• Marine mammals are aquatic mammals that live in the ocean and other marine ecosystems.
Seals, whales, manatees, sea otters, and polar bears are among them.
• They are a loosely knit bunch, united only by their reliance on marine environments for food
and survival.
• The adaptation of marine mammals to an aquatic lifestyle varies greatly between species.
• Cetaceans and sirenians are both fully aquatic and thus obligate water dwellers.
• Seals and sea lions are semiaquatic, meaning they spend most of their time in the water but
must return to land for important activities like mating, breeding, and moulting.
Critically Endangered Marine Mammals
Freshwater / River dolphin

• Habitat/Distribution - India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan, where it is divided into two
subspecies, the Ganges river dolphin and the Indus river dolphin.
Ganges River Dolphin

• Habitat/Distribution - Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers and their tributaries in Bangladesh, India,
and Nepal.
• The Ganges river dolphin has been designated as India's National Aquatic Animal.
Indus River Dolphin

• The Indus River in Pakistan and its tributaries the Beas and Sutlej.
Herbivorous Marine Mammals

• Dugongs and manatees live in swamps, rivers, estuaries, marine wetlands, and coastal marine
waters.
Dugong

• (Dugong dugon) also known as sea cow.

• Status: vulnerable
• Threat: Hunting (meat and oil), habitat degradation, and fishing-related fatalities pose a threat.
Manatees

• Habitat/Distribution - Caribbean Sea, Gulf of Mexico, Amazon Basin, and West Africa.
• Threat - Coastal development, red tide, and hunting pose a threat.
Egg-Laying Mammals

• Monotremes, a subgroup of mammals, are distinguished by the fact that they lay eggs rather than
giving birth to their young.
• There are only five living Monotreme/egg-laying Mammal species: the duck-billed platypus and
four species of spiny anteaters (also known as echidna).
• They are only found in Australia and New Guinea.
Echidnas

• Echidnas are also known as spiny ant eaters.

• Habitat and distribution: Australia and New Guinea.
• In echidnas, the egg is carried in a pouch on the female's belly until the young hatch, at which
point the underdeveloped young must find a mammary gland and latch onto it for nourishment.
Platypus

• Platypus is a semi-aquatic mammal.

• Habitat / Distribution - Endemic to eastern Australia, including Tasmania.
• The female platypus retreats to a burrow in the bank of a river or pond. The eggs are laid in a
burrow lined with dry vegetation.
• The male platypus has venom potent enough to kill a small dog or cause excruciating pain in
humans.

Critically Endangered Birds

Jerdon's Courser

• It is a nocturnal bird found only in the northern part of the state of Andhra Pradesh in peninsular
India.
• It is a symbol of the critically endangered scrub jungle.
• The species was thought to be extinct until it was rediscovered in 1986, and the area of
rediscovery was subsequently designated as the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary.
• Habitat: Untouched scrub jungle with open areas.
• Distribution: Jerdon's Courser is found only in Andhra Pradesh.
• Threats: Threats include the clearing of scrub jungle, the creation of new pastures, the
cultivation of dry land crops, the illegal trapping of birds, exotic tree plantations, quarrying, and
the construction of river canals.
Forest Owlet

• Had been missing for over a century. After 113 years, the owlet was rediscovered in 1997 and
added to the list of Indian birds.
• Habitat: Dry deciduous forest
• Distribution: South Madhya Pradesh, northwest Maharashtra, and north-central Maharashtra.
• Threats: Logging operations, tree burning, and tree cutting harm Forest Owlet roosting and
nesting trees.
The White-bellied Heron

• Extremely rare bird found in five or six locations in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh, one or two
in Bhutan, and a few in Myanmar.
• Habitat: Rivers with sand or gravel bars, or inland lakes.
• Distribution: Bhutan and north-east India to the hills of Bangladesh and north Myanmar.
• Threats: Threats include the loss and degradation of lowland forests and wetlands as a result of
direct human exploitation and disturbance.
The Bengal Florican

• A rare bustard species well known for its mating dance. Secretive males advertise their
territories in the tall grasslands by springing from the ground and flitting to and fro in the air.
• Habitat: Grasslands interspersed with scrublands.
• Distribution: This species is only found in three countries: Cambodia, India, and Nepal. It
occurs in three Indian states: Uttar Pradesh, Assam, and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Threats: The ongoing conversion of the bird's grassland habitat for various purposes,
including agriculture, is primarily responsible for its population decline.
The Himalayan Quail

• It is thought to be extinct because there are no reliable records of sightings of this species after
1876.
 • Intensive surveys are required because this species is difficult to detect due to its aversion to
flying and preference for dense grass habitats. A possible sighting of this species was reported
in Nainital in 2003.
• Habitat: Tall grass and scrub on steep hillsides.
• Distribution: Western Himalayas.
• Threats: It includes indiscriminate hunting during the colonial period, as well as habitat
modification.
Pink-headed Duck

• It has not been conclusively recorded in India since 1949.

• Males have a deep pink head and neck that gives the bird its name.
• Habitat: Overgrown still-water pools, marshes, and swamps in lowland forests and tall
grasslands.
• Distribution: Recorded in India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. The most records come from
north-east India.
• Threats: The main causes of its extinction are wetlands degradation and loss of habitat, as well
as hunting.
Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarious)

• It is a winter migrant to India. Because of a sudden and rapid population decline, this species
has been designated as critically endangered.
• Habitat: Fallow fields and scrub desert are the habitats.
• Distribution: Central Asia, Asia Minor, Russia, Egypt, India, and Pakistan. In India, habitat and
distribution are limited to the north and north-west of the country.
• Threats: This include conversion of habitat to arable land, illegal hunting, and proximity to
human settlements.
Spoon-billed Sandpiper

• It requires highly specialised breeding habitat, which has always kept its population in check.
Some of this species' last wintering grounds are in India.
• Habitat: Coastal areas with sparse vegetation. There are no breeding records further inland than
7 km from the seashore.
• Distribution: It has been found in West Bengal, Orissa, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
• Threats: This include habitat degradation and land reclamation. Human disturbance also causes
a high rate of nest abandonment.
Siberian Crane

• It is a large, strikingly majestic migratory bird that breeds and winters in wetlands.
• They are known to spend the winter in Rajasthan's Keoladeo National Park. However, the last
documented sighting of the bird was in 2002.
• Habitat: Wetland areas.
• Distribution: Keoladeo National Park in Rajasthan is where distribution is located.
• Threats: Pesticide pollution, wetland drainage, conversion of prime habitat into agricultural
fields, and, to a lesser extent, hunting are all threats.
Great Indian Bustard

• The Great Indian Bustard is a critically endangered bird found only in India and the surrounding
region.
• The bustard is one of the largest flying bird species, weighing up to 15 kg and standing about 1
m tall.
• The largest land bird habitat in Rajasthan's scrub, tall grass, semi-arid grasslands, and semi-
desert regions.
• The bird is becoming extinct in many parts of India as a result of overhunting and habitat loss.
It is the state bird of Rajasthan.
• Great Indian Bustard Sanctuary is a wildlife sanctuary in Solapur, Maharashtra.
Baer’s Pochard

• The Baer's Pochard is a marshy wetlands-dwelling duck native to India, China, Vietnam, and
Japan.
• The dark backs and white lower feathers of the Baer's Pochard set it apart. Its natural habitat is
dense vegetation near lakes and watery meadows.
• The IUCN has classified the Baer's Pochard as 'Critically Endangered' in India.
• The primary cause of their near-extinction is widespread hunting and poaching of their eggs for
food.
• They are mostly found in India's northwestern states bordering Myanmar and Bangladesh.
White-backed Vulture

• White Backed Vultures, like all birds of this species, are scavengers. They feed on the carcasses
of dead animals, including human remains.
• Because of a lack of food, the White-backed Vulture is on the verge of extinction.
• Unlike other birds, the White Backed Vulture does not share its food. As a result, it has limited
food sources.
• These birds usually lived near mountainous areas in rural India and fed on domestic animal
carcasses dumped by villagers.
• They are also said to visit the Tower of Silence, a place where members of the Zoroastrian
community go after they die.
Red-headed Vulture

• The Red-headed Vulture, also known as the Indian Black Vulture or King Vulture, is an Old
World vulture species found in India.
• The Grand Indian Vulture is another name for the Red Headed Vulture. It is distinguished by its
reddish face and bald neck.
• It, like other vultures, feeds on animal carcasses, including humans, and occasionally kills weak
or dying animals for food.
• According to ornithologists, the Red Headed Vulture is on the verge of extinction due to the
widespread use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in veterinary medicine, such
as ibuprofen, diclofenac sodium, and others.
• These NSAIDS and other medications remain in domestic animal carcasses and are killing the
Red Headed Vulture. The Indian government is attempting to increase their population.
Slender-billed Vulture

• The survival of the Slender Billed Vulture, an Indian bird, is once again threatened by NSAIDs
such as Diclofenac Sodium, which is used in the veterinary treatment of farm and other domestic
animals.
• These scavenger birds eat dead animal carcasses. The carcasses of animals treated with
Diclofenac, on the other hand, sound the death knell for the Slender Billed Vulture.
• Despite the fact that the Indian government has taken steps to prevent the use of Diclofenac for
veterinary purposes, it is still available illegally.
Indian Vulture

• The Indian Vulture is native to Rajasthan and areas bordering Pakistan.

• The Indian Vulture, like other species in its category, is threatened by the use of Diclofenac and
other veterinary medicines.
• The Indian government and their Pakistani counterparts have joined forces to keep this species of
vulture from becoming extinct on both sides of the border.
• Kites made of glass-coated twine pose additional dangers to this bird.

Fishes

Ganges Shark

• IUCN: CR
• WPA: Schedule I
• Characteristics: Freshwater shark
• Distribution: Endemic to India, Bangladesh, also found in Myanmar, Malaysia, Indonesia

Humpback Mahseer

• IUCN: CR
• Characteristics: Large freshwater fish, endemic to Cauvery River basin
• Distribution: Cauvery River basin, Western Ghats

Golden Mahseer

• IUCN: Endangered (EN)

• Characteristics: Large golden-colored fish, tough sport fish
• Distribution: Basins of Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra rivers

Wagur

• IUCN: Endangered (EN)

• Characteristics: Walking catfish endemic to India, Nepal, and Bangladesh
• Habitat: Freshwater, brackish water, flooded rice fields

Blue Finned Mahseer

• IUCN :Least Concern (LC)

• Characteristics: Large freshwater fish, also known as Black or Deccan Mahseer
• Distribution: Deccan Peninsula, Sri Lanka and Cauvery river.
• Habitat: Prefers cool, fast-flowing, rocky streams, also found in rivers, lakes, reservoirs

Helicopter Catfish

• IUCN : Vulnerable (VU)

• Characteristics: Freshwater catfish native to South and SE Asia
• Distribution: South and SE Asia
• Habitat: Freshwater bodies, tidal waters

Reptiles

• Asian Giant Tortoise

• IUCN: Critically Endangered (CR)
• WPA: Sch I
• Characteristics: Largest tortoises in mainland Asia
• Distribution: Found in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia.

Star Tortoise

• IUCN: Vulnerable (VU)

• WPA: Sch I
• Characteristics: Medium-sized tortoise species
• Habitat: Parts of India below West Bengal and Gujarat
BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
• In-situ Conservation-Conservation of genetic resources in natural populations. Examples:
Biosphere reserves, national parks, sanctuaries, reserved forests, protected forests, and
nature reserves.
• Wildlife Sanctuaries-Areas safeguarding endangered species in their natural habitat.
Declared through a notification (no need to pass legislation) by the respective state
governments and protected under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
• Certain rights like grazing and firewood collection may be permitted but strictly regulated.
However, mining is not permitted - Supreme Court.
• A sanctuary can be promoted to a National Park.
• Tiger Reserves: Same protection status as wildlife sanctuaries.
• Monitored by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) under Project Tiger.
• National Parks:Strict protection, no rights permitted. Clearly defined boundaries (unlike
wildlife sanctuaries), can be changed by the state legislature on the recommendation of the
National Board of Wildlife.Protected under the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
• Biosphere Reserves: Large protected areas involving terrestrial, marine, and coastal
ecosystems. Designated under UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Programme.
• Learning places for sustainable development.
• Managed under the sovereign jurisdiction of countries.The most important strategy for the
conservation of biodiversity together with traditional human life.
• Seville Strategy-Adopted in 1995, emphasizing a community-based approach for biosphere
reserves. Includes social, cultural, spiritual, and economic needs alongside scientific
research.
Core Buffer Strategy:

Core Area: Strictly protected with no human activity.

Buffer Zone: Limited human activity allowed for research, monitoring, and education.

Transition Area: Permits ecologically sustainable human settlements and economic activities.

Protected Areas in terms of protection:Protected forests < Reserved forests < Wildlife Sanctuaries <
National Parks.

Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs):ESZs, notified by the Ministry of Environment, aim to enhance protection
around national parks and wildlife sanctuaries.

Purpose: Act as a buffer to minimize forest depletion and human-animal conflict.

Regulations and Notifications:Mandated by the National Wildlife Action Plan (2002–2016) for state
governments to declare land within 10 km of parks and sanctuaries as ESZs.

Width and regulations vary; areas beyond 10 km can also be notified as ESZs for ecologically
important corridors.

Supreme Court’s directive in June 2022: Mandatory minimum one km ESZ from boundaries.

ESZs follow the core and buffer model.

Legal Status -
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Environment Rules, 1986 allows the Government of India
to restrict areas where certain industries, operations, or processes can be carried out, subject to specific
safeguards.
Activities Prohibited/Restricted/Allowed in ESZs:
Prohibited: Commercial mining, sawmills, polluting industries, commercial firewood use, major
hydropower, aerial tourism, and waste discharge.
Regulated: Tree felling, agriculture changes, commercial water use, hotels, and resorts.
Permitted: Local agriculture, rainwater harvesting, organic farming, green technology adoption, and
renewable energy use.
Conservation Reserves: State Governments can declare Conservation Reserves in areas they own,
especially those adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries.Declaration involves consultations with
local communities to ensure their involvement.
Community Reserves:State Governments can declare Community Reserves on private or community
land where individuals or communities volunteer for wildlife conservation.Excludes land within
National Parks, Sanctuaries, and Conservation Reserves.Rights of people within these reserves remain
unaffected.
Protected Areas (PAs):Defined in the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972. Encompass National Parks,
Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves, and Community Reserves.
Sacred Groves: Tracts of forests preserved by ancient societies for religious and cultural reasons. Trees
and wildlife within are venerated and protected by communities. Found in various regions, including
Khasi and Jaintia Hills in Meghalaya, Aravalli Hills of Rajasthan, Western Ghats of Karnataka and
Maharashtra, and Chanda and Bastar areas of Chhattisgarh.
Ex Situ Conservation : Involves relocating threatened animals and plants from their natural habitat to
protected environments for special care. Examples include Zoological Parks, Botanical Gardens,
Wildlife Safari Parks, and Seed Banks.
Cryopreservation Techniques:Advancements in ex-situ conservation include cryopreservation for
preserving gametes of threatened species.Enables the storage of viable and fertile gametes for extended
periods.
In Vitro Fertilization and Tissue Culture: Eggs can be fertilized in vitro, and plants can be propagated
using tissue culture techniques.
Seed Banks: Seeds of various genetic strains, especially of commercially important plants, can be
stored for extended periods in seed banks.
The National Gene Bank at the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (ICAR-NBPGR),Delhi, is
a key institution responsible for long-term conservation of unique accessions, mainly in seed form.
UNESCO World Heritage Sites: UNESCO adopted the World Heritage Convention in 1972.
Provides a framework for international cooperation in preserving and protecting cultural and natural
treasures. Defines criteria for sites to be considered for inscription to the World Heritage list.
World Heritage Sites have outstanding universal value concerning the protection of both World Cultural
(e.g., ancient monuments, museums) Natural Heritage (e.g., biodiversity, geological heritage).
UNESCO has ten criteria, and nominated sites must meet at least one.
Natural heritage sites showcase outstanding examples of the Earth’s record of life, ongoing ecological
and biological evolutionary processes, rare or unique natural phenomena, and habitats for rare
endangered animals or plants with exceptional biodiversity.
TIGER CONSERVATION:
There are eight subspecies of tigers; five present in the wild (Bengal, South China, Indochinese,
Sumatran, Siberian), three are extinct (Caspian, Bali, Javan).
Challenges to Tiger Conservation:
Habitat Pressure: Large-scale development projects cause habitat destruction, fragmentation, and
pressure.
Invasive species destroy local producers having a cascade effect on food chain and affecting tigers at
the top of the food chain.
Poaching and Wildlife Crime: Tigers are killed for Traditional Chinese Medicine, and poaching remains
a significant issue.
Canine Distemper Virus (CDV): A contagious disease affecting the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and
nervous systems of dogs and puppies, can be transmitted to wildlife from infected dogs around wildlife
sanctuaries.
Project Tiger: Launched in 1973 in Jim Corbett National Park to protect tigers from extinction.
Administered by National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
Aims to ensure a viable tiger population in natural habitats, funding relocation of villagers, and
combating poaching.
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA): Statutory body under MoEF, established under the
Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006.
Administers Project Tiger, lays down standards and guidelines for tiger conservation.
Members: Minister for Environment & Forests (Chairman); 8 experts on wildlife conservation; 3 MPs;
Inspector general of Forests, incharge of Project Tiger (ex-officio Member Secretary) and others.
No alteration in the boundaries of a Tiger reserveshall be made except on a recommendation of the
NTCA and approval of the National Board of Wildlife.
No State Government shall de-notify a tiger reserve, except in public interest with the approval of the
NTCA and National Board for Wildlife.
MSTrIPES (Monitoring System for Tigers – Intensive Protection and Ecological Status):
Launch: Introduced in 2010 across Indian tiger reserves by the NTCA and the Wildlife Institute of
India.
Purpose: Enhance wildlife protection, particularly for tigers, through technology-driven monitoring and
data analysis.
Components:
Field-Based Protocols: Guides patrolling, law enforcement, wildlife crime recording, and ecological
monitoring.
GIS Software: Customized Geographic Information System software for storage, retrieval, analysis,
and reporting.
Real-Time Monitoring: Forest guards record tracks using GPS, note observations, and upload geo-
tagged pictures, contributing to a central GIS database.
Advantage:
Identifies patrolling shortcomings in real-time.
Serves as proof of the presence and activities of forest guards.
Tiger Corridors- Document titled “Connecting Tiger Populations for Long-term Conservation” by
NTCA and Wildlife Institute of India.
Maps out 32 major corridors across India to connect tiger populations.
Core and Buffer Zones in Tiger Reserves: Core zones are areas freed of human activities; buffer zones
allow co-existence of human activities on a sustainable basis. Forest Rights Act of 2006 recognizes
rights of some forest-dwelling communities in buffer areas
NATIONAL PARKS OF INDIA (TOTAL: 109)
Largest National Park in India: Hemis NP (Ladakh)
Smallest National Park in India: South Button Island NP (Andaman & Nicobar)
Smallest National Park in India (by Core Area): Orang TR Assam
Smallest National Park in India (by Total Area): Nameri TR Assam
Andaman & Nicobar Island (9)
Mahatma Gandhi Marine (Wandoor) NP
Located in South Andaman.
Most of the coral reefs in the park are fringing reefs.
Campbell Bay & Galathea Bay NP
Part of the Great Nicobar BR.
Galathea NP - southernmost NP of India.
Vegetation: Tropical evergreen & semi-evergreen forests.
Major Fauna: Giant robber crab, megapode, Nicobar pigeon and turtle species (Hawksbill, Olive Ridley,
Leatherback, Malayan box and Giant Leatherback).
Mount Manipur NP
Third-highest peak in the A&N archipelago, located near Port Blair in South Andaman.
Previously known as Mount Harriet, renamed in honour of Manipur’s freedom fighters who were
imprisoned there.
Vegetation: Tropical evergreen, hilltop tropical evergreen and littoral forests.
Major Fauna: Butterfly hotspot.
Rani Jhansi Marine NP
Location: Ritchie’s Archipelago, South Andaman. It lies in the vicinity of Button Islands.
Vegetation: Mangroves and evergreen forests.
Major Terrestrial Fauna: Spotted deer, water lizards and monitor lizards, fruit-eating bats.
Major Marine Fauna: Dugongs, dolphins, sea turtles, blue whales and corals.
Saddle Peak NP
The highest point of A&N Islands.
Major Fauna: Andaman wild pig, Andaman imperial pigeon, dolphins, whales and saltwater crocodile
Others
North Button Island NP, Middle Button Island NP, South Button Island NP
Arunachal Pradesh
Mouling NP
Named after Mouling Peak. Mouling NP and Dibang WLS are located within Dihang-Dibang BR.
Vegetation: Tropical forests (at lower altitudes) to moist temperate forests (at higher altitudes).
Namdapha NP, TR
Location: Between the Dapha bum range of the Mishmi Hills and the Patkai range, crossed by the Noa
Dihing River which originates at Chaukan Pass, the largest protected area in the Eastern Himalaya
biodiversity hotspot.
Vegetation: Evergreen to temperate broadleaf forest.
It is the only park in the World to have the four Feline species of big cat, namely: Tiger, Leopard, Snow
Leopard and Clouded Leopard.
It is famous for the critically endangered Namdapha flying squirrel which is endemic to the park.
Primates: Stump-tailed macaque, slow loris, Western Hoolock gibbon (the only ‘ape’ species found in
India), capped langur, Assamese macaque and rhesus macaque.
Assam
Nameri NP,TR
Location: Foothills of the Eastern Himalayas & Kameng River flows along its southern boundary. Its
northern boundary is shared with the Pakke TR. It has two core areas: Nameri NP & Sonai-Rupai WLS.
Raimona NP
Location: Along the Himalayan foothills together with Buxa TR of West Bengal and Phipsoo WLS and
Jigme Singye Wangchuck NP of Bhutan.
Bounded by the Sankosh River on the west, the Saralbhanga River on the east, the Indo-Bhutan border
on the north, and Ripu RF on the south.
Non-human Primates: Golden langur (EN) (endemic to the region; named as the mascot of Bodoland
region).
Major Avifauna: White-bellied heron, Oriental darter, lesser adjutant, Bengal florican, hill myna.
Orang NP, TR
Lies on the bank of the Brahmaputra River.Pachanoi River, Belsiri River and Dhanshiri Riverborder
the park.
The park, formed of alluvial flood plains, is an integral part of the Indo-Burma hotspot of biodiversity.
Vegetation: Moist deciduous forest, swamp forest, wet alluvial and savannah grassland.
Dihing Patkai NP, WLS, ER
Location: Foothills of Patkai Hills & Dihing River flows through it.
Also called Jeypore Rainforest, it harbours the largest stretch of lowland rainforests in India.
The Digboi Oil Refinery (the oldest refinery in Asia) and Lido Coal Mines are located near the park.
It has the highest concentration of the White Winged Wood Duck (EN)
Dibru-Saikhowa NP, BR
Bounded by the Brahmaputra and Lohit Rivers in the north and the Dibru River in the south.
It is famous for Feral horses.
Vegetation: Wet evergreen and semi-evergreen, deciduous, littoral and swamp forests.Kaziranga TR,
NP
Lies in the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot and the Brahmaputra River flows through the park.
Hosts 2/3rd of the world’s one-horned rhinoceroses, it is a World Heritage Site, recognized as an
Important Bird Area by BirdLife International.
Major Flora: Speargrass, elephant grass, common reed, cotton tree, and elephant apple.
Major Fauna: One-horned rhinoceros (VU), Royal Bengal Tiger, Asian elephant, wild water buffalo
(EN) and swamp deer are collectively known as the ‘Big Five’ of Kaziranga.
Manas BR, NP, TR, ER
UNESCO Natural World Heritage site located on the Himalayan Foothills, contiguous with the Royal
Manas NP (Bhutan). Manas River passes through it. Bhabar-terai region with riverine succession makes
it one of the richest areas of biodiversity.
Major Avifauna: It has the world’s largest population of the endangered Bengal florican. Other major
bird species include great hornbills, pelicans, eagles, and herons.
Bihar
Valmiki NP, TR, WLS
Location: Foothill ranges of Siwaliks at the Indo-Nepal border. River Gandak forms its western
boundary. It is the only NP in Bihar.
The Harga-Masan River system originates from the Valmiki NP and forms the Burhi Gandak River
down south.
Vegetation: Moist deciduous, semi-evergreen, freshwater swamps, alluvial grasslands, savannah and
wetlands.
Major Fauna: Bengal tiger, rhinoceros, Indian flying fox, black bear, sloth bear, leopard, barking deer,
spotted deer, hog deer, sambar, clouded Leopard, Indian gaur.
‘Tharu’, a scheduled tribe, is the dominant community
Chhattisgarh
Achanakmar NP, TR, WLS
Location: Spread in Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh and is a part of the Achanakmar-Amarkantak
BR. It is linked by the Kanha-Achanakmar Corridor to the Kanha TR (MP).
Sanjay (Guru Ghasidas) NP, Sanjay-Dubri TR
Location: Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh, it is named after Guru Ghasidas of the Satnami sect. Lies
in the Narmada Valley and is a part of the Sanjay-Dubri TR.
Indravati TR, NP
Derives its name from the Indravati River that forms its northern boundary. It is home to one of the last
remaining populations of the wild water buffalo.
Major Fauna: Gaur, blackbuck, chausingha, sambar, chital, Indian muntjac, tigers, pangolins, rhesus
monkeys.
Major Avifauna: Common (Bastar) hill myna (LC).
Major Reptilian Fauna: Freshwater crocodile.Kanger Valley NP
Home to the Bastar Hill myna (LC), It derives its name from the Kanger River which flows through it.
It has limestone caves. Major Reptilian Fauna: Freshwater crocodile
Goa
Mollem NP and Bhagwan Mahaveer Sanctuary:
Located in the Western Ghats in Goa. National Highway 4A divides the park into two parts. It is home
to waterfalls, such as Dudhsagar Falls (on the Mandovi River; it is Goa’s tallest waterfall and India’s
5th tallest) and Tambdi Falls.
Home to a community of nomadic buffalo herders known as the Dhangar.
Gujarat
Blackbuck (Velavadar) NP
It is bordered by the Gulf of Khambhat on the south.
Vegetation: Savanna grassland.
Major Fauna: Blackbucks (LC), hyenas, jungle cats.
Gir NP and WLS
Gir NP (Sasan Gir) is near Talala Gir. Today, it is the only area in Asia where Asiatic lions
occur.Kamleshwar Dam on Hiran River is called ‘the lifeline of Gir’.
Marine NP (Gulf of Kachchh)
Major Fauna: Corals, sea turtles such as green sea turtles (EN), olive ridleys (VU) and leatherbacks
(VU), dugongs (sea cow; VU), Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins.
Vansda (Bansda) NP
Located on the banks of the Ambika River in the Western Ghats.
Major Fauna: Indian leopard, rhesus macaque, small Indian civet, chausingha, Indian (Malabar) giant
squirrel.
Haryana
Kalesar NP, WLS
Location: Shivalik foothills. It is contiguous to Rajaji NP (Uttarakhand) and Simbalbara NP (Himachal
Pradesh). It is bounded by the Yamuna River to the east.
Sultanpur NP
It is a Ramsar Site located 15 km from Gurugram, the park is famous for migratory birds.
Himachal Pradesh
Great Himalayan NP
Location: the Kullu Valley (formed by Beas River).
It is at the junction of the world’s two major biogeographic realms: the Indomalayan realm to the south
and the Palearctic realm to the north.
It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Vegetation: Ranges from temperate to subalpine.
Major Flora: Spruces, horse chestnuts, alpine meadows.
Major Fauna: Bharal (blue sheep), snow leopard (VU), Himalayan brown bear, Khirganga NP
It is flanked by the Great Himalayan NP and Pin Valley NP.
Vegetation: Dry alpine and scrub.
Pin Valley NP
Location: within the Cold Desert BR in the Himalayan region. Pin River is a tributary of Spiti River
Others: Inderkilla NP; Simbalbara (Col. Sher Jung) NP
Jammu & Kashmir
City Forest (Salim Ali) NP
Major Fauna: Kashmiri stag (hangul) (CR), musk deer (EN), Himalayan black bear.
Major Avifauna: Paradise flycatcher, Himalayan monal, and Himalayan snowcock.
Salim Ali (1896-1987): Salim Ali, an Indian ornithologist, was the first Indian to conduct systematic
bird surveys across India. He was a key figure behind the Bombay Natural History Society and the
creation of the Bharatpur BS (Keoladeo NP).
Dachigam NP
Location: Zabarwan Range of Western Himalayas.
Vegetation: Coniferous forest, alpine pastures, meadows, and scrub vegetation.
Kishtwar NP
Bounded to the north by the Rinnay River, south by the Kibar Nala catchment, east by the main divide
of the Great Himalayas, and west by the Marwah River.
Vegetation: Conifer forests, alpine scrub, and meadows.
Major Fauna: Snow Leopards, Himalayan snowcock.
Ladakh
Hemis NP
Location: Within the Palearctic realm. It is the only NP in India that is to the north of the Greater
Himalayas.
Bounded on the north by the Indus River, and on the south by the Zanskar Range.
It is the 2nd largest contiguous protected area, after the Nanda Devi BR and is famous for snow
leopards. It is the only refuge in India for the Shapu (Ladakhi Urial).
Jharkhand
Betla NP
Location: Chota Nagpur Plateau. North Koel River (a tributary of Son River) flows through the park.
Belta NP = Palamu TR + Mahuadanr Wolf Sanctuary
Vegetation: Bamboo and sal forests.
Karnataka
Anshi NP and Dandeli-Anshi TR (Kali TR)
Located on the banks of Kali River in the Western Ghats. It is a part of the Dandeli WLS. Anshi NP and
Dandeli WLS were together granted the status of Project Tiger TR and were declared as ‘Anshi-Dandeli
TR’ (which is now renamed as Kali TR).
Vegetation: Deciduous forest & montane rainforest.
Major Flora: True cinnamon, bamboo, eucalyptus.
Major Fauna: Elephant (EN), Bengal tiger (EN), black panther (a black color variant of leopard; VU),
wild boars, bonnet macaque, Malabar civet, Malabar giant squirrel.
Major Avifauna: Adjutant stork, great hornbill.
Bandipur NP, TR
Together with Nagarhole NP, Mudumalai NP (TN) and Wayanad WLS (Kerala), it is part of the Nilgiri
BR. Kabini River (a tributary of the Cauvery River) separates the NP from Nagarhole NP.
Vegetation: Dry & moist deciduous forests, and shrubs.
Bannerghatta NP
It is part of a wildlife corridor for elephants which connects Biligirirangana Hills and Sathyamangalam
forest.
Vegetation: Moist deciduous forest and scrubland.
A portion of the NP is converted into Bannerghatta Biological Park.
Nagarahole (Rajiv Gandhi) NP, TR
Location: foothills of Western Ghats.
It is recognized as an Important Bird Area.
Jenu Kurubas (honey-collecting tribe) live in this park.
Vegetation: Moist & dry deciduous forests, swamp forests, and bamboo.
In 2020, the pictures of the rare black panther Saya caught on camera by photographer Shaaz Jung
from the dense forests of Nagarhole went viral.
Kudremukh NP
Located in the Western Ghats
The park is named after the Kudremukh Peak, which is the third-highest peak in Karnataka and is
characterized by its distinctive horse-shaped outline (“Kudremukh” translates to “horse face” in the
local language).
Andhra Pradesh
Papikonda NP
Location: Papi Hills of Eastern Ghats. It is an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area.
Major Fauna: Bengal tiger, leopard, hyena, Indian gaur, sloth bear, spotted deer (chital), sambar,
barking deer(or Indian muntjac), four-horned antelope (chausingha), kanchu mekha (an endemic dwarf
goat).
Major Avifauna: Common peacock, red jungle fowl.
Major Reptiles: Indian golden gecko, monitor lizard.
The NP has a population of both Rhesus macaque(normally found north of Godavari) and Bonnet
macaque (usually found south of Godavari).
Rajiv Gandhi (Rameswaram) NP
Location: Rameswaram of Kadapa district. It lies on the north bank of the Penna
Major Avifauna: Little egrets, parakeets.
Major Amphibian Fauna: Bullfrog.
Major Reptilian Fauna: Burrowing snakes (Russell, earth boa, John and boa).
Sri Venkateswara NP
Location: Part of the Seshachalam Hills BR. It spreads over the Seshachalam Hills and the Tirumala
Hills of Eastern Ghats.
Major Flora: Red Sanders.
Major Fauna: Slender loris, leopard, sloth bear, mouse deer, Chausingha, Indian giant squirrel.
Kerala
Anamudi Shola NP
Location: Western Ghats, Anamudi (2695 m)
Surrounded by Mathikettan Shola NP, Eravikulam NP, Pambadum Shola NP, Chinnar WLS, and the
Kurinjimala WLS. (All are part of Munnar Wildlife Division).
Major Fauna: Lion-tailed macaques, Nilgiri tahr (EN), Nilgiri marten (VU), gaur, muntjac, giant
grizzled squirrel (NT), flying squirrels, Nilgiri langur (VU).
Sholas
Tropical montane forests in the Western Ghats, separated by rolling grasslands in high altitudes.
House a dense patch of stunted trees with the presence of lichen, mosses, and climbers.
Periyar NP, TR, ER
Forms the major watershed of two important rivers of Kerala, the Periyar and the Pamba. It is located
in the Cardamom Hills of the Western Ghats.
It surrounds the Periyar Lake which became a reservoir in 1895 after the Mullaperiyar Dam(built at the
confluence of the Mullayar and Periyar rivers in Kerala but is operated and maintained by Tamil Nadu)
was erected.
Silent Valley NP
Silent Valley NP is located in the Nilgiri Hills in the Malappuram district, Kerala, and Nilgiris district
of Tamil Nadu. The park lies within the Nilgiri BR
Bhavani River (a tributary of the Kaveri River) andKunthipuzha River (a tributary of Bharathapuzha
River) originate in the vicinity of the park. The Kadalundi River also originates in this park.
Others: Eravikulam NP, Mathikettan Shola NP, Pambadum Shola NP
Madhya Pradesh:
Bandhavgarh NP, TR
Location: At Vindhya Range. India’s first white tiger was captured here in 1951. The density of the
tiger population at Bandhavgarh is one of the highest in India.
Vegetation: Moist and mixed deciduous forests.
Major Fauna: Bengal tiger, elephant, leopard, sambar, barking deer, Indian wolf, striped hyena, nilgai.
Major Avifauna: Indian grey hornbill, lesser adjutant stork, lesser spotted eagle, Bonelli’s eagle.
The Indian bison was reintroduced from Kanha.
Dinosaur (Ashmadha) Fossils NP
Location: Narmada Valley.
Dinosaur egg fossils and fossilized trees dating back 60 million years were discovered at the site.
Indira Priyadarshini Pench NP, TR
Location: Satpura Range. Pench River flows through the park dividing it into two halves.
Pench TR straddles across Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. It comprises the Indira Priyadarshini
Pench NP (MP) and the Jawahar Nehru Pench NP (Maharashtra). Collarwali (‘The One With a Collar’),
the first tigress in the park fitted with a radio collar recently died. Pench NP was the inspiration for
Rudyard Kipling’s ‘The Jungle Book’.
Kanha NP, TR
Location: Maikal Range of Satpuras. It is the largest NP of Madhya Pradesh and Central India.
The present-day Kanha area is divided into two protected areas, Hallon and Banjar.
Tribes displaced from the region: The Baiga tribe(a semi-nomadic tribe of Central India) lost their
forest rights & were not properly compensated.
Madhav NP
Sakhya Sagar and Madhav Sagar are two important reservoirs within the park built by Madho Rao
Scindia. Sakhya Sagar has been designated as a Ramsar site since 2022.
Vegetation: Dry deciduous forests and grasslands.
Major Fauna: Chinkara (Indian gazelle), chital, nilgai, sambar, chausingha (four-horned antelope).
Mandla Plant Fossil NP
Location: Narmada Valley. It has plant fossils that existed in India between 40-150 million years ago.
Panna NP, TR
Panna NP along with Ken Gharial WLS, form a significant part of the catchment area of the Ken River
which runs through the park.
In the Ken WLS, gharials (fish-eating freshwater crocodiles) are bred in captivity and then released.
Vegetation: Fragmented deciduous forests.
Major Fauna: Tiger, leopard, chital, chinkara, sambar.
In 2012, no tigers were left in the reserve. A tiger each from Bandhavgarh NP and Kanha NP were
translocated to Panna TR
Sanjay NP, Sanjay-Dubri TR
Already covered under Chhattisgarh.
Satpura NP, TR
It was India’s first reserve forest, located in the Satpura Range. It has the Dhoopgarh peak (1,350 m)
and the level plains of Churna.
Pachmarhi is the closest city to the park.
Van Vihar NP
It is located in Bhopal. It has the status of an NP but is developed and managed as a zoological park.
Captive Fauna: Bengal tiger, Asiatic lion, mugger crocodile, gharial, spotted deer (chital), sambar,
blackbuck
Maharashtra
Melghat TR, Gugamal NP
Location: Amravati region. Tapi River and Gawilgarh Hills (of Satpura Range) form its northern
boundary. Gugamal NP is part of Melghat TR. It is one of seven protected areas in the Melghat TR.
The TR is a catchment of five major rivers: Khandu, Khapra, Sipna, Gadga and Dolar (all tributaries
of Tapti).
Nawegaon NP
Dr Salim Ali Bird Sanctuary, Navegaon is home to almost 60% of bird species found in the entire
Maharashtra.
Navegaon Nagzira TR = Nawegaon NP + Nagzira WLS + Koka WLS.
Jawaharlal Nehru Pench NP, TR
Spread across Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. It comprises the Indira Priyadarshini Pench NP (MP)
and the Jawahar Nehru Pench NP (Maharashtra).
Major Fauna: Royal Bengal tiger, leopard, sloth bear, gaur, four-horned antelope.
Chandoli NP, Sahyadri TR, Koyna WLS
Sahyadri TR = Chandoli NP + Koyna WLS.
Location: Sahyadri Range of the Western Ghats.
Koyna WLS has two reservoirs along the Koyna River, Shivsagar Lake and Koyna Reservoir.
Sanjay Gandhi (Borivali) NP
Location: Mumbai. 2400-year-old Kanheri caves sculpted out of a massive basalt lie within the park. It
served the Buddhist centers of education.
Tadoba Andhari TR, Tadoba NP, Andheri WLS
Maharashtra’s oldest and largest NP. Tadoba Lake and Erai Reservoir are the major wetlands in the
reserve. Erai Reservoir offers a good habitat for mugger crocodiles (marsh crocodiles).
Tadoba Andhari TR = Tadoba NP + Andhari WLS
Vegetation: Dry deciduous forest.
Major Flora: Teak, tendu
Manipur
Keibul-Lamjao NP
Only floating park in the world. It is an integral part of Loktak Lake (a Ramsar site).
Characterized by floating decomposed plant materials locally called phumdis.
Declared a NP to preserve the natural refuge of browantlered deer (also called sangai, dancing deer &
Manipurs’s Eld’s deer; EN).
Meghalaya
Balphakram NP
Location: Garo Hills in Meghalaya, close to the Indo-Bangladesh border.
Major Fauna: Barking deer, Asian golden cat, tiger, marbled cat, wild water buffalo, red panda,
elephant.
Nokrek Ridge NP
Location: close to Tura Peak in West Garo Hills. It forms the core area of the Nokrek BR.
Important Bird Area. All important rivers of the Garo Hills region rise from the Nokrek Range, of
which the Simsang River (known as Someshwari in Bangladesh) is most prominent.
Vegetation: Evergreen, semi-evergreen and deciduous.
Major Fauna: Red panda, Asian elephant, stumptailed macaque, pig-tailed macaque, hoolock gibbon.
Mizoram
Murlen NP
Location: close to the Chin Hills of Myanmar. It is to the south of Lengteng WLS.
Vegetation: Semi-evergreen and sub-montane forests.
Major Fauna: Tiger, leopard, Malayan giant squirrel, Himalayan black bear, serow, hoolock gibbon.
Major Avifauna: Mrs. Hume’s pheasant (NT), the state bird of Mizoram and hill myna
Phawngpui Blue Mountain NP
It covers the entire Phawngpui Mountain or Blue Mountain (2,157 m), the highest peak of Mizoram.
Major Fauna: Slow loris, tiger, leopard, serow, goral.
Mrs. Hume’s pheasant (NT), the state bird of Mizoram
Odisha
Bhitarkanika NP, WLS, Ramsar Site(RS)
It is the second RS of Odisha after Chilika Lake. It is surrounded by Bhitarkanika WLS. Gahirmatha
Marine Sanctuary separates the NP from the Bay of Bengal. It is inundated by the rivers Brahmani,
Baitarani & Dhamra.
It hosts many mangrove species and is the secondlargest mangrove ecosystem in India.
Major Fauna: Saltwater (Estuarine) Crocodile (LC).
Simlipal BR, NP, TR
Location: Eastern Ghats and is listed in the UNESCO World Network of BRs.
Mayurbhanj ER = Similipal TR + Hadgarh + Kuldiha WLS.
Vegetation: moist and dry deciduous forests, and grasslands.
Major Fauna: Bengal tigers, wild elephants, gaurs (Indian bison), chausingha.
Rajasthan
Desert NP
Location: It is spread over two districts. It is one of the natural habitats of the Great Indian Bustard
Vegetation: Open grassland, thorny bushes, and dunes.
Major Flora: Patches of sewan grass and aak shrub.
Major Avifauna: Great Indian bustard (CR), eagles, harriers, falcons, buzzards, and vultures.
Major Fauna: Chinkara or Indian Gazelle, desert foxMukundra Hills NP, TR
previously known as Darrah WLS, located within the Kathiawar-Gir dry deciduous forests ecoregion.
Like Sita Mata WLS, Mukundara Hills NP was one of the places that were considered for the
reintroduction of the Asiatic lion.
Major Fauna: Bengal tiger, Indian wolf, leopard, chital, sambar, wild boar, sloth bear and chinkara,
Mugger crocodile and gharial.
Keoladeo Ghana NP, RS
Formerly known as Bharatpur BS, it is a freshwater swamp. It gets flooded during the monsoon.
Famous avifauna sanctuary that hosts thousands of birds, especially during the winter season. It is a
Ramsar Site and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
It is the only regular wintering area in India for the Siberian crane (CR).
Major Avifauna: Migratory waterfowl, sarus crane (VU) (large non-migratory crane found in parts of
India).
Major Fauna: Blackbuck, hog deer, chital deer, sambar.
Ranthambore NP, TR
It is bounded to the north by the Banas River and to the south by the Chambal River.
Major Fauna: Bengal Tiger, leopard, nilgai, sambar, Mugger crocodile.
Sariska NP, TR
Part of the Aravalli Range and the Kathiawar-Gir dry deciduous forests ecoregion. It is rich in mineral
resources, such as copper.
Vegetation: Arid forests, dry deciduous forests, scrubthorn and grasslands.
Major Fauna: Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, golden jackal, chital, sambar deer, nilgai, rhesus macaque.
Sikkim
Khangchendzonga NP, BR, UNESCO WHS
The park gets its name from the mountain Kanchenjunga, the third-highest peak in the world.
It is the first “Mixed Heritage” site in India. It is also included in the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere
Programme.
Vegetation: Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests.
Fauna: snow leopard, red panda, Himalayan blue sheep, serow, goral, takin
Tamil Nadu
Annamalai (Indira Gandhi) NP, TR, WLS
Location: in the Anaimalai Hills.
Vegetation: Wet evergreen forest to shola grassland.
Major Fauna: Bengal tiger, Indian elephant, Indian leopard, Nilgiri tahr, lion-tailed macaque, gaur,
Nilgiri langur.
Threats: Tea and coffee plantations and tourism.
Guindy NP
Guindy Snake Park and IIT Madras are located at the periphery of Guindy NP. The Madras Crocodile
Bank Trust is only 30 km away from Guindy NP.
Vegetation: Tropical dry evergreen forest, dry evergreen scrub, and thorn forest.
Major Fauna: Blackbucks(flagship species of the park), chital, jackals, etc.
Gulf of Mannar Marine NP
Consists of 21 small islands (islets) and adjacent coral reefs. It is the core area of the Gulf of Mannar
BR.
Includes marine components such as coral reefs, seaweed, seagrasses, salt marshes, and mangroves.
Major Marine Fauna: Dugong (Sea Cow), Green turtles, Olive Ridley turtles. Dugong (VU), a marine
mammal, is the flagship mammal of the park.
Mudumalai NP, TR, WLS
Location: north-western side of the Nilgiri Hills (Blue Mountains), in Nilgiri district. It shares its
boundaries with the states of Karnataka and Kerala.
Vegetation: Tropical moist deciduous, dry deciduous, and dry thorn forests.
Major Fauna: Indian elephant, Bengal tiger, leopard, bonnet macaque, sloth bear, Indian giant squirrel,
Indian white-rumped vulture (CR) and India Vulture (CR).
Mukurthi NP
Location: Within Nilgiri BR. The NP was created to protect its keystone species, the Nilgiri tahr (EN).
Vegetation: Montane grasslands and shrublands interspersed with sholas.
Telangana
Kawal TR, WLS
The Godavari River flows along its southern boundary.
Major Fauna: Tiger, leopard, gaur, cheetah, sambar, nilgai, barking deer, Chausingha, sloth bear.
Tripura
Bison (Rajbari) NP
NP in the Trishna WLS, established to restore the natural living habitat of India Bison.
Gumti River originating from the Gumti WLS (in Tripura), separates the Sipahijala WLS (Clouded
Leopard NP) from Trishna WLS (Bison NP). Rudrasagar Lake (RS) is located between the Sipahijala
WLS and the Trishna WLS.
Clouded Leopard NP
Part of the Sipahijala WLS. Sipahijala WLS is a woodland with an artificial lake and natural botanical
and zoological gardens.
Sipahijala WLS is famous for clouded leopards (VU).
Uttarakhand
Gangotri NP
Location: Upper catchment of Bhagirathi River.
The park area forms a continuity between Govind NP and Kedarnath WLS. The Gaumukh glacier, the
origin of the river Ganges is located inside the park.
Habitat: Coniferous forests, alpine meadows, and glaciers.
Vegetation: Pine, deodar, fir, and rhododendrons.
Major Fauna: Snow leopard, Asian black bear, brown bear, musk deer, blue sheep, Himalayan tahr.
Govind Pashu Vihar NP and WLS
The Snow Leopard Project is being managed at this sanctuary.
Vegetation: Himalayan broadleaf forests, conifer forests, alpine shrubs, and meadows.
Flora: Pine, Deodar, cedar, oak, maple, walnut, horse chestnut, hazel and rhododendron.
Major Fauna: Snow Leopard (VU), leopard, musk deer, Himalayan tahr, steppe eagle, bearded vulture.
Jim Corbett NP, Corbett TR
Oldest NP in India(1936) and is located in Nainital.
The park was the first NP to come under the Project Tiger initiative.
Corbett TR’s core area is formed by Jim Corbett NP, while the buffer contains Sonanadi WLS.
Ramganga, Sonanadi, and Kosi are the major rivers flowing through the NP, and Ramganga Reservoir
is located within the NP.
Vegetation: Dense, moist deciduous forests, marshy depressions, and grasslands.
Major Fauna: Bengal tigers, elephants, leopards, Himalayan black bears, Himalayan goral, rhesus
macaque. Local crocodiles and gharials were saved from extinction by captive breeding programs that
subsequently released crocodiles into the Ramganga River.
Threats: Invasive weeds, and poaching.
Corbett NP is one of the thirteen protected areas covered by the Worldwide Fund For Nature under their
Terai Arc Landscape Program.
Nanda Devi BR, NP
India’s second BR and it is under UNESCO’s Man & Biosphere Programme. Its core area is formed
by Nanda Devi NP and Valley of Flowers NP.
The Nanda Devi NP is situated around the peak of Nanda Devi (7816 m). It is a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
Rajaji NP, TR
Location: Spreads over the Shivalik ranges and the Indo-Gangetic plains. The Ganga and Son Rivers
flow through the park.
The park is at the north-western limit of distribution for both elephants and tigers in India.
Major Fauna: Elephants, Bengal tiger, sloth bear, black bear, Indian langur, Indian porcupine.
Valley of Flowers NP
It is a high-altitude Himalayan valley in the transition zone between Zanskar and Great Himalayas.
It is known for its meadows of endemic alpine flowers. NPs lies completely in the Temperate alpine
zone
Both the Valley of Flowers NP and the Nanda Devi NP form the core area of Nanda Devi BR.
West Bengal
Buxa NP, TR
Lies in the Gangetic Plains. Its northern boundary runs along the Indo-Bhutan border.
Vegetation: Evergreen and semi-evergreen, moist and dry deciduous, savannah and grasslands.
Major Fauna: Bengal tiger, Asian elephant, gaur, sambar deer, clouded leopard, Indian leopard.
Gorumara NP
Location: in the Eastern Himalayas Terai belt. The major river of the park is the Jaldhaka River, a
tributary of the Brahmaputra.
Vegetation: Rolling forests and riverine grasslands known as Duars and moist deciduous forests.
Major Fauna:Indian rhinoceros, gaur, Asian elephant,sloth bear, chital, sambar deer, barking deer, hog
deer.
Jaldapara NP
Location: banks of the Torsa River at the foothills of the Eastern Himalayas.
Largest population of the Indian one-horned rhinoceros after Kaziranga NP in Assam.
It is located near Chilapata Forests which is an elephant corridor between Jaldapara and Buxa TR while
Gorumara NP is known for its population of Indian rhinoceros.
Vegetation: Mainly savannah with tall elephant grasses.
Major Fauna: Indian rhinoceros, leopards, elephants, sambar, barking deer, spotted deer, hog deer, gaur.
Neora Valley NP
Location: Himalayas in Kalimpong.
Vegetation: Himalayan broadleaf forests.
Major Flora: Rhododendron, bamboo, oak, ferns, sal.
Major Fauna: Red Panda, Indian leopard, black bear, sloth bear, golden cat, barking deer, Himalayan
flying squirrel, thar.
Singalila NP
Location: Singalila Ridge in Darjeeling.
Vegetation: Coniferous, broadleaf, and mixed forests.
Major Fauna: Red panda, yellow-throated marten, pangolin, Himalayan black bear, clouded leopard,
takin.
Sunderban BR, NP, TR, RS
Largest delta and mangrove forest in the world.
Sundarbans NP is a part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges Delta and is adjacent to the Sundarban Reserve
Forest in Bangladesh. Bound on the west by river Muriganga and on the east by rivers Haribhanga and
Raimangal.It is also a BR, TR, RS and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE SITE (BHS)
Well-defined areas that are unique and ecologically fragile ecosystems (terrestrial, coastal, marine,
inland waters) having rich biodiversity comprising of any one or more of the following components:
Species richness, High endemism, Presence of rare and threatened species, keystone species, and
species of evolutionary significance, Presence of wild ancestors of domestic/cultivated species
Past pre-eminence of biological components represented by fossil beds
Areas with significant cultural, ethical or aesthetic values important for the maintenance of cultural
diversity.
Section 37 of the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 (BDA): State Government local bodies may notify
areas of biodiversity importance as BHS. Declaration of an area as BHS does not put any restriction on
the prevailing practices and usages of the local communities. The purpose of BHS is to enhance the
quality of life of the local communities through conservation measures.
BIOSPHERE RESERVES
Biosphere reserves are sites established by countries and recognized under UNESCO’s Man and the
Biosphere (MAB) Programme to promote sustainable development based on local community efforts
and sound science.
The World Network of Biosphere Reserves currently consists of 738 sites in 134 countries, including
22 transboundary sites.
Biosphere Reserves of India: Presently, there are 18 notified biosphere reserves in India (12 of them
are recognized by UNESCO’s MAB)
Cold Desert, Himachal Pradesh
It includes Pin Valley National Park, Chandratal, Sarchu and Kibber Wildlife Sanctuaries.
Major Fauna: Snow Leopard (VU), Himalayan Ibex (also referred to as Siberian Ibex – LC).
Nanda Devi, Uttrakhand (UNESCO’s MAB)
Nanda Devi NP + Valley of Flowers NP.
Major Fauna: Snow Leopard (VU), Musk Deer (EN), Bharal Or Blue Sheep (LC), etc.
Khangchendzog, Sikkim UNESCO’s MAB)
Transboundary biodiversity hotspot conservation area. It includes the third-highest mountain peak in
the world, Kanchenjunga (8,586 m). It is one of the highest ecosystems in the world, reaching elevations
of 1,220 m to 8,586 m above sea level.
The Khangchendzonga NP, which comprises the core area of the KBR, was inscribed as India’s first
“Mixed World Heritage Site”.
Major Fauna: Red Panda (EN), Snow Leopard (VU), Musk Deer (EN), Great Tibetan Sheep (Argali –
NT), etc.
Dehang-Debang, Arunachal Pradesh
The Mouling NP and the Dibang WLS are located fully or partly within this biosphere reserve. The
terrain is rugged, with an altitudinal range of 750 to 3000 m at the highest point, the Mouling Peak.
Major Fauna: Takin (VU), Red Panda (EN).
Manas, Assam
Manas BR = Manas National Park. It is contiguous with the Royal Manas National Parkin Bhutan.
Manas is famous for its population of the Wild Water Buffalo (EN).
Rare and endemic wildlife: Assam Roofed Turtle (EN), Hispid Hare (EN), Golden Langur (EN) and
Pygmy Hog (EN).
The grassland biomes: Pygmy Hog, Rhinoceros (re-introduced in 2007), elephants, Bengal florican
(CR), etc.
Dibru-Saikhowa, Assam
Dibru-Saikhowa BR = Dibru-Saikhowa National Park.
Major Fauna: Bengal Tiger, Clouded Leopard (VU), Gangetic Dolphin (EN), etc.
Nokrek, Meghalaya(UNESCO’s MAB)
Nokrek (1,412 m) is the highest peak of the Garo hills.
Vegetation: Evergreen, semi-evergreen & deciduous.
Key Fauna: Red Panda (EN), Hoolock Gibbons (EN), Red Giant Flying Squirrel (LC), etc.
Panna, Madhya Pradesh (UNESCO’s MAB)
Panna Biosphere Reserve = Panna TR.
Fauna: Tiger (EN), Chital (LC), Chinkara (LC), Sambar (VU).
Latest Site to be add in UNESCO’s MAB
Pachmarhi, Madhya Pradesh (UNESCO’s MAB)
Pachmarhi BR (Satpura NP + Bori WLS + Pachmarhi WLS) lies in the centre of the Satpura Range.
The highest peak is the Dhoopgarh (1,352 m). Gonds are the major tribes.
Achanakmar-Amarkantak, Madhya Pradesh,Chhattisgarh(UNESCO’s MAB)
It extends across the states of Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Maikal hills together with eastern
Vindhyas and Satpuras lie within the reserve.
Major Fauna: Four Horned Antelope (Chausingha (VU)), Indian Wild Dog (VU), etc.
Vegetation: moist deciduous and dry deciduous forests.
Kachchh, Gujarat (Largest Area)
The Great Rann of Kutch is a salt marsh in the Thar Desert.
Great Rann of Kutch BR = Kachchh Desert Sanctuary (in Great Rann of Kutch) + Wild Ass Sanctuary
(in Little Rann of Kutch), Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary + Kutch Bustard Sanctuary + Banni Grasslands
Reserve.
Major Fauna: Great Indian Bustard (CR), Indian Wild Ass (NT), etc.
Similipal, Odisha (UNESCO’s MAB)
It includes the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve (Similipal TR + Hadgarh WLS + Kuldiha WLS).
Tribes: Erenga, Kharias, Mankirdias, Ho, Gonda & Munda.
Major Fauna: Royal Bengal Tigers, Wild Elephants (EN), Gaurs (VU – Indian Bison), Chausingha
(VU).
Sundarban, West Bengal (UNESCO’s MAB)
Located in the vast Delta of the Ganges, south of Kolkata and bordering Bangladesh in the east. It
provides habitat for the threatened Royal Bengal Tiger (EN).
Sundarbans BR = Sundarbans NP + Sajnekhali WLS + Lothian WLS + Haliday WLS.
Seshachalam, Andhra Pradesh
The Seshachalam Hills are part of the Eastern Ghats (south of the Panna River) in southern Andhra
Pradesh.
Tirupati, a major Hindu pilgrimage town, and Sri Venkateswara NP are located in these ranges.
Major Flora: rare and endemic plant species like Red Sanders (NT) are of great economic importance.
Major Reptilian Fauna: Golden Gecko (LC – Endemic to Tirumala Hills).
Agasthyamala, Karnataka- Tamil Nadu-Kerala (UNESCO’s MAB)
Agasthyamala BR = Shendurney WLS + Peppara WLS + Neyyar WLS + Kalakad Mundanthurai TR.
The reserve is home to Kani tribes from both Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Major Fauna: Nilgiri Tahr (EN)
Nilgiri, Tamil Nadu-Kerala (UNESCO’s MAB, First to be included)
Nilgiris (Blue Mountain) got their name from the purplish blue flowers of Neelakurinji (blossoms once
in 12 years).
The Nilgiri Sub-Cluster (UNESCO World Heritage Site) includes the Mudumalai, Mukurthi,
Nagarhole, Bandipur, and Silent Valley national parks, as well as the Aralam, Wayanad, and
Sathyamangalam wildlife sanctuaries.
Vegetation: Tropical evergreen forests (western side of Western Ghats), montane sholas and grasslands
(at high altitudes), semi-evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, dry deciduous forests, and thorn
forests.
Major Fauna: Lion Tailed Macaque (EN), Nilgiri Tahr (EN), Malabar Giant Squirrel (LC), Nilgiri
Langur (VU), etc.
Gulf of Mannar, Tamil Nadu (UNESCO’s MAB)
It lies between the west coast of Sri Lanka and the south-eastern tip of India, in theCoromandel Coast
region.
 The chain of low islands and reefs known as Ram Sethu (Adam’s Bridge), which includes Mannar
Island, separates the Gulf of Mannar from Palk Bay, which lies to the north between Sri Lanka and
India.
The biosphere reserve comprises islands with estuaries, seagrasses, coral reefs, salt marshes, and
mangroves.
Major Fauna: Dugong (VU), Olive Ridley turtles (VU), etc.
Great Nicobar, Andaman & Nicobar Island (UNESCO’s MAB)
Great Nicobar BR = Campbell Bay NP + Galathea NP.
Vegetation: tropical wet evergreen forests.
Major Fauna: Dugong (VU), Saltwater Crocodile (LC), etc
ELEPHANT RESERVES OF INDIA
India has the largest number of wild Asian elephants in the world, estimated at 27,312 according to the
2017 census, about 55% of the species’ global population.
They range in 33 Elephant Reserves spread over 10 elephant landscapes in 14 states, covering about
80,000 sq km of forests across India
The ‘home range’ of an elephant herd can vary from an average of about 250 sq km (in Rajaji NP) to
over 3500 sq km (in the highly fragmented landscapes of West Bengal.
Wildlife Conservation
Wildlife conservation is to protect wild species and prevent harmful utilisation of resources to keep the
natural ecosystems healthy.
Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI)
A statutory advisory body established under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960.
It advises the government on animal welfare laws, promotes animal welfare, and oversees Animal
Welfare Organizations (AWOs).
AWBI is concerned about the abuse of animals in research and cruelty in animal entertainment,
providing financial assistance to recognized AWOs
Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992: Empowers the Government of India (GOI) to
regulate the import or export of goods, including wildlife specimens and their products.
EXIM Policy:
-Allows export/import of wild animals and plants for research and exchange between zoos, subject to
licensing by the Director-General of Foreign Trade (DGFT).
-Commercial import of African ivory is not permitted due to the CITES ban.
-Import of other wildlife derivatives is restricted and requires prior permission from DGFT.
-Import of wild animals as pets is subject to CITES provisions
TIGER CONSERVATION
There are eight subspecies of tigers; five present in the wild (Bengal, South China, Indochinese,
Sumatran, Siberian), three are extinct (Caspian, Bali, Javan).
Challenges to Tiger Conservation:
Habitat Pressure: Large-scale development projects cause habitat destruction, fragmentation, and
pressure.
Invasive species destroy local producers having a cascade effect on food chain and affecting tigers at
the top of the food chain.
Poaching and Wildlife Crime: Tigers are killed for Traditional Chinese Medicine, and poaching remains
a significant issue.
Canine Distemper Virus (CDV): A contagious disease affecting the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and
nervous systems of dogs and puppies, can be transmitted to wildlife from infected dogs around wildlife
sanctuaries.
Project Tiger:
Launched in 1973 in Jim Corbett National Park to protect tigers from extinction.Administered by
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
Aims to ensure a viable tiger population in natural habitats, funding relocation of villagers, and
combating poaching.
National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA): Statutory body under MoEF, established under the
Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2006. Administers Project Tiger, lays down standards and
guidelines for tiger conservation.
Members: Minister for Environment & Forests (Chairman); 8 experts on wildlife conservation; 3 MPs;
Inspector general of Forests, incharge of Project Tiger (ex-officio Member Secretary) and others.
No alteration in the boundaries of a Tiger reserve shall be made except on a recommendation of the
NTCA and approval of the National Board of Wildlife.
No State Government shall de-notify a tiger reserve, except in public interest with the approval of the
NTCA and National Board for Wildlife.
MSTrIPES (Monitoring System for Tigers – Intensive Protection and Ecological Status):
Launch: Introduced in 2010 across Indian tiger reserves by the NTCA and the Wildlife Institute of India.
Purpose: Enhance wildlife protection, particularly for tigers, through technology-driven monitoring and
data analysis.
Components-
Field-Based Protocols: Guides patrolling, law enforcement, wildlife crime recording, and ecological
monitoring.
GIS Software: Customized Geographic Information System software for storage, retrieval, analysis,
and reporting.
Real-Time Monitoring: Forest guards record tracks using GPS, note observations, and upload geo-
tagged pictures, contributing to a central GIS database.
Advantage:
Identifies patrolling shortcomings in real-time.
Serves as proof of the presence and activities of forest guards.
Tiger Corridors-
Document titled “Connecting Tiger Populations for Long-term Conservation” by NTCA and Wildlife
Institute of India.
Maps out 32 major corridors across India to connect tiger populations.
Core and Buffer Zones in Tiger Reserves-
Core zones are areas freed of human activities; buffer zones allow co-existence of human activities on
a sustainable basis.
Forest Rights Act of 2006 recognizes rights of some forest-dwelling communities in buffer areas.
Tiger Census 2023: Released in April 2023, announced by PM Modi on the 50th year of Project Tiger
in India.
Tiger Population in India (2023): 3,167 tigers.
Population Growth: Increase of 200 tigers in the last four years (2,967 to 3,167). Significant
improvement from the 1973 census, indicating the success of conservation efforts.
India houses more than 75% of the global tiger population, growing at a rate of 6% annually.
Top 10 states with the highest number of tigersare Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Uttarakhand,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Kerala, Rajasthan, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh.
India now has 53 tiger reserves, covering over 2.4% of the country’s total geographical area.
The 2023 census reflects India’s commitment to tiger conservation and marks a significant
achievement.
International Big Cat Alliance:
Launched by PM Modi to safeguard and conserve seven significant big cat species.
Includes tigers, leopards, lions, snow leopards, jaguars, pumas, and cheetahs. Celebrated on the 50th
anniversary of Project Tiger.
Announcement of the book “Amrit Kaal Ka Tiger. Vision” outlining tiger protection strategy for the
next 25 years.
PROJECT SNOW LEOPARD:
Launched in 2009 to conserve high-altitude wildlife populations and habitats.
Identified landscapes include Hemis-Spiti, Nanda Devi–Gangotri, and Khangchendzonga–Tawang.
High-altitude ecosystems support endangered species like the Snow Leopard, Red Panda, and various
ungulates and birds.
REINTRODUCTION OF CHEETAHS -
Over 70 years after extinction, eight cheetahs (five females, three males) from Namibia reintroduced in
Kuno Palpur National Park, MP. Later more Cheetahs are brought.
World’s first intercontinental translocation of a carnivore.
Kuno Palpur National Park is unfenced, promoting co-existence with buffer zones unlike “fortress
conservation” in South Africa.
Cheetahs expected to help restore open forest and grassland ecosystems in India. Government
constituted a Task Force for monitoring the introduction and developing tourism infrastructure.
Attribute African Cheetah Asiatic Cheetah
IUCN Vulnerable Critically Endangered
CITES Appendix-I Appendix-I
Population 6,500-7,000 (Africa) Around 40-50 (Iran)
 Size Bigger Smaller, paler
Habitat Africa Historical range near Sal forests of Chhattisgarh
Eyes Normal Red (usually)

CONSERVATION OF LIONS
Asiatic Lion:Restricted to India, specifically Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat.
IUCN Red List: Endangered | CITES: Appendix I | WPA: Schedule I.
Project Lion-Landscape ecology-based conservation in Gir landscape, Gujarat.
Aims to secure and restore lion habitats, manage growing population, scale up livelihood generation,
and involve local communities.
CONSERVATION OF ELEPHANTS:
Ecological Importance of Elephants-
National Heritage Animal of India, elephants are keystone species, creating an umbrella effect for
diverse ecosystems.
Landscape architects, seed dispersal agents, nutrient providers, water providers, and contributors to the
food chain.
Project Elephant (1992)
Centrally sponsored scheme addressing humanelephant conflict, conserving elephant populations in
their natural habitats, and protecting elephants from poachers.
Other Initiatives:
Haathi Mere Saathi: Campaign to increase awareness and develop companionship between people and
elephants, launched by MoEF along with Wildlife Trust of India.
RE-HAB Project: Uses bee boxes as a fence to prevent elephants from entering human habitation
without harm to prevent elephant-human conflicts.
Asian Elephant Alliance: Coalition of five NGOs securing elephant corridors across 12 states in India.
IUCN Asian Elephant Specialist Group (AsESG): Global network providing scientific evidence on
Asian elephant populations in 13 range states. Integral part of the Species Survival Commission(SSC)
of the IUCN.
GREAT ONE-HORNED RHINO
Rhinos are killed for their horns, composed of keratin, used in traditional medicines in Southeast Asia.
Rhino Species Across the World:
White Rhino and Black Rhino: Found in Africa.
Black Rhino is smaller.
Javan Rhino: Few survive in Java and Vietnam.
Sumatran Rhino: Smallest species, 30-80 remaining, mainly on Sumatra.
Great One-Horned Rhino: Only found in India,the largest rhino species.
India’s Greater One-Horned Rhinoceros-
Habitat: Tropical and Subtropical Savannas & Shrublands.
Distribution: Confined to Terai alluvial grasslands of India, Bhutan & Nepal.
Populations: Mainly in Kaziranga & Manas NPs & Pobitora WLS.
Threats: Poaching, habitat loss, habitat fragmentation, human-animal conflict.
Conservation Measures: New Delhi Declaration on Asian Rhinos 2019 for conservation by five rhino
range nations.
DNA profiling project for all rhinos.
National Rhino Conservation Strategy launched in 2019.
India Rhino Vision (IRV) 2020: Vision to build a wild population of 3000 Greater One-Horned Rhinos
by 2020 across 7 protected areas in Assam. Translocations from Kaziranga NP and Pobitora WLS to
potential rhino habitat areas like Manas NP, Dibru Saikhowa WLS, and Laokhowa-Bura Chapori WLS.
INDIAN DOLPHINS:
Indian Dolphin Species
South Asian River Dolphin (Freshwater dolphin species)
Sub-species: Ganges River Dolphin and Indus River Dolphin.
Distribution: India, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Pakistan.
Threats: Unintentional killing through fishing gear, habitat loss (water development projects, pollution),
noise from vessel traffic.
Ganges River Dolphin: (Susu: due to breathing sound)
National Aquatic Animal and State Aquatic Animal of Assam.
Indicator species for the Ganga, essentially blind, hunts by emitting ultrasonic sounds.
Distribution: Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna.
Listed in Convention on Migratory Species.
Indus River Dolphin: State Aquatic Animal of Punjab.
Habitat: Indus River in Pakistan, Beas (only habitat in India), and Sutlej.
Irrawaddy Dolphin:
Habitat: Brackish water near coasts, river mouths, estuaries, and freshwater rivers.
Distribution: Concentrated in lagoon populations, including Chilika Lake in Odisha.
Threats: Human conflict, drowning in gillnets.
Ganges River Dolphin Conservation Measures:
Ganga Action Plan (1985): Included Gangetic dolphins in WPA, 1972. National Ganga Council set up
and Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (Bihar) created for dolphin conservation.
Project Dolphin (2020): Announced by PM Modi, aimed at saving river and marine dolphins.
Conservation Action Plan for Gangetic Dolphin (2010-2020): Identified threats and impact of river
traffic, canals, and prey-base depletion.
Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitat:Ganges River Dolphin among 21 species.
National Ganga River Basin Authority (2009):Declared Gangetic River Dolphin as the national aquatic
animal.
National Mission for Clean Ganga: Celebrates October 5 as National Ganga River Dolphin Day.
CONSERVATION OF INDIAN CROCODILE SPECIES:
Aspects Crocodiles Alligators Gharials
Habitat Saltwater Freshwater Freshwater
Indian Crocodile Species:
Gharial - Fish-eating freshwater crocodile, among the longest of all living crocodilians.
Habitat: Clean rivers with sandbanks.
Distribution: Viable population in National Chambal Sanctuary (UP, Rajasthan, MP), small non-
breeding populations in other rivers.
Threats: Dams, barrages, embankments, pollution, sand-mining, agriculture, livestock.
Conservation Status: Critically Endangered (CR), CITES: Appx I, CMS: Appx I, WPA: Sch I.
Mugger/Indian Crocodile :Freshwater species found in lakes, rivers, marshes, and slow-moving water
bodies.
Found throughout India, extinct in Bhutan.
Threats: Habitat destruction, superstitions, use in aphrodisiacs.
Conservation Status: Vulnerable (VU), CITES: Appx I, WPA: Sch I.
Saltwater Crocodile: Largest living reptile and crocodilian.
Habitat: Saltwater habitats, brackish wetlands.
Distribution: India’s east coast, Southeast Asia, Sundaic region to northern Australia.
Threats: Hunting for skin, illegal killing, habitat loss.
Conservation Status: Least Concern (LC), CITES: Appx I, WPA: Sch I.
Indian Crocodile Conservation Project:
Objectives: Protect populations, rebuild through grow and release, promote captive breeding.
CONSERVATION OF TURTLES:
All tortoises are turtles. Terrapins are a combination of turtles and tortoises that live mostly in water
but can also live on land.
Tortoise (Land-Dwelling) , Turtle (Water-Dwelling)
Batagur Turtles Species:
Northern River Terrapin (CR): Native to river deltas of Southeast Asia and Sundarbans.
Three-Striped Roofed Turtle (CR): Endemic to the Ganges.
Red-Crowned Roofed Turtle (CR): Endemic to the Ganges.
Burmese Roofed Turtle (CR): Irrawaddy River of Myanmar.
Sea Turtle Species:
Hawksbill Sea Turtle (CR): Found in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Tamil Nadu, Orissa.
Kemp’s Ridley Sea Turtle (CR): World’s smallest sea turtles, found in subtropical to temperate Northern
Atlantic.
Green Sea Turtle (EN): The only herbivore turtle species, found in tropical and subtropical seas; rare
in India.
Leatherback Sea Turtle (VU): Largest living sea turtle, found in tropical and temperate seas.
Loggerhead Sea Turtle (VU): Found in tropical and temperate seas.
Olive Ridley Sea Turtle (VU): Known for synchronized nesting(Arribada), migrates to Indian coastal
waters.
Nissilonia Turtle Species:
Burmese Peacock Softshell Turtle (CR): Found in Myanmar and Karbi Anglong district of Assam.
Leith’s Softshell Turtle (CR): Endemic to peninsular rivers.
Black Softshell Turtle (CR): Native to the lower Brahmaputra River.
Indian (Ganges) Softshell Turtle (EN): Found in the waters of the Ganges, Indus, and Mahanadi.
Indian Peacock Softshell Turtle (EN): Found in the Indus, Ganges, and the Brahmaputra.
Indian Narrow (Small) Headed Softshell Turtle (EN): Distributed in various rivers.
Sea Turtle Conservation Project:
Initiated by MoEF in collaboration with UNDP in 1999.
Implemented in 10 coastal states, with emphasis in Odisha.
Aims to conserve olive ridley turtles and other endangered marine turtles.
Achievements include the use of Satellite Telemetry to locate migratory routes and promoting Turtle
Exclusion Device (TED) in fishing trawlers to reduce turtle mortality in fishing nets.
CONSERVATION OF INDIAN VULTURES:
India is favorable for vultures due to cultural practices (Hindus not eating cows) and high species
diversity.
Nine vulture species in India, most endangered due to diclofenac, a veterinary drug.
Diclofenac and Indian Vulture Crisis- Diclofenac, a common NSAID for livestock, leads to renal failure
in vultures.
Diclofenac Alternative-
Diclofenac banned for veterinary use in 2006.
Meloxicam, a harmless alternative for vultures, developed and tested.
Challenges persist with diclofenac diversion for veterinary use through black markets.
Consequences of Vulture Depopulation-
Vultures played a vital role in public sanitation.
Carcasses not consumed by vultures lead to contaminated water, an increase in rat population and wild
dogs, and the spread of diseases.
Indian Vultures Species:
White-Rumped Vulture (CR): Once common in Gangetic plains.
Red-Headed Vulture (CR): Also known as Asian King Vulture.
Indian (Long-Billed) Vulture (CR): Native to India, Pakistan, Nepal.
Slender-Billed Vulture (CR): Native to subHimalayan region and Southeast Asia.
Egyptian Vulture (EN)
Himalayan (Griffon) Vulture (NT): Native to Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau.
Bearded Vulture (NT): Lives and breeds on high mountains.
Cinereous Vulture (NT): Distributed throughout Eurasia.
(Eurasian) Griffon Vulture (LC)
Major Non-Indian Vulture Species:
White-Backed Vulture (CR)
Ruppell’s (Griffon) Vulture (CR): Native to Sahel region and East Africa.
Steps Taken by the Government:
Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH)
‘Species Recovery Programme.’
Upgraded protection status of vultures under Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
Vulture Restaurants created by Maharashtra and Punjab Forest departments.
Vulture Conservation Breeding Programme led by Central Zoo Authority and Bombay Natural History
Society.
Vulture Safe Zones to conserve and reintroduce vultures.
Action Plan for Vulture Conservation in India 2020-25:
Aimed at actively increasing vulture numbers.
Objectives include strict regulation of veterinary NSAID sale, safety testing, banning toxic drugs, and
establishing vulture safe zones.
OTHER INDIAN INITIATIVES:
Project Hangul (Kashmiri Stag)
The Hangul/Kashmiri Stag is a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native to northern India,
particularly found in Dachigam National Park in Kashmir.
Once numbering around 5,000, the population declined significantly due to habitat destruction, over-
grazing, and poaching.
Project Hangul, initiated by the erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir in collaboration with IUCN and
WWF, aimed at protecting and increasing the population.
Despite conservation efforts, the population remains critically endangered, with a census in 2019
reporting only 237 Hanguls.
Integrated Development of Wildlife Habitats (IDWH):IDWH is an ongoing Centrally Sponsored
Scheme that provides financial assistance to State/UTs for the protection and conservation of wildlife.
Components include support to protected areas, protection of wildlife outside protected areas, and
species recovery programs.
The scheme covers 22 Indian critically endangered (locally) species, including mammals, marine
mammals, birds, and reptiles. Caracal Cat is the most recent addition to the list.
National Ganga River Basin Authority: Chaired by the Prime Minister, it focuses on the conservation
of the Ganga River basin.
National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) 2017-2031: The third NWAP emphasizes landscapebased
conservation, private sector involvement, and utilization of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)
funds for wildlife protection.
National Action Plan for Conservation of Migratory Birds (2018-2023): A plan developed by the
Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MOEF) for the conservation of migratory birds
along the Central Asian Flyway.
Green Good Deeds Initiative: Coordinated by MOEF,it is part of the Environment Education,
Awareness, and Training scheme(central sector scheme), encouraging citizens to perform simple,
practical steps for environmental protection.
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution: Addition/release of undesirable physical, chemical or biological agents (substances/
pollutants) into the environment due to human (anthropogenic) activities.
Types of Pollution Based on Source-
Point Source Pollution: caused by discharge of effluents at a point; Easy to treat. E.g., Sewage outlets.
Non-Point Source Pollution: caused by discharge of effluents over a wide area; Difficult to treat. E.g.
roads, construction sites, runoff water from the field, etc
AIR POLLUTION-Presence of any solid, liquid or gaseous substances, including radiation, in the
atmosphere in such concentration that may be directly or indirectly injurious to organisms and
environmental processes.
Classification of Air Pollutants-
Primary Pollutants: Persistent in the form in which they are added to the environment, E.g. DDT etc.
Secondary Pollutants: Formed by interaction among the primary pollutants. E.g. Peroxyacetyl
nitrate(PAN) is formed by the interaction of nitrogen oxides + hydrocarbons.
Quantitative Pollutants: Natural substances when their concentration reaches a threshold level. E.g.
carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, etc.
Qualitative Pollutants: Human-made substances. E.g., Fungicides, Herbicides, DDT etc.
Air Pollutants
Particulate Pollutants
Matter suspended in the air (E.g. Dust and Soot).
Size: 0.001 to 500 μm in diameter.
Particles larger than 10 μm settle down. Particles less than 0.02 μm form persistent aerosols.
Major sources: Industries, vehicles, power plants, construction activities, oil refineries, etc.
According to the CPCB, particulate size 2.5 μm or less is responsible for causing the most significant
harm to human health (Respiratory symptoms, inflammation, and pneumoconiosis).
PM 2.5 (matter that has a diameter of 2.5 micrometres or smaller)
PM2.5 is 30 times finer than a human hair. E.g. Arsenic and Nickel.
Nickel compounds (Carcinogenic) are emitted from combustion processes like petroleum processing
and combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles/ power plants.
PM 1 (size less than 1 μm)
- 70 times finer than human hair.
- Primary source: vehicular and industrial emissions.
-Contains more toxins, including metals, can cause lung injury, and lead to gene damage and cancer.
PM 10 (particles with a diameter of 10 micrometres or less)
-small enough to pass through the throat and nose and enter the lungs. Once inhaled, these particles can
affect the heart and lungs and cause serious health effects.
Fly Ash
Ejected mainly by thermal power plants as aby-product of coal burning.
Pollutes air and water, causes heavy metal pollution in water bodies and affects crops and vegetation
due to its direct deposition on leaves.
Composition: silica, alumina, oxides of iron, calcium, and magnesium and toxic heavy metals like lead,
mercury, cadmium, arsenic, cobalt, and copper. Oxides present in large quantities are aluminium,
silicate, silicon dioxide (SiO2), and calcium oxide (CaO)
Uses:
Can replace cement by up to 35%, thus reducing the cost of construction.
Better fill material for road embankments, concrete roads and abandoned mines.
Reclamation of wastelands.
Increases crop yield when added to the soil, and enhances the soil water-holding capacity.(But if it gets
deposited on the leaf, it will reduce photosynthesis).
Policy measures by MoEF: Mandatory use of Fly Ash-based products in all construction projects, road
embankment works, low-lying landfilling works within a 100 km radius of thermal power stationsand
minefilling activities within a 50 km radius.
Nanoparticles (NPs)-
Dimensions ~ 1/109 meter.
Natural Sources: forest fires, volcanic eruptions, weathering, dust storms, etc.
Heterogeneous in size. Transported over long distances and remain suspended in the air for days.
Large surface area to volume ratios; react rapidly in the atmosphere, with severe consequences for
visibility and climate.
Applications: Electronics, targeted drug delivery.
Effects on the environment:
Dust cloud formation: Contains soot and black carbon (NP) and deposits them on the Himalayan
glaciers (reduces albedo); higher absorption of the Sun’s heat; increased melting of glaciers.
NPs and hydroxyl radicals (OH) bind, resulting in their reduction in the troposphere and reduced natural
‘pollutant scrubbing capacity’ of the atmosphere.
Ozone depletion: Due to increased production of free radicals like Chlorine.
Stratospheric cooling: Molecular hydrogen, along with NPs, moves up to the stratosphere, resulting in
abundant water vapour in the stratosphere and the formation of stratospheric clouds (mostly ice
crystals), which destroy ozone.
Black Carbon (Soot) -
Solid, short-lived air pollutant released from incomplete combustion at high-temperature.
Disrupts regional cloudiness and monsoon rainfall.
Most robust absorber of sunlight and heats the air directly.
Reduces albedo after deposition on snow by darkening and heating the surface directly
Largest emitters: India and China. (The IndoGangetic plain in the case of India.)
Brown Carbon: emitted mainly by the combustion of organic matter (biomass combustion).
Carbon Monoxide (CO)-
Short-life (a few months) in the atmosphere; burns with a blue flame, producing carbon dioxide.
Natural Sources: Photochemical reactions in the troposphere; volcanoes, forest fires etc.
Anthropogenic sources: IC engine exhaust, partial combustion of other fuels and iron smelting.
Health effects: Poisoning (Poor ventilation, heat management in electronics); toxic when conc.>35
ppm; combines with haemoglobin to produce carboxyhemoglobin, which affects oxygen transport.
Environmental effects: formation of tropospheric ozone; elevates methane concentrations (a GHG).
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)-
Colourless & odourless gas (heavier than air).
Natural sources: volcanoes, hot springs, geysers, carbonate rocks (by dissolution in water and acids).
Also, groundwater, rivers, lakes, ice caps, glaciers and seawater (due to water solubility).
Effects on Health: Asphyxiant gas (if concentrations >7%), may cause suffocation.
Effects on the Environment: global warming, ocean acidification (dissolves in water to form carbonic
acid).
Ozone (O3)-
0.00005% by volume of the atmosphere and is unevenly distributed.
Good ozone: Formed in the stratosphere (O2 and UV interact), absorbs harmful UV rays.
Bad Ozone: At the ground level, it is a pollutant, short-lived GHG and is toxic. Some of it is transported
from the stratosphere. The rest is formed when carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, and VOC react in
the presence of sunlight at the ground level and convert O2 to O3.
Harmful Effects of Ozone: Smog; Itchy and watery eyes; Can affect sensitive vegetation and
ecosystems, forests, especially during the growing season; Transported to long distances by wind, thus
even rural areas can experience high O3 levels.
Stratospheric Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS):
Human-made gases that release chlorine /bromine atoms on exposure to UV rays and destroy
stratospheric ozone.
They include Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), HCFCs and HBFCs, Halons (used in fire extinguishers),
methyl bromide (fumigant for pest control), carbon tetrachloride, methyl chloroform (aerosols, solvent
for organic compounds, used for cleaning metals & circuit boards)
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)-
IC engines & coal-burning power plants; lightning.
Agricultural fertilisation and nitrogen-fixing plants too promote N-fixation by microbes.
Effects on Health and Environment: React to formacid rain and tropospheric ozone. When NOx and
VOCs react in the presence of sunlight, they formphotochemical smog.
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)-
Toxic gas with a pungent, irritating smell.
Released by volcanic activity. Also produced by:
Burning coal in thermal power plants, diesel fuels etc.
Industrial processes: Production of paper and the smelting of metals like copper.
Roasting of sulphide ores such as pyrite, sphalerite, and cinnabar (mercury sulphide).
Health Effect: Poisonous air pollutants lead to the risk of stroke, heart disease, and lung cancer.
India has been the top emitter of SO2 in the world for the fifth consecutive year(2019), with significant
contributions from electricity generation using coal.
Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)-
Incomplete combustion of organics, cigarette smoke, high-temperature cooking.
Naphthalene is a PAH produced commercially in the US to make other chemicals and mothballs.
Toxic, mutagenic & carcinogenic properties, highly lipid soluble, readily absorbed from the
gastrointestinal tract of mammals (Bioaccumulation).
They associate with other particulate matter, like PM2.5, and PM10, and make them more toxic.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)-
Carbon-based chemicals that quickly evaporateat room temperature. Eg: formaldehyde, benzene,
ethylene glycol, formaldehyde, methylene chloride, tetrachloroethylene, toluene, xylene, and 1,3-
butadiene (precursor to synthetic rubber).
Primary indoor sources: perfumes, hair sprays, furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth repellents,
wood preservatives, and other products.
Health effects: irritation of the eye, nose and throat, headaches, nausea and loss of coordination. Long-
term health effects include liver damage.
Some VOCs are:
Ethylene (Carcinogen): Natural plant hormone used in agriculture to force the ripening of fruits.
Low toxicity and exposure to excess ethylene causes headache, and drowsiness
Formaldehyde: Natural, produced by decay of plant material in the soil. Used as fungicide, germicide,
disinfectant and as a preservative in mortuaries and laboratories.Also a combustion product found in
tobacco smoke.
Benzene-
Found in crude oil and is an elementary petrochemical, cigarette smoke.
Natural sources: volcanoes & forest fires.
Uses: To make plastics, resins, synthetic fibres, rubber lubricants, etc, high octane number thus becomes
an essential component of gasoline (petrol).
Effect on health and environment: As a VOC, benzene reacts with other air pollutants to form ground-
level ozone, damaging crops (in the form of smog) and materials. Benzene increases the risk of cancer
and bone marrow failure.
Benzene Pollutants (VOCs & Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons):
Toluene (methylbenzene): Paint thinners, octane booster in gasoline engines.
Xylene (dimethylbenzene): Solvent in the printing, rubber, and leather industry.
Styrene: raw material for polystyrene (used to make parts of refrigerators, micro-ovens, automotive
parts, computers, etc.). Styrene gas leak in LG Polymers chemical factory in Visakhapatnam in 2020
left several dead.
Minor Air Pollutants:
Lead-
Present in petrol, diesel, lead batteries, paints, hair dyes, etc.
Tetraethyl lead (TEL), anti-knock agent in petrol for the smooth and easy running of vehicles. Effect on
health: Injurious effects on kidney & liver,interfere with the RBCs development,nervous system
damage, digestive problems and cancer. Lowers child intelligence. Can create cumulative poisoning.
Ammonia-Corrosive, colourless gas with a distinctive, pungent odour. It is commonly emitted in nature
by decaying organic matter and human and animal waste.
Anthropogenic sources: livestock management & agricultural fertilisers.
Effect on health: Poisonous, irritates the eyes, nose, and throat. combines in the atmosphere with
sulphates /nitrates to form ammonium salts which are secondary fine particulate matter (PM2.5).
Effect on environment: Highly soluble in water, contributes to the nitrification & eutrophication of
aquatic systems.
Asbestos-
Set of 6 naturally occurring silicate fibrous minerals –– chrysotile, crocidolite, amosite, anthophyllite,
tremolite, and actinolite. Prolonged inhalation causes severe and fatal illnesses, including lung cancer,
mesothelioma, and asbestosis (a type of pneumoconiosis).
Metallic Oxides-Adverse effects due to dust deposition on plants during mining operations and
metallurgical processes.Create physiological, biochemical, and developmental disorders in plants and
lead to reproductive failure in plants.
Biological Pollutants
Include pollen from plants, mites, hair from pets, fungi spores, parasites, and some bacteria. Most are
allergens, causing asthma/ other allergic diseases.
Radon=Emitted naturally by the soil. Due to modern houses having poor ventilation, it is confined
inside the house and causes lung cancers.
Major Causes of Air pollution-
Vehicular and Industrial Emissions
Major Pollutants (>80%): NOx, CO, SOx and NonMethane Volatile Organic Compounds (NMVOCs -
benzene, ethanol, formaldehyde, cyclohexane, or acetone).
Trace emissions: CH4, CO2, SOx, and total suspended particles (TSPs).
Critical industries: iron and steel, sugar, paper,cement, fertilizer, copper, and aluminium contribute to
suspended particulate matter (SPM), SOx, NOx, and CO2.
Emissions from Agriculture, Waste Treatment and Biomass Burning -
Critical Pollutants: Ammonia (NH3), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide
Major Pollutants from landfills and wastewater treatment plants: methane
Stubble Burning -Intentional burning of crop residue after grain harvestation. It results in air pollution
resulting in thick smog formation; loss of soil fertility, and loss of soil moisture.
Indoor Air Pollution-It caused by the burning of coal, charcoal, wood, agricultural residue, animal dung,
and kerosene, among others, for heating /cooking with limited ventilation.
Pollutants: Particulate matter (PM2.5), black carbon, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and methane,
VOCs (due to paints, carpets, furniture, etc.,)
Volcanism-Release of sulphur dioxide(can lead to acid rain), sulphur aerosols(can lead to ozone
destruction), carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen sulphide.
Effects of Air Pollution= Smog (Smoke + Fog)
Caused by the burning of coal, vehicular emission and industrial fumes (primary pollutants). It contains
soot particulates like smoke, ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen
dioxide (NO2) & others.
Types of Smog-
Sulphurous Smog (London Smog): It results from a high concentration of sulphur oxides in the air and
the use of sulphur-bearing fossil fuels, particularly coal. This smog is aggravated by dampness and a
high concentration of suspended particulate matter in the air.
Photochemical smog (summer smog or Los Angeles smog): Occurs most prominently in urban areas
with high vehicular emissions. It forms whennitrogen oxides & volatile organic compounds react
together in the presence of sunlight to form ozone. The resulting smog causes a light brownish
colouration of the atmosphere, reduced visibility, plant damage, irritation of the eyes, and respiratory
distress. Temperature inversions are accentuated, and precipitation is reduced due to smog.
Measures to Control Industrial Pollution
Filters: They remove particulate matter from the gas stream. Eg Baghouse filtration system.
Electrostatic precipitators: Removes particulate matter, used in furnaces, thermal power plants, cement
factories, steel plants, etc.
Inertial Collectors: Device collects heavier particles more efficiently through centrifugation.
Scrubbers: They are wet collectors that remove aerosols from a stream of gas either by collecting wet
particles on a surface, or the particles are wetted by a scrubbing liquid. A scrubber can remove gases
like sulphur dioxide.
Catalytic Converters: They are fitted into automobiles for reducing the emission of poisonous gases.
Motor vehicles equipped with catalytic converters should use unleaded petrol because the lead in the
petrol inactivates the catalyst.
Pollution Index to Control Industrial Pollution- Ministry of Environment has developed the criteria of
categorization based on the Pollution Index (PI- 0 to 100) to prompt adoption of cleaner technologies.
The newly introduced White category industrial sectors do not require Environmental Clearance (EC)
and Consent to Operate. They have to just intimate SPCB & CPCB.
No Red category of industries are normally permitted in the ecologically fragile/protected area.
Red category (critically polluted)
PI score- 60+ (60 industries)
Industries -Cement, Petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, sugar, paper and pulp, nuclear power plants,
organic chemicals, fertilizers, firecrackers, etc.
Orange category (severely polluted)
41 to 59 (83 industries)
Coal washeries, glass, paints, stone crushers, aluminum, & copper extraction from scrap, etc.
Green category (other polluted)
21 to 40 (63 industries)
aluminum utensils, steel furniture, soap manufacturing, tea processing, etc.
White category (practically non-polluting)
including and up to 20.
(36 industries) air cooler or air conditioning units, chalk factories, biscuit tray units, etc.
Coal Gasification-Technological process in which coal is partially oxidizedwith air, oxygen, steam or
carbon dioxide to form a fuel gas/synthesis/synthetic gas (syngas)/ producer gas. This gas is then used
instead of piped natural gas, methane and others for deriving energy.
It is one of the cleanest ways to convert coal into electricity, hydrogen, and other energy products. It
thus reduces carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide emissions.
Gasification of waste reduces the need for landfill space, decreases methane emissions and reduces the
use of fossil fuels.
After cleaning, syngas can be used to producesynthetic natural gas (SNG- methane(CH4)) /liquid
biofuel such as synthetic diesel.
India’s target: 100 MT coal gasification target by 2030.
Measures Taken to Control Vehicular Pollution in India-
Vehicle Scrappage Policy 2021: All the central and state governments vehicles that have completed 15
years to be scrapped from April 1, 2023. The policy aims to de-register private cars over 20 years old
and commercial vehicles over 15 years old.
Bharat Stage (BS) norms: Instituted by GoI to regulate the air pollution from motor vehicles by using
appropriate fuel and technology. It was introduced in 2000. The norms limit the release of air pollutants
such as nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulate matter (PM) and sulphur oxides
from vehicles.
BS VI from 2020: BS IV and BS VI norms are based on similar norms in Europe called Euro 4 and
Euro 6. The centre decided to leapfrog to BS VI norms from 2020 (skipping BS V) to achieve carbon
footprint obligations.
Advantages of BS VI vehicles and fuel-
Reduced Particulate Matter in diesel cars by 80 per cent; Nitrogen oxides from diesel cars by 70 per
cent and petrol cars by 25 per cent.
Reduction in sulphur makes it possible to equip vehicles with better catalytic converters.
Makes onboard diagnostics mandatory for all vehicles.
Changed the way of measurement of particulate matter (number standard instead of mass standard).
Electric Mobility: GoI is currently pushing aggressively for a switchover from fossil-fuels with the
target to go fully electric by 2030. NITI Aayog has proposed to ban all IC (internal combustion) engine
powered two-wheelers and three-wheelers in India starting in 2025 for two-wheelers and in 2023 for
three-wheelers.
FAME India Scheme: Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric (& Hybrid) Vehicles (Phase II)-
Notified by the Department of Heavy Industries, it aims for the localization of EV parts.
It will create a market for 1 million e-2Ws and 5 lakh e-3Ws in the next 3 years.
Polluters Pay Principle- Principle proposing those who produce pollution to bear the costs of managing
it to prevent the damage to human health or the environment.
Part of a set of broader principles to guide sustainable development worldwide (formally known as the
1992 Rio Declaration).
National Clean Air Program (NCAP, 2019)-NCAP is the first national-level strategy to tackle the air
pollution (reduce PM2.5 and PM10)problem across the country comprehensively with a time-bound
reduction target (40% by 2026 from 2017 level).
Executed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in exercise of powers under the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. However, it is not notified under any Act, thus lacks a
firm mandate with a strong legal back up.
Acceptable annual standards for PM 2.5 is 40 μg/m3 and PM 10 is 60 μg/m3
Aim: expanding the national air quality monitoring network, building capacity for air pollution
management, and strengthening public awareness about the dangers of air pollution.
It covers 132 non-attainment cities (cities that have fallen short of the National Ambient Air Quality
Standards for over five years) which were identified by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).
“PRANA” - Portal for Regulation of Air-pollution in Non-Attainment Cities, is a portal for monitoring
the implementation of NCAP.CPCB is a Statutory body constituted under the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
National Air Quality Monitoring Programme-Executed by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
to determine the status and trends of ambient air quality; to ascertain the compliance of NAAQS; to
identify non-attainment cities; to understand the natural process of cleaning in the atmosphere; and to
undertake preventive and corrective measures.
Regular monitoring of four air pollutants at all the locations: Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Oxides of
Nitrogen (NO2), Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSPM / PM10) and Fine Particulate Matter
(PM2.5).
The monitoring wind speed and wind direction, relative humidity (RH) and temperature are also
integrated with the monitoring of air quality.
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS): It has been developed by the Central Pollution
Control Board (CPCB). It is applicable all over thecountry. The CPCB has been conferred this power
by the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
SAFAR System for Monitoring Air Pollutants-The System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting and
Research (SAFAR) is a national initiative introduced by the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) (not
MoEF).Developed by the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune and is operationalised
by the India Meteorological Department (IMD).
Pollutants included: PM1, PM2.5, PM10, Ozone, CO, NOx (NO, NO2), SO2, BC, Methane (CH4),
Non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), VOC’s, Benzene, and Mercury.
It gives out real-time air quality index on a 24x7 basis with colour-coding (along with 72 hours advance
forecast).
Measures the air quality of a metropolitan city and all weather parameters like temperature, rainfall,
humidity, wind speed, and wind direction, UV radiation, and solar radiation.
National Air Quality Index (AQI)- AQI was launched by MoEF (April 2015) under ‘Swachh Bharat’.
It helps the citizens judge the air quality within their vicinity.
There are six AQI categories: Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe.
It considers eight pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb.
WATER POLLUTION
Presence of undesirable substances/pollutants in water, such as organic, inorganic, biological,
radiological and heat, which degrade water quality so that it becomes unfit for use.
Measuring Pollution Load in Water-
Dissolved oxygen (DO): Refers to the level of free oxygen present in water. Optimum DO content in
water is important for the survival of aquatic organisms.
Factors affecting DO in water: surface turbulence, photosynthetic activity, O2 consumption by
organisms, presence of organic/inorganiwastes, and the decomposition of organic matter.
DO content <8.0 mg/L: contaminated water.
DO content <4.0 mg/L: highly polluted water.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It represents the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria and other
microorganisms while they decompose organic matter under aerobic (oxygen is present) conditions at
a specified temperature. It is expressed in milligrams of oxygen per litre of water.
The higher value of BOD indicates high pollutiondue to biodegradable organic wastes and low DO
content of water.
Since BOD is limited to biodegradable materials, it is not a reliable method of measuring water
pollution.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): It measures the amount of oxygen in parts per million required to
oxidize organic (biodegradable and non-biodegradable) and oxidisable inorganic compoundsin the
water sample.
Causes and Effects of Water Pollution-
Industrial Waste: Discharge of heavy metals (mercury, cadmium, copper, lead, chromium, arsenic) and
a variety of organic compounds.According to the CWC report, iron is the most common contaminant.
Thermal and Radiation Pollution: An increase in water temperature decreases dissolved oxygenin the
water. A sudden rise in temperature kills fish and other aquatic animals. Nuclear accidents near water
bodies or during natural calamities like tsunamis and earthquakes pose the risk of radiation leakage
(radiation exposure) into water bodies.
Mining: Much water is used in various mining operations alongside chemicals such as cyanide,
sulphuric acid, and mercury, increasing the potential for these chemicals to contaminate ground and
surface water.
Acid Rock Drainage (ARD): Natural process whereby sulphuric acid is produced when sulphides in
rocks are exposed to water. The produced acid accelerates the (chemical) weathering of rocks and causes
leaching of various minerals and metals.
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): Greatly magnified version of ARD occurring when large quantities of
rock containing sulphide minerals are excavated from an open pit or underground mines. Leaching is
particularly accelerated in the low pH conditions created by processes like AMD.
Groundwater and Drinking Water Contamination: Rajasthan has the highest number of rural habitations
affected by (salinity) contamination.
Nitrates: Excess Nitrate in drinking water reacts and impairs oxygen transport. This condition is called
methemoglobinemia or Blue babysyndrome.
Arsenic: A tasteless, odourless carcinogen, highly poisonous to humans. Both naturally occurring and
in inorganic human made formulas used in agriculture, mining, and manufacturing.
Arsenic contamination is highest in thegroundwater of the Ganges Delta (India and Bangladesh).
Chronic exposure to arsenic causes
Black foot disease. It also causes diarrhoea and also lung and skin cancer. Arsenic poisoning, or
arsenicosis, occurs after the ingestion or inhalation of high levels of arsenic.
Cadmium: Itai Itai disease (a painful disease of bones and joints) and cancer of the lungs and liver.
Fluorides: Causes neuromuscular disorders, gastrointestinal problems, teeth deformity, hardening of
bones and stiff and painful joint(skeletal fluorosis), and Knock-Knee syndrome.
Uranium: Weakly radioactive with a prolonged physical half-life, In Rajasthan /other northwestern
states, uranium occurs mainly in alluvial aquifers, while in southern states such as Telangana, crystalline
rocks such as granite are the source.
When groundwater is over-extracted from such soils, the uranium is exposed to air, triggering its release.
Elevated uranium levels in drinking water may be associated with kidney toxicity.
Radioactive Radon: It emanates from radioactive granites and uranium through radioactive decay to
radium and radon. Radon in air and water leads to damage of lung tissues, lung cancer, while the
presence of uranium affects the urinary tract leading to kidney cancer.
Freshwater Salinization Syndrome (FSS): FSS is the process of salty runoff contaminating freshwater
ecosystems. Salts naturally occur in fresh waters, typically caused by rock weathering & naturally saline
groundwater. This is further catalysed by anthropogenic activities.
Sewage Water: Includes discharges from houses /other establishments containing human and animal
excreta, food residues, cleaning agents, detergents, etc. Domestic and hospital sewage contain
manypathogenic microbes.
Ammonia Pollution in Sewage: The acceptable limit of ammonia in drinking water, as per BIS, is 0.5
ppm.
Agricultural Sources: Agricultural runoff containsdissolved salts such as potassium, ammonia,
toxicmetal ions and organic compounds.
Fertilizers : Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Excess fertilizers reach the groundwater/get mixed
with surface water.
Pesticides: Chemicals such as chlorinated hydrocarbons (CHCs – E.g., DDT, Endosulfan, etc.),
organophosphates, metallic salts, carbonates, etc.Many pesticides are non-degradable, and their
residues have a long life (persistent pollutants).
Wastes from poultry, piggeries and slaughterhouses etc., reach the water through runoff.
Invasive Aquatic Species: For instance, Water Hyacinth: Native to the Amazon basin, is the world’s
most problematic aquatic weed(‘Terror of Bengal’). It grows abundantly in eutrophic (nutrient-rich)
water bodies and leads to an imbalance in the ecosystem by creating stagnation of polluted water and
draining off oxygen from the water bodies, resulting in the devastation of fish stock.
Microplastics present in the Ganga: Ethylene Vinyl, Polyacetylene, Polypropylene, PersistentInorganic
Pollutant (PIP),Polyamide(nylon).
Marine Pollution: the emptying of chemicals into the ocean and its harmful effects.
Oil Spills: The most common cause of oil spills is leakage during marine transport, leakage from
underground storage tanks, and during offshore oil production.
Impact: Oil, being lighter than water, covers the surface as a thin film cutting off oxygen to floating
plants and other producers and leading to death of fishes, shellfish and plankton with suffocation and
metabolic disorders within a few hours. Birds and sea mammals that consume dead fish and plankton
also die due to poisoning.
It can be cleaned with the help of bregoli (a by-product of the paper industry resembling sawdust), oil
zapper, and microorganisms.
Marine Plastic Pollution: The annual cost of marine plastic pollution is estimated at ~$13 billion in
economic damage. This is estimated to outweigh fish by 2050.
Few consequences: interferes with the growth, photosynthesis & oxygen production of
Prochlorococcus, significant photosynthetic cyanobacteria.
Water Pollution Control Measures:
Bioremediation: The use of living organisms to remove contaminants, pollutants, or unwanted
substances from soil or water. Microorganisms can be specifically designed for bioremediation using
genetic engineering techniques.
In-situ (at the site) Bioremediation-
Bioventing: Supply of nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the growth of bacteria.
Biosparging: Injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen
concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contaminants by bacteria.
Bioaugmentation: Microorganisms are imported to a contaminated site to enhance the degradation
process.
Using bioremediation techniques, TERI has developed a mixture of bacteria called ‘Oilzapper and
Oilivorous-S’, which degrades the pollutants of oil-contaminated sites, leaving behind no harmful
residues.
Ex-situ Bioremediation-
Involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere.
Landfarming: Contaminated soil is spread on a prepared bed and tilled regularly to aerate it and
encourage microbial activity. Microorganisms degrade organic pollutants in the soil,eventually
rendering it clean.
Bioreactors: These require the processing of contaminated solid material water through an engineered
containment system.
Composting: Composting is nature’s recycling of decomposed organic materials into a rich soil known
as Compost. For example Bacillus flexus and Acinetobacter junii (Both bacteria have a special gene,
which aids in arsenic detoxification)
Water Pollution Control Measures in India and Indian River Systems
The Government of India safeguards the water resources under Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in collaboration with the concerned State
Pollution Control Boards (SPCB), has developed a concept of “designated best use” based on pH,
dissolved oxygen, BOD, total coliform, free ammonia, electrical conductivity, etc.
The classification helps the water quality managers and planners to set water quality targets and identify
needs and priorities for water quality restoration programmes.
Major River Conservation InitiativesGanga Action Plan (GAP): First river action plan taken up by
MoEF in 1985 as a centrally sponsored scheme. It was partially successful and closed in 2002 making
a significant difference to water quality.
National River Conservation Plan (NRCP): Provides financial/ technical assistance to the States/UTs
on cost sharing basis to bring the river to bathing quality standards. It included treatment of raw sewage
before flowing into the river, Prevention and control of industrial pollution, Electric crematoria to ensure
proper cremation of bodies brought to the burning ghat and Riverfront development works such as
improvement of bathing ghats, etc.
National Ganga Council: Established by the River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection, and Management)
Authorities Order, 2016. It replaced the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) and headed
by Prime Minister.
Aim: preventing pollution and rejuvenating the Ganga River Basin.
National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) – registered as a society under the Societies Registration
Act 1860) is the implementation wing of NGC, which is implementing the Namami Gange Programme.
Namami Gange Programme(2019) : The main pillars of the programme are Sewerage Treatment
Infrastructure, River-Front Development, River-Surface Cleaning, Biodiversity, Afforestation, Public
Awareness, Industrial Effluent Monitoring and Ganga Gram.
Clean Ganga Fund: Set up in 2014 as a trust under the Indian Trust Act, 1882. It allows resident Indians,
NonResident Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origins (PIOs), Corporates (Public as well as private
sector) to contribute towards the conservation of the river Ganga. The contributions to the Clean Ganga
Fund fall within the purview of Corporate Social Responsibility CSR).
Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM, 2014): It is implemented by the Ministry of Drinking Water and
Sanitation (Ministry of Jal Shakti from 2019). SBM seeks to achieve universal sanitation coverage by
making Gram Panchayats Open Defecation Free (ODF). Under SBM, incentives are provided for the
construction of household latrines.
Swachh Bharat Mission II (2020-21 and 2024-2025): It focuses on Open Defecation Free Plus (ODF
Plus), which includes ODF sustainability and solid and liquid waste management(SLWM). The ODF
Plus will converge with MGNREGA and will complement the newly launched Jal Jeevan Mission.
National Water Quality Monitoring Programme:Executed by CPCBs in association with the SPCBs.
NOISE POLLUTION
Unwanted sound that causes annoyance, irritation and pain to the human ear is termed noise. (measured
in dB (decibels)- which indicates the loudness of the sound).
Prescribed optimum noise level: 45 dB by day and 35 dB by night as per WHO.
Human ear can tolerate noise levels up to 85 dB, and anything beyond that can affect the quality of life.
>80 dB: loud and hazardous; 100-125 dB: uncomfortable.
Permissible Noise Level in India
Zone Daytime (dB) Night (dB)
Industrial Zone 75 70
Commercial Zone 65 55
Residential Zone 55 45
Silent Zone (areas within 100 metres of the premises of schools, colleges,
hospitals & courts.) 50 40
Laws to Control Noise pollution:
Earlier: Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
Currently: Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000, under Environment (Protection) Act,
1986.
Noise standards for motor vehicles, air-conditioners, refrigerators, diesel generators and certain
construction equipment are prescribed under:
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Noise emanating from industry is regulated by State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) under the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
PLASTIC POLLUTION
Accumulation of plastic objects and particles in the Earth’s environment that adversely affects humans,
wildlife and their habitat.
Microplastics: These are shreds of plastic <5 mm in length but >1 micrometre and come from various
sources, including the breakdown of larger plastic debris.
The particles can travel around the body and may lodge in organs/ outer membranes of red blood cells
& may limit their ability to transport oxygen. Microplastic pollution has also been detected in human
blood.
Microbeads:Microbeads (>0.1 μm and < 5 mm) are very tiny pieces of plastic that are added to health
and beauty products, such as in some cleansers and toothpaste (cooling crystals).One of the main
contributors to microbeads pollution is regular plastic waste, 90% of which is not recycled.
Nanoplastics: They are tiny plastic particles smaller than 1,000 nanometres and can pass through
physiological barriers and enter organisms and their food chain.
Primary nanoplastics: intentionally produced, used in various products, such as cosmetics, washing
powders, research and diagnostics.
Secondary nanoplastics: formed in the environment, especially in rivers and oceans, by fragmenting
larger pieces of plastic.
Effects of Plastic Waste-
Impact on Health and Life: Dioxin (dirty dozen/POPs) particularly get passed on through breast milk
to the infant; disturbs soil microbe activity as it takes several decades/centuries to decompose; fatal for
terrestrial and aquatic animals.
Impact on the Environment: Conventional plastics, right from their manufacture from toxic materials
such as benzene and vinyl hydrochloride to their disposal, are a significant problem. Primary emissions
from plastic production include sulphur oxides, nitrous oxides, methanol, ethylene oxide, dioxin &
furan and other VOCs. Plastics contaminate foodstuffs due to chemicals leaching into foods /beverages
eg: polycarbonate leaches bisphenol A and polystyrene leaches styrene.
Measures to Curb Plastic waste :India collects only 60% of its plastic waste, and the remaining 40%
enter the environment.
Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016: It replaced the Plastic Waste (Management and Handling)
Rules, 2011 extending rules to all villages, which were earlier admissible only up to municipal areas.
 Increased the minimum thickness of plastic carry bags from 40 to 50 microns & stipulated minimum
thickness of 50 microns for plastic sheets.
Sachets made of plastic material used for storing,packing, or selling gutkha, tobacco or pan masala are
prohibited.
Extended Producer’s Responsibility (EPR):pins responsibility on producers, generators & brand
owners in waste management and collect back systems.
Plastic waste management fee collection through pre-registration of the producers, importers of plastic
carry bags/multilayered packaging and vendors selling the same for establishing the waste management
system.
Responsibility: local bodies shall be responsible for setting up, operationalisation & coordination of the
waste management system & for performing associated functions. Retailers or street vendors shall not
sell, or provide commodities in plastic sheet or multilayered packaging, or they are liable to pay fines.
Reuse of plastic waste: in road construction, waste-to-oil, and waste-to-energy, which will enhance
plastic recycling, phasing out nonrecyclable multilayered plastic.
2018 Amendment: Only “non-recyclable, or nonenergy recoverable, or with no alternate use” MLP to
be phased out; omitted Rule 15 i.e. explicit pricing of carry bags mentioned in the 2016 rule.
Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules 2021:
Prohibition on identified single-use plastic (low utility and high littering potential) items from July
2022.
Thickness of plastic carry bags increased from 50 to 75 microns (2021) and to 120 microns (2022).
Guidelines for EPR to be given legal force.
The plastic packaging waste (not banned) to be collected and managed through the Extended Producer
Responsibility as per the 2016 rules.
National level taskforce for taking coordinated efforts to eliminate identified single use plastic items +
effective implementation of Plastic Waste Management Rules, 2016. Special Task Force by States/UTs
for the same.
CPCB list of Banned Plastics(Single use Plastic): Plastic sticks used in earbuds, balloons, candy & ice
cream; Plastic cutlery; Plastic packaging/wrapping films; polystyrene (thermocol) for decoration, PVC
banners with < 100 microns and plastic stirrers.
SOLID WASTES
It includes garbage, construction debris, sludge from waste treatment plants and other discarded solid
materials coming from industrial, commercial, mining, and agricultural operations and from household
and public activities.
Municipal solid waste: solid waste type consisting of everyday items like paper, food wastes, plastics,
glass, metals, rubber, leather, textile, etc., that are discarded by the public.
Sources of Solid Wastes:
Industrial Waste: Thermal power plants: coal ash/fly ash (fly ash in concrete increases the life of roads);
Integrated iron and steel mills: produces blast furnace slag (can be used in portland cement concrete,
road and railway construction, and soil conditioning); Non-ferrous industries like aluminium, copper
and zinc: red mud (as construction material in bricks, lightweight aggregates, roofing tiles, etc.);Sugar
industries:press mud (as a soil conditioner, soil fertiliser)
Pulp and paper industries: lime mud (used in bricks, cement, wastewater treatment, and agricultural
soils)
Fertilizer and allied industries: gypsum (used to treat soil alkalinity; used in portland cement and plaster
of Paris (POP))
Residential and Commercial Waste: Includes food waste, plastics, paper, glass, leather, household items
such as electronics, tires, batteries, old mattresses, used oil, wood, cardboard materials, etc.
Construction & Demolition Sites: Includes new construction sites for buildings and roads, road repair
sites, building renovation sites and building demolition sites that produce solid wastes such as steel
materials, concrete, wood, plastics, rubber, copper wires, dirt, glass, etc.
Bio-Medical Waste: solid waste such as syringes, bandages, gloves, drugs, plastics, chemicals, etc.,
from hospitals, biomedical equipment & chemical manufacturing.
Treatment & Disposal of Solid Waste-Solid waste management is the process of collecting & treating
solid wastes and recycling items that do not belong in the trash.
Open dumps: The waste is untreated, uncovered.
Landfills: A pit dug in the ground. After the landfill is full, the area is covered with a thick layer of mud
& the site can thereafter be developed as a parkinglot or a park.
Sanitary landfills: These were adopted as the substitute for open-burning dumps and ordinary landfills.
They are more hygienic but constructing a sanitary landfill is very costly.
Incineration plants: Process of burning waste in large furnaces at high temperatures.The recyclable
material is segregated, and the rest is burnt. Burning garbage is not a clean process, as it produces tons
of toxic ash and pollutes the air and water. At present, incineration is kept as a last resort and is used
mainly for treating infectious waste.
Pyrolysis: Process of combustion (burning) of material in the absence of oxygen, or under a controlled
atmosphere of oxygen. It is an alternative to incineration. Pyrolysis of carbonaceous wastes yields
charcoal and products like tar, methyl alcohol, acetic acid, acetone and fuel gas z
Plasma gasification: an extreme thermal process (combination of electricity and high temperatures)
using plasma (without combustion) which converts organic matter into a syngas. The inorganic wastes
are converted into slag, a solid waste. It is a cleaner alternative to landfills, reducing or eliminating
toxicity while avoiding the landfilling of huge amounts of garbage.
Biomining for Recycling: Technique of extracting metals from ores & solid wastes, typically using
prokaryotes (bacteria), fungi or plants. These organisms secrete different organic compounds,
bioleaching metals from the ores/wastes.
Waste to Energy (WTE) Plant: Process of generating electricity and/or heat from waste. Municipalities
can use wet waste to produce compost & biogas in biomethanation plants. The dry waste, after removing
recyclable elements, goes to WTE plants.The inorganic material (dry waste) is processed as Refuse
Derived Fuel (renewable) which can be burned to produce electricity.
Challenges associated: High cost of operation; Nature of Waste (high moisture and inert content in
Indian Municipal Solid Waste,i.e.15%-20% compared to requirement of <5%; lack of segregation at
source; Low Calorific value for electricity generation; high power tariff compared to coal and other
means.
Measures to Manage Solid Waste:
Solid Waste Management Rules (2016)- It replaces the Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and
Handling) Rules, 2000 and is applicable beyond Municipal areas and extends to urban agglomerations,
notified industrial townships, areas under the control of Indian Railways, airports, etc., defence
establishments, places of pilgrims, etc.
Responsibilities of Generators: to segregate waste into 3 streams before handing it over to the collector-
Wet (Biodegradable); Dry (Plastic, Paper, metal, wood, etc.); Domestic hazardous wastes (diapers,
napkins, containers of cleaning agents, mosquito repellents, etc.)
Segregation at Source: mandated to channel waste to wealth by recovery, reuse and recycling. In case
of a gathering of >100 persons, the organizer will have to ensure the segregation of waste at the source
and handing over of segregated waste to the waste collector agency.
Hotels and restaurants: segregate biodegradable waste & set up a system of collection to ensure that
such food waste is utilised for compostingbiomethanation.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy should facilitate infrastructure creation for Waste to
Energy plants and provide appropriate subsidies or incentives for such Waste-to-Energy plants.
Other Measures
Waste Minimization Circles (WMC): WMC helps small/ medium industrial clusters minimise waste in
their industrial plants with assistance from the World Bank and the National Productivity Council, New
Delhi, with the MoEF as the nodal ministry. The policy also recognises the role of citizens and NGOs
in environmental monitoring and enables them to supplement the regulatory system.
Composite Waste Management Index: 2.0(2019): It is an attempt by NITI Ayog to inspire states & UTs
towards efficient & optimal utilization of water.
Lakshya Zero Dumpsite: Launched by the Ministry of Housing & Urban Affairs under the SBM 2.0 to
remediate 16 crore metric tons (MT) of legacy waste dumpsites occupying nearly 15,000 acres of city
land and rejuvenate the urban landscapes furthering the vision of New India.
HAZARDOUS WASTE:
Any substance present/released in the environment that causes substantial damage to public health and
the environment’s welfare. It could exhibit one or more of the following characteristics: toxicity,
ignitability, corrosivity or reactivity (explosive).
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)- Chemical substances that persist in the environment,
bioaccumulate through the food web, & pose a risk of causing adverse effects to human health & the
environment.
Chemicals of global concern due to their potential for long-range transport and ability to biomagnify &
bio-accumulate in ecosystems. For instance, the traces of POPs have been found in the breast milk of
several mammals. In females, the concentration is lower due to the transfer of the compounds to their
offspring through lactation.
The most commonly encountered POPs are organochlorine pesticides, such as:
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT,once widely used as an effective pesticide & insecticide. It was
later identified as POP, & its usage was phased out in all developed/ developing countries.
Endosulfan, Chlordane, Endrin, and Heptachlor(were used as pesticides, wood preservatives). In 2011,
SC banned the production, distribution & use of endosulfan in India.
Hexachlorobenzene (fungicide), Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB — released from the burning of
plastics and electrical components; resistant to extreme temperature & pressure, hence widely used in
electrical equipment like capacitors transformers), Dioxins (toxic by-products produced when organic
matter is burned), etc.
 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (Organochlorides): POP hydrocarbons in which one or more hydrogen
atoms have been replaced by chlorine E.g., DDT. Uses include production of polyvinyl chloride (plastic
polymer used to make PVC pipes); Chloroform, dichloromethane, dichloroethane, & trichloroethane
(as solvents effective in cleaning applications like degreasing & dry cleaning); DDT, heptachlor &
endosulfan(as pesticides).
Perfluoroalkyl Acids (PFAAs): PFAAs are used in water/stain-resistant coatings and oil-resistant
coatings etc. they have a long life and are one of the major pollutants stored in the glaciers (do not
biodegrade and are passed through several organisms and ecosystems). The glaciers release PFAAs into
lakes, which can lead to bioaccumulation of PFAAs in fish. Himalayan glaciers may have higher levels
of PFAAs than any other glaciers worldwide. This is because of their proximity to south Asian countries
(the most polluted regions of the world).
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION:
Common Terminologies-
Radioactivity: It is a phenomenon of spontaneous emission of protons (alpha-particles), electrons (beta
particles) & gamma rays (short-wave EMR) due to the disintegration of atomic nuclei of some elements.
Radioactive Pollution: It is defined as the increase in the radiation levels (nuclear radiation/radioactive
contamination) in the environment that pose a severe threat to humans and other life forms.
Radioactive contamination: Presence of radioactive substances on surfaces/ within solids/ liquids/gases,
where their presence is unintended or undesirable.
Natural radiation sources: Cosmic rays from spaceand terrestrial radiations from radionuclides present
in the earth’s crust, such as radium-224, uranium-238, thorium-232, potassium-40, carbon-14, etc.
Artificial radiation pollution: Accidental leaks from nuclear power plants and unsafe disposal, mining
of radioactive material like uranium and thorium (monazite is the ore of thorium), exposure to radiation
for diagnostic purposes (e.g. X-rays, CT Scan), chemotherapy, etc. and slow nuclear radiations
emanating from nuclear reactors, laboratories, etc.
Types of radiation: non-ionizing radiations and ionizing radiations.
Ionization: It is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by
gaining or losing electrons to form ions, often in conjunction with other chemical changes.
Ionising radiations: These are short wavelength,ultraviolet radiations (UV), X-rays and gamma rays and
energetic particles produced in nuclear processes, electrically charged particles like alpha and beta
particles produced in radioactive decay and neutrons produced in nuclear fission. They have high
penetration power and cause breakage of macromolecules/ ionisation.
The Damage Potential of Radiation Particles:
Alpha particles: blocked by paper and human skin.
Beta particles: penetrate through the skin, while some pieces of glass & metal can block them.
Gamma rays: penetrate easily through human skin and damage cells on their way through, reaching
far, and can only be blocked by thick and massive walls of concrete.
Half-Life Period of Radioactivity: It is the time needed for half of its atoms to decay. The radionuclides
with long half-time are the chief source of environmental radioactive pollution.
Radiation Dose: A traditional unit of humanequivalent dose is the rem, which stands for radiation
equivalent in man.
At low doses(<1 rem): the cells repair the damage rapidly.
At higher doses (up to 100 rem): the cells might not be able to repair the damage, and the cells may
either be changed permanently or die. E.g., radiation sickness. Cells changed permanently may go on
to produce abnormal cells when they divide and may become cancerous.
Impact of Ionizing Radiation: These are highly damaging to living organisms. They can cause chemical
changes by breaking chemical bonds and damaging living tissues.
Short-term effects: burns, impaired metabolism, dead tissues, and death of the organisms.
Long-term effects: mutations increasing the incidence of tumours and cancer, shortening of lifespan
and developmental changes.
It is lethal at high doses, but at lower doses, it creates various disorders, the most frequent of all being
cancer.
DNA Damage: For instance, when a gamma ray passes through a cell, the water molecules near the
DNA might be ionized, and the ions might react with the DNA causing it to break.
Non-Ionizing Radiation: Electromagnetic waves at the longer wavelength of the spectrum ranging from
long wavelength UV radiation to radio waves (including microwaves).
These contain enough energy to excite the atoms and molecules of the medium through which they
pass, causing them to vibrate faster but not strong enough to ionize them.
Have low penetrability and affect only those components which absorb them.
Health impact: Damage eyes due to reflections from sand and snow (snow blindness) and directly
looking towards the sun during an eclipse; injure the cells of skin and blood capillaries producing
blisters and reddening called sunburn
HEAVY METAL POLLUTION
Heavy Metals: Metallic elements with a relatively high density compared to water. These are harmful
(toxic/poisonous) to the environment, humans and other organisms, even at low concentrations.
Water-soluble heavy metals: arsenic, cadmium, lead, mercury, barium, chromium, platinum, palladium,
and silver.
Most of them are not broken down by biological degradation. They bioaccumulate and biomagnifposing
danger to organisms at the top of the food chain.
Heavy metal poisoning (toxicity) is the result of exposure to heavy metals which enter the human body
systems and bind to cells preventing the normal functioning of organs. It can cause irreversible damage
and can be life-threatening in some cases.
Heavy metals can be carried to places far away from their source of origin by winds when they are
emitted in gaseous form or form of fine particulates. Rain ultimately washes the air having metallic
pollutants, and brings them to the land and water bodies.
Metals
Lead
Major Sources: mining, lead-acid batteries, battery scrap recycling, paints and pigments (used for
quickdrying), fly ash, and plastic toys (lead softens plastic).Minor Sources: lead-soldered food cans,
cosmetic lip products, lead in water (from leaded pipes), leaded petrol (phased out worldwide), glass
(added to melt them during manufacturing), ayurvedic medicines, etc.
E-waste Sources: lead rechargeable batteries, solar panels, transistors, lithium batteries, PVC, solder
inPCBs, glass panels and gaskets in computer monitors, etc.
Health Effects:Carcinogen of the lungs and kidneys; affects many organs, especially developing
foetuses causing stillbirths and miscarriages; it can cause irreversible behavioural, and neurological
damage and other developmental problems in children; can get mixed up with water and food and create
lead poisoning causing neurodegenerative diseases and dysfunctions of the central nervous system.
Maternal exposure to lead during pregnancy can cause developmental reprogramming, which can lead
to higher risk and early onset of Alzheimer’s disease in later life.
Mercury
Natural: Volcanic eruptions, fossil fuels, metal ores, and other minerals.
Human-made: mining and refining of metals such as copper, gold, lead, and zinc, coal burning,
manufacture of cement (present in limestone and/or coal), caustic soda production, etc
E-waste Sources: LCD screens, CFL bulbs, CRT monitors, switches, printed solders, batteries, mercury
thermometers, thermostats, sensors, medical equipment, lamps, mobile phones, etc.
Health Effects:severe and permanent damage to the central nervous system, lungs and kidneys; trigger
depression/ suicidal tendencies; cause paralysis, Alzheimer’s disease, impotence, etc. Inhalation of
mercury vapours is more dangerous than its ingestion as it more readily reaches the brain. Repeated
exposure has irreversible effects on the nervous system, particularly in children.
Methyl mercury
Source:fluorescent (CFL) lights, batteries, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), etc. neuro-toxicant- leads to brain
and nervous system damage. The developing foetus is highly vulnerable to mercury exposure.
Minamata Convention-In Japan, mass mercury poisoning (Minamata disease) was observed in the
1960s, caused by eating fish fromMinamata Bay contaminated with methylmercury. Its aim is to protect
the environment and the human health from anthropogenic emissions and releases of the toxic heavy
metal.
Chromium- Chromium VI (hexavalent chromium) is used as a corrosion protector of untreated and
galvanised steel plates, metal housings and plates in computers, in chrome tanning (leather industry),
and as a decorative or hardener for steel housings plastics (including PVCs).inhaling chromium or
chromium 6 can damage the liver and kidneys and cause bronchial maladies, including asthmatic
bronchitis and lung cancer. Chromium VI can cause damage to DNA.
Cadmium Major Sources: mining (especially of zinc & copper), metallurgical operations, electroplating
industries, Etc.
E- waste sources: solar panels, batteries, solder, alloys, switches, printed circuit boards (PCB), computer
batteries, cathode ray tube (CRTs) monitors, surface-mount technology (SMT) chip resistors, infra-red
detectors, semiconductor chips, UV stabilisers in older PVC cables, etc.cause hypertension, liver and
kidney damage and lung cancer, Long-term exposure causes
Health Effects: Itai-itai disease. The disease was first reported in Japan in 1965. It was attributed to
cadmium contamination in water and rice caused by the discharge of effluents from a zinc smelter.
Arsenic
copper, iron and silver ores, fly ash, liquid effluents from fertiliser plants, semiconductors, diodes,
microwaves, LEDs(Light-emitting diodes),solar cells, etc.
Health Effects:accumulation of arsenic in the body parts like blood, nails and hairs, causing skin lesions,
rough skin, dry and thickening of the skin and ultimately skin cancer.
Antimony
trace component of metal solders, lead alloys for batteries, lead/copper/tin alloys for bearings.antimony
trioxide is a possible carcinogen
Tin
preserved foods stored in tin cans. irritant, and excess tin can cause damage to the liver and kidneys.
Zinc
mining, metal smelting (like zinc, lead and cadmium), fly ash, steel, brass, alloys, disposable and
rechargeable batteries, luminous substances, etc.excess zinc is a skin irritant and affects the pulmonary
system.
ELECTRONIC WASTE (E-WASTE)
The discarded and end-of-life electrical/ electronic equipment (EEE) and products ranging from
computers, equipment, home appliances, audio and video products and all of their peripherals are
known as electronic waste. It is not hazardous if it is stocked in safe storage or recycled by scientific
methods, or transported from one place to the other in parts or totality in the formal sector. But if
recycled or disposed of unscientifically it may prove to be fatal. In India, only 22.7% of the e-waste out
of the total 1.014 mt generated in 2019-20 in India was collected, dismantled, and recycled or disposed
of.
Major E-waste Component and their Environmental Hazards:
Cathode Ray Tubes (used in TVs, computer monitors, etc.)-Cadmium, lead, barium, and nickel leach
into the groundwater
Printed Circuit Board (PCB) and switches-Atmospheric release and discharge into rivers of tin, lead,
brominated dioxin, cadmium and mercury due to desoldering/open burning
Batteries -Cadmium, lead, lithium, mercury, nickel, etc., depending upon the type of batteries.
E-Waste Management Rules, 2016:
GOI passed the first law on e-waste management in 2011, based on Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR). E-Waste Rules 2016 replaced 2011 Rules.
Salient Features: Over 21 products, including Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL) & mercury-containing
lamps, were included under the purview (Schedule-I) of the rules.
Rules were also extended to components or consumables or parts or spares of Electrical and Electronic
Equipment (EEE), along with their products.
EPR: Manufacturers, dealers, refurbishes & Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO) have been
introduced as additional stakeholders in therules to strengthen EPR further.
The rules have provisioned the target for the producers, missing in the first version of the Rule.
Manufacturers responsibility: They are to takeback their sold products with recommended mechanisms
and to collect e-waste generated during the manufacture of any EEE and channelise it for recycling or
disposal and seek authorisation from SPCB.
CPCB shall conduct random sampling of EEEs placed on the market to monitor compliance with the
law on Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS). The producer shall bear the cost of sampling.
Liability for damages caused due to improper management of e-waste, including provision for levying
financial penalty for violation of provisions of the rules, has also been introduced.
Finance-
Option has been given for setting up of e-waste exchange, e-retailer, and Deposit Refund Scheme as an
additional channel for implementing EPR by producers to ensure efficient channelisation of e-waste.
The e-waste exchange as an option has been provided as an independent market instrument offering
assistance for selling and purchasing e-waste generated from end-of-life EEE between agencies or
organisations.
Amendment in 2019: to channelise the E-wastegenerated towards authorised dismantlers & recyclers
to formalise the e-waste recycling sector. The collection targets under the provision of EPR in the Rules
have been revised, and targets have been introduced for new producers who have started their sales
operations recently.
Salient Features:
Phase-wise collection targets for e-waste in weight shall be 10% of the quantity of waste generation
with a 10% increase every year until 2023.
2023 onwards, the target has been 70% of the quantity of waste generation as indicated in the EPR Plan.
PROs shall apply to the CPCB for registration to undertake activities prescribed in the Rules.
The cost for sampling and testing shall be borne by the government for conducting the RoHS test. If
the product does not comply with RoHS provisions, the cost of the test will be borne by the Producers.
E-Waste Management Rules, 2022-Widen the coverage of electronic goods from 21 to 106 and restrict
the use of hazardous substances (such as lead, mercury, and cadmium) in manufacturing EEE that have
an adverse impact on human health and the environment.
EPR Certificates (similar to carbon credits) will allow the offsetting of e-waste responsibility to a third
party.
Targets: Producers of electronic goods have to ensure at least 60% of their e-waste is collected and
recycled by 2023, with targets to increase them to 70% and 80% in 2024 and 2025, respectively.
‘Environmental compensation’: Provided by the companies that don’t meet their target.
Responsibilities: State Governments will earmark industrial space for e-waste dismantling and
recycling facilities, undertake industrial skill development and establish measures for protecting the
health and safety of workers.
Manufacturers: Making the end product recyclable and a component made by different manufacturers
be compatible with each other.
CPCB: Shall conduct random sampling of EEE placed on the market to monitor and verify the
compliance of reduction of hazardous substances provisions.
Climate Change
Long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns attributed to human activity altering the
composition of the atmosphere.
Global Warming refers to the long-term rise in global temperatures, which is a part of climate change
caused by the greenhouse effect. Rising temperatures due to global warming trigger a cascade of other
effects, including rising sea levels, melting glaciers, loss of polar ice caps (cryosphere), ocean
acidification etc.
Knowing Climate Change:
Tree Rings as Climate Records: The width and colour of these rings provide insights into past climate
conditions, with wider rings indicating wetter periods and thinner rings indicating drier years.
Rock layers: Sedimentary rocks record changes in temperature, rainfall, and ocean currents through
their composition and fossil content.
Pollen records: Pollen grains from different plant species are preserved in soils and lake sediments.
Ice cores: Deep ice cores drilled from polar regions trap bubbles of air and layers of snow from
thousands of years ago
Further Coral Reefs, Cave speleothems, lake sediment also help in knowing past climate change
events.
CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE:
Greenhouse Effect
Importance: Natural GE sustains life by maintaining average global temperatures around 15°C.
Without it, temperatures might plummet to -17°C, rendering life unsustainable.
Impact: Since 1880, average surface temperatures rose by around 1°C.
Global Warming Potential & Lifetime of GHGs:
Global Warming Potential (GWP) measures heat absorbed by a greenhouse gas (GHG) compared to
the same mass of CO2 over a specific time (usually 100 years).
Important Greenhouse Gases:
Carbon Dioxide-
Transparent to incoming solar radiation but traps outgoing terrestrial radiation, significantly
contributing to the greenhouse effect.
Total Earth carbon estimate: 1.85 billion gigatons.
Human activities contribute 40 to 100 times more carbon emissions than all volcanic activities
combined.
Carbon Reservoir : Percentage of Total
Below the Surface : 97.73%
Above the Surface : 2.27%
Above the surface: Deep Ocean (85.1%); Marine Sediments (6.9%); Terrestrial Biosphere(4.6%);
Surface Ocean (2%); Atmosphere (1.4%)
Ozone:
Primarily found in the stratosphere, where it absorbs harmful UV radiation, shielding Earth’s surface.
Ground-level ozone (tropospheric ozone, O3) is not directly released but is a secondary pollutant
formed from precursor gaseous pollutants like Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), and
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) react with sunlight and oxygen (O2).
Crop/biomass residue burning releases Carbon Monoxide (CO), Ozone,Methane (CH4), and Sulphur
Dioxide (SO2) into the atmosphere.
Water Vapour:
Variable nature based on climate (cold, dry, humid), constitutes between 0.02% and 4% of the total
volume of the atmosphere.
Decreases with altitude 90% of moisture exists within 6 km of the Earth’s surface and diminishes
from equator to poles.
 Contributes to atmospheric insulation by absorbing incoming infrared radiation from the sun and
outgoing infrared radiation from Earth. While it plays a significant role, its insulating effect is weaker
than carbon dioxide.
Methane (CH4):
Second most important greenhouse gas after carbon dioxide and accounts for at least a quarter of
current global warming.
Odourless, colourless, tasteless gas that is lighter than air and burns with a blue flame in the presence
of oxygen, producing carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Global Food Systems: Account for one-third of global greenhouse gas emissions
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) :
Emissions increased by 30% between 1980 and 2016, with 43% from human activities, primarily
from agriculture, notably 70% from nitrogen-based fertilizers.
NO and NO2 are considered global cooling gases, whereas N2O is a potent greenhouse gas, all
falling under the general formula for oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
Black Carbon (Soot):
Warms the Earth by reducing albedo and is a potent absorber of sunlight, contributing significantly to
climate change after CO2.
Unlike CO2 black carbon is short-lived, lasting only days to weeks before descending as rain or snow.
Carbon Monoxide:
Short-lived and a weak direct greenhouse gas (GHG) i.e Less dense than air and naturally oxidised
into carbon dioxide (CO2) with an indirect radiative forcing effect by elevating concentrations of
methane (GHG) and tropospheric ozone (GHG).
Common Name Lifetime(years) Global Warming Potential (GWP)
20-year 100-year 500-
year
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 150 1 1 1
Methane (CH4) 12 12 72 25
Nitrous oxide (N₂O) 114 289 298 153
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) 3200 16,300 22,800 32,600
Black carbon 0.020 1600 460 140
Fluorinated Gas:
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) –
Used in refrigeration, solvents, aerosols, and industrial applications. Phased out due to ozone
depletion.Potent GHGs with higher greenhouse effect potential than CO2.
HFCs (Hydrofluorocarbons) –
Used in refrigeration, aerosols, solvents, etc., as CFC replacements. Potent GHGs with long
atmospheric lifetimes. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) GWPs range from 140 to 11,700, lifetimes vary
between 1 to 270 years.
PFCs (Perfluorocarbons) -
Composed of carbon and fluorine. Emitted during aluminium production, semiconductor
manufacturing. Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) GWPs between 6,500 to 9,200, lifetimes span from 800 to
50,000 years.
SF6 (Sulphur Hexafluoride) -
Used in magnesium processing, semiconductor manufacturing, and as a tracer gas. Sulphur
hexafluoride (SF6) GWP of 23,900, lasts around 3,200 years in the atmosphere.
IMPORTANT TERMS
Carbon Footprint:Measure of CO2 produced through the impact from burning fossil fuels, is
expressed in tons. India pledged 45% (updated) reduction in emissions intensity by 2030 compared to
2005 levels.
Carbon Bombs- Covers coal, oil, or fossil gas project with potential to emit over a Gigaton of CO2.
Leave It In the Ground Initiative (LINGO) identified 425 carbon bombs worldwide. According to
LINGO, potential emissions exceed a 1.5°C carbon budget by a factor of two.
Examples are Carmichael Coal Project (Australia), Gevra Coal Mines (Chhattisgarh), Rajmahal Coal
Mines (Jharkhand).
Climate Sensitivity & Feedback Mechanism: Defined as the global temperature rise following a
doubling of CO2 concentration in the atmosphere compared to pre-industrial levels.
Pre-industrial CO2 was about 260 ppm, with a doubling expected around 520 ppm in the next 50-100
years.
Feedback Drive Uncertainty: Climate feedback can amplify (positive feedback) or diminish (negative
feedback) the warming effect of increased CO2 concentrations.
Permafrost: Melting permafrost releases greenhouse gases, contributing to a positive feedback loop.
Water Vapor: Warmer temperatures lead to an increase in water vapor in the atmosphere, enhancing
the greenhouse effect.
Clouds: Clouds have a dual effect on climate, with some acting as negative feedback by reflecting
sunlight and others as positive feedback by trapping heat.
India’s Energy Scenario :
India is the third largest energy consuming country.
Installed renewable energy capacity as of March 2023 is 168.96 GW.
International Energy Agency (IEA): The IEA is an autonomous intergovernmental organization
focusing on energy policies for economic development, energy security, and environmental
protection.
The World Energy Outlook Report is released by it and only OECD member states can become IEA
members.
India is an Associate member since March 2017.
IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING LED CLIMATE CHANGE
Shrinking Cryosphere- Comprises areas of snow or ice, including continental ice sheets, glaciers,
permafrost, and frozen parts of oceans, rivers, and lakes.
 Role of Cryosphere: Reflects heat through high albedo, Supplies freshwater to many parts of the
world and Sensitive to climate shifts, acting as the Earth’s “black box” for understanding past global
climate changes.
Consequences of Shrinking Cryosphere:
Vegetation Change: Thawing of snow may increase arable land in high-latitude regions but reduce it
along coastlines due to rising sea levels.
Surge-Type Glaciers: Surge-type glaciers can lead to catastrophic glacial lake outburst floods when
they break due to global warming.
New Sea Routes in the Arctic: The Arctic is warming twice as fast as the global average, opening new
sea routes, creating opportunities in shipping, energy, fisheries, and mineral resources.
Water scarcity, water wars, and distress migration.
Loss of coastal wetlands and submergence of coastal areas.
Disastrous changes in major weather patterns.
Impact on groundwater resources, hydroelectric power generation, and animal populations.
Arctic (or Polar) Amplification (PA): Arctic warming faster than other parts of the globe.
Consequences: Melting polar ice and its resultant impact on climate patterns and extreme events.
Sea Level Change(SLR): Eustatic and tectonic changes contribute to sea level fluctuations.
Importance of Understanding Sea Level Changes: Key evidence for past climate change, assessing
tectonic upliftment, and planning for coastal development.
Regional Sea Level Rise (SLR): SLR not uniform globally; regional SLR can be higher or lower than
global SLR.
Protection Against SLR: Coastal protection measures and infrastructure projects to counteract SLR.
Examples like Indonesia’s Giant Sea Wall and the proposed Northern European Enclosure Dam
(NEED).
More Severe Tropical Cyclones: Increasing Sea Surface Temperatures (SST)
Tropical cyclones require specific sea surface temperatures to form and intensify.
The South Indian Ocean is experiencing higher temperatures (30-32°C) compared to the previous
norm of 26.5°C, contributing to more intense cyclones.
Global Forcing Mechanisms:
Regions farther from the equator are experiencing higher temperatures (24-26°C), expanding the
potential range for cyclone formation.
Global forcing mechanisms such as El Niño, Indian Ocean Dipole, Southern Annular Mode, and
Madden-Julian Oscillation, influenced by global warming, contribute to cyclone formation.
Arabian Sea Changes:The Arabian Sea, historically less conducive to cyclones due to colder SST in
certain areas, is now heating rapidly.
Climate models suggest that 64% of cyclone risk in the Arabian Sea is due to climate change.
Deterioration of Carbon Sinks:
High Latitude Forests: The taiga and tundra regions store more carbon than tropical rainforests.
Global warming is causing the permafrost in these areas to melt, releasing stored carbon as carbon
dioxide and methane.
Carbon Dioxide Fertilization-Stimulation of plant growth resulting from increased levels of
atmospheric carbon dioxide. Higher levels of CO2 can enhance this process, leading to increased
plant growth in some cases.
Acclimatization and Diminishing Effect: While initially beneficial in promoting plant growth, over
time, plants acclimatize to the rising CO2concentrations, and the fertilization effect diminishes.
Ocean Deoxygenation: Refers to the expansion of oxygen minimum zones (OMZs) in the world’s
oceans due to human-induced carbon dioxide emissions.
OMZs: These zones are characterized by low oxygen concentrations, created by a combination of
physical factors (ocean stratification) and biological processes (reduced photosynthesis), leading to
the formation of anoxic zones.
Warming Effect: Deoxygenation is exacerbated by warmer oceans, which reduce oxygen solubility in
water and contribute to temperature-driven stratification.
Effects of Ocean Deoxygenation: Acidification, Element Cycling (Reduction in the cycling of
essential elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus etc), Fish Mortality etc.
Coral Bleaching or Coral Reef Bleaching:
Coral reefs compose calcareous skeletons formed by coral polyps, tiny marine organisms belonging to
the phylum Cnidaria. Polyps, which are related to anemones and jellyfish, extract calcium salts from
seawater to create hard, tubular skeletons
Ideal Condition: Stable Climatic Conditions, Perpetually Warm Waters(around 20°C) Shallow Water,
Clear Salt Water, Abundant Plankton, Little or No Pollution.
More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and
Philippines; Coral reefs host far more animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests.
In India coral reefs are present in the Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Mannar, Andaman & Nicobar,
Lakshadweep Islands and Malvan
Causes for Coral Bleaching:
Temperature Changes, Ocean Acidification, Increases Inorganic Nutrients are the major causes.
Subaerial Exposure: Exposure to the atmosphere during low tides or sea level drops induces
bleaching.
Xenobiotics: Exposure to high concentrations of contaminants like copper, herbicides, and oil can
cause bleaching.
Epizootics: Coral diseases, although not directly related to bleaching, may cause adverse effects on
coral health.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
Formation: Created by the United Nations Environment Programme (UN Environment) and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988, the IPCC has 195 Member countries.
IPCC Structure: The IPCC doesn’t conduct original research but relies on the voluntary contributions
of thousands of scientists and experts.
IPCC Assessment Reports (ARs): The IPCC has released several ARs since its inception in 1988: AR1
(1990), AR2 (1995), AR3 (2001), AR4 (2007), and AR5 (2014). The current assessment cycle is AR6,
with reports from each Working Group and special reports.
What is Climate Change?

• Long-term changes in temperature and weather patterns are referred to as climate change.
• This shift in weather patterns could be natural such as variations in the solar cycle or caused by
humans.
• Since the 1800s, human activities have been the primary cause of climate change, owing primarily
to the use of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas.
• The combustion of fossil fuels produces greenhouse gas emissions, which act like a blanket
wrapped around the Earth, trapping heat from the sun and raising temperatures.
• Carbon dioxide and methane are two examples of greenhouse gas emissions that are causing
climate change.
o These are caused by using gasoline to drive a car or coal to heat a building.
o Clearing land and forests can also result in the release of carbon dioxide.
o Garbage landfills are a major source of methane emissions.
• Among the major emitters are energy, industry, transportation, buildings, agriculture, and land use.
• Many people believe that climate change primarily means higher temperatures. However, the rise
in temperature is only the beginning of the story.
• Because the Earth is a system in which everything is interconnected, changes in one area can have
an impact on all others.
• Climate change is now causing severe droughts, water scarcity, severe fires, rising sea levels,
flooding, melting polar ice, catastrophic storms, and declining biodiversity.
What is Climate Change Mitigation?

• Changes in the Climate Mitigation refers to efforts to reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions.
• Mitigation can take the form of implementing new technologies and renewable energies, making
older equipment more energy efficient, or altering management practises or consumer behaviour.
• It can be as complex as a new city plan or as simple as changes to a cook stove design.
• The mitigation piece of the puzzle is simple to describe but difficult to implement. We must
transition from using fossil fuels to using clean, renewable energy.
• We must halt deforestation and restore natural habitats until we achieve net-zero carbon emissions,
which means that the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere is balanced by the capture
and storage of those gases in places such as tree roots.
Strategies to Mitigate Climate Change
Carbon Sequestration

• Carbon capture and storage, also known as CCS or carbon sequestration, refers to technologies that
are designed to combat global warming by capturing CO2 at power plants, industrial sites, or even
directly from the air and storing it underground indefinitely.
• Carbon sequestration refers to the long-term storage of carbon dioxide or other forms of carbon in
order to reduce or postpone global warming.
• It has been proposed as a method of slowing the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere and oceans caused by the combustion of fossil fuels.
How is Carbon Sequestration Done?

• Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere via biological, chemical, and physical
processes.
• These changes can be accelerated by changing land use and agricultural practices, such as
converting crop and livestock grazing land to land for non-crop fast-growing plants.
• Artificial processes have been developed to produce similar effects, such as large-scale, artificial
capture and sequestration of industrially produced carbon dioxide using subsurface saline aquifers,
reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil fields, or other carbon sinks.
Sinks

• Carbon sequestration can be accomplished by pumping carbon into 'carbon sinks,' or areas that
absorb carbon.
o Natural sinks - oceans, forests, soil, etc.
o Man-made sinks - depleted oil reserves, unmineable mines, etc.
• For decades, the oil and gas industries have used carbon capture to improve oil and gas recovery.
• We have only recently begun to consider capturing carbon for environmental reasons.
• Carbon capture and storage (CCS) consists of three major steps:
o capturing and separating CO2 from other gases
o transporting the captured CO2 to a location for storage, and
o keeping CO2 out of the atmosphere by storing it underground or deep in the ocean.
Types of Sequestration
Ocean Sequestration

• Carbon is stored in the oceans via direct injection or fertilization.

• Large amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed, released, and stored by the oceans.
• This can be accomplished in two ways: by increasing the productivity of ocean biological systems
through iron fertilisation, and by injecting CO2 into the deep ocean.
• Iron dumping stimulates phytoplankton production, which leads to increased photosynthesis from
these microorganisms, which aids in CO2 absorption.
Geologic Sequestration

• Natural pore spaces in geologic formations serve as long-term carbon dioxide storage reservoirs.
• CO2 can be stored in oil reservoirs, gas reservoirs, unmineable coal seams, saline formations, and
organic-rich shale formations.
• Geologic sequestration is thought to have the most immediate application potential.
Terrestrial Sequestration

• Terrestrial carbon sequestration is the process by which CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by
trees and plants via photosynthesis and stored as carbon in soils and biomass (tree trunks, branches,
foliage, and roots).
• Soils and vegetation, which act as natural carbon sinks, store a large amount of carbon.
• Carbon uptake in these natural sinks can be increased by increasing carbon fixation through
photosynthesis, slowing or reducing organic matter decomposition, and changing land-use
practices.
Geologic Sequestration Trapping Mechanism

• Hydrodynamic Trapping: CO2 can be trapped as a gas by hydrodynamic trapping under low-
permeability cap rock.
• Solubility Trapping: CO2 can be dissolved in a liquid, such as water or oil.
• Mineral Carbonation: CO2 can react with minerals, fluids, and organic matter in a geologic
formation to form stable compounds/minerals, primarily calcium, iron, and magnesium carbonates.
• CO2 can be effectively stored in the earth's subsurface via hydrodynamic trapping and solubility
trapping - a combination of the two is usually most effective.
Methods of Carbon Sequestration
Natural Carbon Sequestration

• It is the process by which nature has achieved a carbon dioxide balance in our atmosphere that is
suitable for life. Plants and animals both expel carbon dioxide at night.
• Nature provided carbon sinks or sponges in the form of trees, oceans, the earth, and the animals
themselves.
• All organic life on Earth is carbon-based, and when plants and animals die, much of the carbon
returns to the ground, where it has little effect on global warming.
Artificial Carbon Sequestration

• Artificial carbon sequestration refers to a variety of processes that capture and bury carbon
emissions at the point of production (e.g., factory chimneys).
• Ocean sequestration is one proposed method in which carbon dioxide is injected deep into the
ocean, forming CO2 lakes.
• The CO2 will, in theory, stay deep due to the pressure and temperature of the surrounding water,
gradually dissolving into it over time.
• Another example is geological sequestration, which involves pumping carbon dioxide into
underground chambers such as old oil reservoirs, aquifers, and coal seams that cannot be mined.
Soil Carbon Sequestration

• Soil carbon refers to the solid carbon stored in the world's soils. This includes both organic soil
matter and inorganic carbon in the form of carbonate minerals.
• Soil carbon is a carbon sink in the global carbon cycle, contributing to biogeochemistry, climate
change mitigation, and the development of global climate models.
• Carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere can be reduced by reducing emissions or by
removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in terrestrial, oceanic, or freshwater
aquatic ecosystems.
• Long-term conversion of grassland and forestland to cropland (and grazing lands) has resulted in
historic losses of soil carbon worldwide, but there is significant potential for increasing soil carbon
through soil restoration and widespread adoption of soil conservation practises.
• Land-use conversion and soil cultivation have historically been significant sources of greenhouse
gases (GHGs) to the atmosphere. They are still estimated to be responsible for roughly one-third of
GHG emissions.
• Improved agricultural practises, on the other hand, can help to mitigate climate change by lowering
emissions from agriculture and other sources and storing carbon in plant biomass and soils.
India and Carbon Sequestration

• National Programme on CO2 Storage Research is a programme run by the Department of

Science and Technology.
• India is a member of the Accelerating CCS Technologies (ACT) initiative.
• ACT is a 16-country international initiative that aims to accelerate and mature CCUS technology
through targeted innovation and research.
• Six Indian companies have agreed to a 'Industry Charter' for near-zero emissions by 2050, including
carbon sequestration.
Carbon Sink

• A carbon sink is any natural or man-made reservoir that accumulates and stores some carbon-
containing chemical compound for an indefinite period of time, lowering CO2 concentrations in
the atmosphere.
• The two most important carbon sinks on a global scale are vegetation and the ocean.
• Since the passage of the Kyoto Protocol, which encourages the use of CO2 sinks as a form of carbon
offset, public awareness of their importance has grown.
• "Blue carbon" refers to carbon fixed by ocean ecosystems. The majority of ocean plant life is made
up of mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses, which store large amounts of carbon.
• Numerous efforts are being made to improve natural sequestration in soils and oceans.
• Furthermore, a variety of artificial sequestration initiatives, such as new building materials, carbon
capture and storage, and geological sequestration, are underway.
Carbon Cycle

• Carbon is required for all life on Earth. The amount of carbon on Earth has never changed, but its
location is constantly shifting as it flows between the atmosphere and Earth's organisms as it is
released or absorbed.
• The carbon cycle is a perfectly balanced process that has existed for thousands of years.
• A carbon sink absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere. The world's largest carbon sinks are the ocean,
soil, and forests.
• Carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere by a carbon source. Carbon sources include the use
of fossil fuels such as gas, coal, and oil, as well as deforestation and volcanic eruptions.
• Increased human activity is currently upsetting the balance. More carbon is being released into the
atmosphere than the Earth's natural carbon sinks can absorb.
• Because we continue to rely on fossil fuels for energy, billions of tonnes of carbon are released into
the atmosphere each year, hence carbon sinks have never been more important.
Natural Carbon Sinks
Forests

• Green plants play an important role in regulating CO2 levels.

• Photosynthesis occurs in the cells of microscopic organisms and in the leaves of plants. It converts
carbon dioxide and water into glucose (carbon sugar) using solar radiation energy.
• Once processed, sugar is further converted and used in a variety of other molecules, including fats,
proteins, starch, and enzymes.
• Once this is completed, the photosynthesis process releases oxygen, which is required by plants and
animals.
• It is widely assumed that photosynthesis is responsible for approximately half of all carbon
extracted from the atmosphere.
Soil

• Carbon is the primary component of organic matter that contributes to fertile agricultural soil. It
also aids in the retention of water in the soil.
• Plants are the primary source of CO2 transfer to soil.
• Not all of the CO2 absorbed by plants for photosynthesis is required for food.
• The excess percolates down through their roots and feeds soil organisms.
• Carbon is also captured in soil from the roots and leaves of dying plants.
• Every year, the Earth's soil absorbs about a quarter of all human emissions, with a large portion of
this stored in peatland or permafrost.
Oceans

• The oceans are the world's workhorse for absorbing and storing carbon.
• Since the Industrial Revolution, when we began burning fossil fuels for energy, the ocean has
absorbed roughly a quarter of the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere.
• Photosynthesis, along with other biological processes, helps to sequester CO2 and other carbon
compounds.
• The ocean is one of the most important carbon sinks because of phytoplankton.
• These microscopic marine algae and bacteria play a significant role in the global carbon cycle,
absorbing roughly the same amount of carbon as all land plants and trees combined.
• However, plastic pollution in our ocean means that plankton are eating microplastics, which affects
the rate at which they trap carbon in our ocean.
Types of Carbon
Grey Carbon

• Grey carbon is carbon that has been stored in fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas deposits in the
lithosphere).
Green Carbon

• Green carbon is carbon that has been stored in the biosphere.

• We call it 'green' because plants absorb carbon from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, which
is dependent on the green chlorophyll pigment found in plant leaves.
• Green carbon refers to the carbon sequestered through photosynthesis and stored in natural forests.
• Natural forests are those that have not been disturbed by intensive human land-use activities such
as commercial logging.
Brown Carbon

• Carbon stored in industrialised forests is referred to as brown carbon.

• These are commercially logged forests for their wood, which is used as a raw material source in
industrial manufacturing processes.
• Industrialized forests are classified into two types:
o where tree regeneration occurs from naturally occurring tree stock and seed bank; and
o where the trees are planted by humans and consist of a single tree species, similar to a
monoculture crop.
• Industrialized forests are a source of organic carbon and thus contribute to the biosphere; however,
we consider this carbon to be 'brown' rather than 'green' in order to emphasise that industrialised
forests are a 'mix' of green and grey carbon.
• Grey carbon is emitted as a result of the use of fossil fuels in managing these forestry operations
and the associated industrial processes.
Blue Carbon

• Blue Carbon refers to carbon sinks held by coastal, aquatic, and marine vegetation, marine
organisms, and sediments.
• Coastal ecosystems, in particular, such as tidal marshes, mangroves, and seagrasses, remove carbon
from the atmosphere and ocean by natural processes, storing it in plants and depositing it in the
sediment beneath them.
• These coastal ecosystems are very efficient at sequestering and storing carbon, with each square
mile of these systems removing carbon from the atmosphere and oceans at rates greater than mature
tropical forests.
• Furthermore, coastal ecosystems have been found to store massive amounts of carbon in organic-
rich sediments, up to 5 times more carbon than many temperate and tropical forests.
• Except for Antarctica, these ecosystems can be found on every continent.
Blue Carbon Initiative

• The Blue Carbon Initiative is a global programme aimed at mitigating climate change through the
conservation and restoration of coastal and marine ecosystems.
• The Blue Carbon Initiative (BCI) works to develop management approaches, financial incentives,
and policy mechanisms to ensure the conservation, restoration, and sustainable use of coastal blue
carbon ecosystems.
• The goal is to create comprehensive methods for assessing blue carbon stocks and emissions, which
will be implemented by projects all over the world that demonstrate the viability of blue carbon
accounting, management, and incentive agreements.
• The Blue Carbon Initiative focuses on mangroves, salt marshes, and seagrasses, which are found
on every continent except Antarctica.
International Cooperation

• Conservation International (CI), the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN),
and the UNESCO Intergovernmental Oceanic Commission (IOC) are working with
governments, research institutions, non-governmental and international organisations, and
communities around the world to protect the oceans.
• Participate with local, national, and international governments to ensure that policies and
regulations support coastal Blue Carbon conservation, management, and financing.
• Create comprehensive methods for accounting for coastal carbon.
• Create incentive mechanisms for Blue Carbon projects, such as carbon payment schemes.
• Implement projects around the world to show the viability of coastal Blue Carbon accounting,
management, and incentive agreements.
• Encourage scientific research into the role and significance of coastal Blue Carbon ecosystems for
climate change mitigation.
• Since 2015, the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) has been a Partner of the
International Partnership for Blue Carbon (IPBC), and since 2020, it has shared the Coordinator
role with the Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water, and the Environment.
• The Partnership's goal is to provide an open forum for government agencies, non-governmental
organisations, intergovernmental organisations, and research institutions to connect, share, and
collaborate to build solutions, take action, and benefit from the global community's experience and
expertise, with a vision to protect, sustainably manage, and restore global coastal blue carbon
ecosystems.
• The Partnership was launched in 2015 at the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) 21st Conference of the Parties (COP21) in Paris by nine founding Partners and
has since grown to more than 40 Partners by 2021.
Carbon Credit

• A carbon credit is a permit that allows the owner to emit a specific amount of CO2 or other
greenhouse gases.
• One credit allows for the emission of one tonne of CO2 or the equivalent in other greenhouse gases.
• The carbon credit is one component of a "cap-and-trade" programme. Polluters are given credits
that allow them to continue polluting up to a certain limit. This limit is reduced on a regular basis.
In the meantime, the company may sell any unsold credits to another company that requires them.
• Private companies are thus incentivized twice to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
o First, if their emissions exceed the cap, they must spend money on additional credits.
o Second, they can profit by lowering their emissions and selling any excess allowances.
Types of Carbon Credit

• Voluntary Emissions Reduction (VER)

• It is a carbon offset that is traded for credits in the over-the-counter or voluntary market.
• Certified Emissions Reduction (CER)
• It is based on emission units (or credits) created through a regulatory framework to offset the
emissions of a project.
Carbon Credit Initiatives

• In a 1997 agreement known as the Kyoto Protocol, the United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC) developed a carbon credit proposal to reduce global carbon emissions.
• The agreement established legally binding emission reduction targets for the countries that signed
on to it.
• Another agreement, known as the Marrakesh Accords, outlined how the system would operate.
• The Kyoto Protocol classified countries' economies as industrialised or developing. The
industrialised countries ran their own emissions trading market.
• If a country emits less than its target amount of hydrocarbons, it can sell its excess credits to
countries that did not meet their Kyoto targets through an Emission Reduction Purchase
Agreement (ERPA).
• Carbon credits known as Certified Emission Reductions (CER) were issued by the separate Clean
Development Mechanism for developing countries.
o These credits could be given to a developing country in exchange for helping to fund sustainable
development initiatives. CER trading took place in a separate market.
Paris Climate Agreement

• The Kyoto Protocol was revised in 2012 in an agreement known as the Doha Amendment, which
was ratified by 147 member nations as of October 2020, with "deposited their instrument of
acceptance."
• More than 190 countries signed on to the 2015 Paris Agreement, which also establishes emission
standards and allows for emissions trading.
• The U.S. dropped out in 2017 but subsequently rejoined the agreement in January 2020.
Glasgow COP26 Climate Change Summit

• Negotiators at the November 2021 summit agreed to implement Article 6 of the 2015 Paris
Agreement, allowing nations to work toward their climate targets by purchasing offset credits
representing emission reductions by other countries.
• The agreement is intended to encourage governments to invest in initiatives and technology that
protect forests and build renewable energy infrastructure in order to combat climate change.
• Several other provisions in the agreement include a zero-tax on bilateral trades of offsets between
countries and the cancellation of 2% of total credits, with the goal of reducing overall global
emissions.
• In addition, 5% of offset revenue will be placed in an adaptation fund for developing countries to
aid in the fight against climate change.
• Negotiators also agreed to carry over offsets from 2013 to allow 320 million credits to enter the
new market.
Trading Credits

• Carbon credits can be traded on both the public and private markets. Current trading rules permit
the international transfer of credits.
• Credit prices are primarily determined by market levels of supply and demand. Credit prices
fluctuate due to differences in supply and demand in different countries.
• Although carbon credits are beneficial to society, they are difficult for the average investor to use
as investment vehicles.
• The only product that can be used as an investment in credits is certified emissions reduction
(CERs).
o CERs, on the other hand, are sold by special carbon funds set up by large financial institutions.
Small investors can gain access to the market through carbon funds.
• There are specialised exchanges for trading credits, such as the European Climate Exchange, the
NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe exchange, and the European Energy Exchange.
Carbon Credit and Developing Countries

• Developing countries such as India and China are expected to be the largest sellers,
while Europe will be the largest buyers of carbon credits.
• Global carbon credit trading is estimated to be worth $5 billion, with India contributing
approximately $1 billion.
• China is currently the largest seller of carbon credits, accounting for roughly 70% of the market.
• Carbon, like other commodities, is now being traded on India's Multi Commodity Exchange
(MCX).
• MCX has become Asia's first exchange to trade carbon credits.
What are Cap and Trade?

• A government regulatory programme designed to limit, or cap, the total level of emissions of certain
chemicals, particularly carbon dioxide, as a result of industrial activity is known as cap and trade.
• Cap and trade supporters argue that it is a more appealing alternative to a carbon tax. Both measures
are attempts to reduce environmental damage while causing the industry no undue economic
hardship.
• Cap-and-trade energy programmes aim to gradually reduce pollution by incentivizing businesses to
invest in clean alternatives.
• The government issues a fixed number of permits to businesses that include a cap on allowed carbon
dioxide emissions.
• Companies that exceed the cap must pay a tax, whereas companies that reduce their emissions may
sell or trade unused credits.
• The total limit (or cap) on pollution credits decreases over time, providing corporations with an
incentive to seek out less expensive alternatives.
• Critics argue that the caps may be set too high, giving businesses an excuse to delay investing in
cleaner alternatives for too long.
Carbon Emission Trading

• Carbon trading, also known as carbon emissions trading, is a market-based system aimed at
reducing greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming, particularly carbon dioxide emitted
by the combustion of fossil fuels.
• The goal is to enable market mechanisms to steer industrial and commercial processes toward
lower-emissions or less-carbon-intensive approaches than those used when there is no cost to
emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere.
• Because GHG mitigation projects generate credits, this approach can be used to fund carbon
reduction schemes among trading partners worldwide.
• Carbon trading currently accounts for the majority of emission trading, an approach that provides
economic incentives for reducing pollutant emissions.
• This approach is most commonly used by countries to meet their Kyoto Protocol obligations, such
as reducing carbon emissions to mitigate the effects of climate change.
Carbon Markets

• Carbon markets enable the sale and purchase of carbon emissions with the goal of lowering global
greenhouse gas emissions.
• Carbon markets can reduce emissions beyond what countries can do on their own.
• For example, A factory in India can emit greenhouse gases in two ways:
o A country that has not been able to reduce emissions can provide technology or financial
support to that factory in India in order to claim the emission reduction as its own.
 o On the other hand, that factory in India can make investments and sell emission reduction
credits, which are known as Carbon Credits. As a result, other parties who are struggling to
meet their targets can buy these Carbon Credits and claim them as their own.
Carbon Trading Emissions under Kyoto Protocol

• Article 17 of the Kyoto Protocol allows countries with excess capacity, i.e. emissions permitted but
not "used," to sell it to countries that are over their targets.
• As a result, a new commodity in the form of emission reductions or removals was created.
• Because carbon dioxide is the primary greenhouse gas, people simply refer to carbon trading.
• Carbon is now tracked and traded in the same way that any other commodity is. This is known as
the 'Carbon Market.'
• Under the Kyoto Protocol emissions trading scheme, more than actual emission units can be traded
and sold.
• Other units that may be transferred under the scheme, each of which is equivalent to one tonne of
CO2, include:
o A removal unit (RMU) is based on land use, land-use change, and forestry activities such as
reforestation.
o An emission reduction unit (ERU) produced by a joint implementation project.
o A certified emission reduction (CER) resulting from a clean development mechanism (CDM)
project activity. It is an activity in which a country with an emission-reduction target under the
Kyoto Protocol is permitted to implement an emission-reduction project in developing countries.
o The registry system tracks and records transfers and acquisitions of these units.
o An international transaction log ensures the secure transfer of emission reduction units between
countries.
Carbon Trading Emissions under Paris Agreement

• Article 6 of the Paris Agreement establishes three distinct mechanisms for voluntary cooperation,
two of which are based on markets and the third on "non-market" approaches.
• The first mechanism would allow a country that has exceeded its Paris climate pledge to sell any
excess to a country that has fallen short of its own targets.
o This overachievement could be in terms of emission reductions, but it could also include other
types of targets, such as renewable energy goals or forest expansion goals.
• The second mechanism would establish a new international carbon market governed by a UN body
for the trading of emissions reductions generated anywhere in the world by the public or private
sectors.
o It has not yet been decided whether to include REDD projects, which reduce emissions from
deforestation and forest degradation, within Article 6.
• The third mechanism of Article 6 for "non-market approaches" is less well defined. It would
establish a formal framework for climate cooperation among countries where no trade is involved,
such as development aid
Carbon Offsetting

• Carbon offsetting is frequently the quickest way to achieve the deepest reductions within
businesses, and it frequently provides additional benefits at the project site, such as job
opportunities, community development programmes, and training and education.
• To be credible, a carbon offset must meet essential quality criteria, such as:
o proof that it is additional (the reduction in emissions would not have occurred without the
carbon finance),
o it will be retired from the carbon market so that it cannot be double counted, and
o it addresses issues such as permanence (it delivers the reductions stated) and leakage (the
emission reduction in one area does not cause an increase in emissions in another).
Carbon Tax

• Carbon Tax is a form of pollution tax which imposes a fee on the production, distribution, and use
of fossil fuels based on the amount of carbon released during combustion.
• Carbon tax is a potential alternative to the protocol's current 'cap and trade' method.
• This tax is based on the amount of carbon in a fuel such as coal, for example.
• The goal of this tax is to reduce the use of fossil fuels while also providing an incentive to use
alternative energy sources.
• If a carbon tax were imposed, it would be phased in, beginning with a low amount and gradually
increasing to allow for the development of better industries and technologies.
Geo-Engineering

• Geoengineering is a type of climate engineering or human climate intervention that aims to change
long-term trends in the Earth's climate.
• Geo-engineering primarily aims to modify and cool the Earth's environment, thereby mitigating
environmental damage and resulting climate changes and making the planet more habitable.
• Some of the modes include hoisting parasols into space, placing mirrors in space, whitening the
stratosphere with sulphate aerosols, whitewashing building roofs to reflect sunlight, and dumping
iron filings into the ocean to promote carbon-consuming algae.
• Many of today's geoengineering proposals are focused on two key areas: reversing global
warming and removing atmospheric carbon dioxide.
• However, large-scale geoengineering initiatives could theoretically seek to alter any aspect of the
Earth's ecosystems or climate system, potentially addressing the effects of global warming, ocean
acidification, melting arctic ice, or volcanic eruptions that break through the Earth's surface.
Purpose of Geo-Engineering

• The majority of geoengineering projects exist to mitigate the negative effects of industrial
civilization on the Earth's climate.
• Because of deforestation and the use of fossil fuels, the Earth's atmosphere and stratosphere are
absorbing increased levels of greenhouse gas emissions such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane
(CH4).
• Humans can address atmospheric carbonization by conserving resources and reducing carbon
emissions, but geoengineering schemes go a step further by actively removing greenhouse gases
from the atmosphere and stratosphere.
Types of Geo-Engineering
Solar Engineering

• This type of geoengineering, also known as albedo modification or solar radiation management
(SRM), aims to redirect incoming solar radiation back into space. This, in theory, will lower global
temperatures.
• Solar geoengineering research has focused on marine cloud brightening (where clouds are sprayed
with seawater), stratospheric aerosol injections (where added sulfate molecules in the stratosphere
reflect incoming light), and launching massive mirrors into orbit to reflect sunlight.
• Simpler, more feasible methods include painting roofs and streets light colors to reflect sunlight
rather than absorb it.
Carbon Capture

• Carbon geoengineering aims to reduce the number of carbon-based greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere and stratosphere.
• It goes beyond simple emission reduction to include negative emissions. Some carbon capture
methods, such as reforestation, afforestation (introducing trees to areas where they did not
previously grow), and forest restoration, are relatively simple.
• Other carbon geoengineering techniques include extracting carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
and storing it in pressurized underground caverns.
• Other carbon research programs have looked into the possibility of iron fertilization, which involves
dispersing iron across the ocean to stimulate the growth of carbon-absorbing phytoplankton.
Bio-energy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS)

• It is the process of extracting bioenergy from biomass and capturing and storing carbon from the
atmosphere.
• The carbon in biomass comes from the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2), which the biomass
absorbs from the atmosphere as it grows.
• As biomass is used, energy is extracted in useful forms (electricity, heat, biofuels, etc.) through
combustion, fermentation, pyrolysis, or other conversion methods.
Ocean Fertilisation/ Ocean Nourishment

• Ocean fertilization is a type of climate engineering that involves the deliberate introduction of
nutrients into the upper ocean in order to increase marine food production and remove CO2 from
the atmosphere.
• A variety of techniques, including iron, urea, and phosphorus fertilization, have been proposed.
Soil Carbon Sequestration (SCS)

• Soils can act as a carbon dioxide sink now that atmospheric CO2 concentrations have surpassed
410 parts per million and oceans are becoming acidic.
• Carbon sequestration in soils has the potential to offset up to 15% of annual GHG emissions from
fossil fuels.
• Plants, animals, microbes, leaves, and wood contribute to soil organic carbon (SOC), which is
mostly found in the first metre or so.
• Temperature, rainfall, vegetation, soil management, and land-use change are just a few of the factors
that influence SOC content.
Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)

• The most common type of solar radiation management (SRM) is SAI.

• In the case of SAI, gases are pumped into the stratosphere to reflect some of the sun's heat,
simulating a natural effect in a strong volcanic eruption.
• The scale of SAI complicates governance because implementing it in one country can cause rain
and extreme weather to spread across borders. The greatest challenge may be a lack of public
support.
Marine Cloud Brightening (MCB)

• MCB involves some sort of reflection of sunlight away from the earth. In this case, sea salt or other
particles are sprayed into the marine clouds to thicken and reflect them.
Cirrus Cloud Thinning (CCT)

• CCT is nearly the inverse of marine cloud brightening.

• Cirrus clouds at high altitudes are thin and whispy, so they do not reflect much solar radiation back
into space and trap long-wave radiation on Earth.
• CCT proposes further thinning them through cloud seeding, allowing more long-wave radiation to
escape.
How Geo-Engineering work?
Copy a Volcano

• A volcanic eruption can spew millions of tonnes of sulfur-dioxide gas into the atmosphere, forming
a cloud that blocks some of the sun's radiation.
• Some scientists believe that by injecting sulfur into the atmosphere, they can also block solar
radiation and potentially cool the planet.
• Those droplets are particularly effective at scattering the sun's light back into space. And, because
sulfur does not heat the stratosphere as much as other aerosols, it would not work against the cooling
effect.
• Hydrogen sulfide is a better candidate for atmospheric seeding than sulfur dioxide.
Shoot Mirrors into Space

• Geoengineers intends to launch a mirror the size of Greenland and strategically position it between
the planet and the sun in order to deflect enough sunlight to restore the Earth's climate to pre-
industrial levels.
Seed the sea with iron

• Iron, according to scientists, maybe the key to turning things around. Iron is preferred by
phytoplankton, which live near the surface.
• They are also capable of removing carbon from the atmosphere during photosynthesis.
• When the organisms die after about 60 days, the carbon they have consumed sinks to the bottom of
the ocean.
• Scientists believe that by pumping iron into the sea and stimulating phytoplankton to grow like
crazy, global warming could be reversed.
Whiten the Clouds with Wind-Powered Ships

• Scientists hope that, like volcanic eruptions, cloud tops will reflect solar radiation.
• Spraying a large amount of seawater into the sky by wind-powered remotely activated ships in order
to whiten the clouds and thus reflect solar radiation.
Build Fake Trees

• "Artificial tree," a scaled-down version of an earlier prototype capable of absorbing a tonne of

CO2 from the atmosphere every day.
• Panels covering the tree's surface—approximately 50 square meters in size—will be made of an
absorbent resin that reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to form a solid.
• It is similar to a furnace filter in that it can remove particles from the air.
• The panels, or "boxes," can be removed and exposed to 113 F steam, which cleans the filter
effectively.
• The solid releases the carbon it has captured as a result of the chemical reaction with the steam,
which can then seize as liquid CO2.
• However, removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere is only half the battle; it must then be
sequestered, or permanently trapped.
Measures to Mitigate Climate Change

• Improving energy efficiency and conservation, as well as establishing a Bureau of Energy

Efficiency
• Reforms to the power sector
• Promoting hydro and renewable energy
• Promotion of clean coal technologies
• Coal washing and efficient utilisation of coal
• Forest reforestation and conservation
• Reduced gas flaring
• Cleaner, less carbon-intensive transportation fuel
• Encourage the use of Mass Rapid Transit systems
• Management of environmental quality and increased energy efficiency
Global Initiatives to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions

• Intergovernmental panel on climate change (IPCC): The World Meteorological Organization

(WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) established IPCC in 1988 to
provide policymakers with periodical assessments of the scientific basis of climate change, its
impacts and future risks, as well as alternatives for adaptation and mitigation.
• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: It was signed in 1992 and entered
into force in 1994 to achieve "stabilisation of atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations at a
level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic intervention with the climate system."
• The Kyoto Protocol (KP): It is an international agreement that was adopted at the 3rd COP in
1997. Its primary goal was to cut global greenhouse gas emissions by at least 5% compared to 1990
levels by 2012.
• CO2, CH4, N2O, Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and Sulfur Hexafluoride
(SF6) were among the greenhouse gases to be reduced.
Clean Coal Technology
Coal Preparation (Coal Washing): Removes unwanted minerals by mixing crushed coal with a liquid,
allowing impurities to separate and settle.
Electrostatic Precipitators: Remove particulates by charging particles with an electrical field and then
capturing them on collection plates.
Coal Gasification: Involves reacting steam and hot pressurized air or oxygen with coal to produce
syngas (mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen) that is then burned for electricity.
Wet Scrubbers: Remove sulphur dioxide by spraying flue gas with limestone and water.
Low-NOx Burners: Reduce nitrogen oxides creation by restricting oxygen and manipulating the
combustion process.
Replace India’s Coal- India’s coal is poor-quality Gondwana coal with less carbon, high ash, and high
moisture content.The suggestion is to replace sub-critical coal power plants with super-critical and ultra-
super-critical ones for increased efficienc
United Nations Conference on the Human Environment (1972)
Held in 1972 at Stockholm, Sweden, it played a role in the emergence of international environmental
law.
The conference led to the adoption of the Stockholm Declaration and the Action Plan for the Human
Environment.
The Stockholm Declaration is also known as The Declaration on the Human Environment
UNCED/Earth Summit, Rio De Janeiro (1992)
Conference played a crucial role in raising public awareness about the integration of environment and
development.
Landmark Agreements:
Climate Change Convention (UNFCCC): Initiated at the Earth Summit, this led to subsequent
agreements like the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement.
Legally Binding Agreements - Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
Other initiatives - Agenda 21: Non-binding action plan for global sustainable development.
Forest Principles: Non-legally binding document on the Conservation and Sustainable Development of
all types of forests.
World Summit on Sustainable Development (Rio+10, 2002) : Held in Johannesburg, South Africa.
Addressed issues such as toxic components in production, alternative energy sources, public
transportation, pollution-related health problems, and water usage.
Affirmed the UN commitment to Agenda 21 alongside the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Rio+20 (2012) or Earth Summit 2012 –
A 20-year follow-up to the Earth Summit 1992 and a 10-year follow-up to the Earth Summit 2002.
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were born at Rio+20, later included in the Agenda 2030.
Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE) : Launched in 2013 as a response to the Rio+20
Declaration, “The Future We Want.”
Aims to assist countries in achieving SDG 8, promoting sustained, inclusive, and sustainable economic
growth with full and productive employment.
High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development (HLPF) :
Role: A forum under the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) responsible for overseeing the
outcomes of the 1992 Earth Summit.
Meetings: Convenes every four years under the General Assembly and in other years under ECOSOC.
Responsibilities: Oversees the implementation progress of various outcomes, including Agenda 21,
Johannesburg Declaration (Rio+10), Rio+20, Barbados Programme of Action (Sustainable
Development of SIDS), and LDC-IV (4th United Nations Conference on the Least Developed
Countries).
UNFCCC

• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is an international

environmental convention that aims to lower atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases in
order to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the earth's climate system.
• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), commonly known as
the Earth Summit, the Rio Summit, or the Rio Conference, was ratified in 1992.
• Each participating nation is expected to make a commitment to stabilize greenhouse gas emissions
under this framework.
• A Conference of the Parties (COP) is an annual gathering of the 197 parties to the convention to
review the status of efforts to combat climate change.
Classification
Parties to the UNFCCC are categorized as follows:

• Annex I: The European Union is one of the 43 Parties to the UNFCCC that are included in the
convention's Annex I.
o These Parties are categorized as "economies in transition" (EITs) and industrialized (developed)
nations.
o The former centrally planned (Soviet) economies of Russia and Eastern Europe make up the 14
EITs.
• Annex II: Of the Parties named in the convention's Annex I, 24 are also included there, including
the European Union.
o These Parties are made up of Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
(OECD) members from 1992 plus the EU and Turkey.
o The EITs and developing nations must receive financial and technical support from Annex II
Parties to help them reduce their greenhouse gas emissions (climate change mitigation) and
deal with the effects of climate change.
• Annex B: This category includes Annex I countries with first- or second-round Kyoto greenhouse
gas emission targets.
• Least-developed countries (LDCs): Due to their limited ability to adapt to the consequences of
climate change, 49 Parties are designated as LDCs under the treaty.
• Non-Annex I: Low-income developing nations (58) make up the majority of UNFCCC Parties that
aren't listed in Annex I of the protocol.
• Once sufficiently enough, developing nations can voluntarily join the Annex I group
UNFCCC - National Communication

• The nations that have ratified the UNFCCC may submit reports known as "National
Communication."
• Every four years, developed nations are obligated to submit National Communications, and
developing nations should as well.
• Due to capacity issues, some Least Developed Countries have not filed National Communications
in the preceding 5 to 15 years.
• The actions taken by a nation to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions as well as a description of its
vulnerabilities and climate change impacts are included in national communication reports, which
are frequently several hundred pages long.
• National Communications are created in accordance with standards that have been approved by
the UNFCCC Conference of the Parties.
• The (Intended) Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), which serve as the foundation
for the Paris Agreement, are shorter and less comprehensive, but they also adhere to a specified
format and are subject to technical evaluation by experts.

Kyoto Protocol: COP 3

• By 1995, nations had come to the conclusion that the Convention's provisions for emission
reductions were insufficient. They began talks to improve the world's response to climate change,
and two years later the Kyoto Protocol was adopted.
• The Kyoto Protocol makes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCC) operative by requiring developed nations and economies in transition to set and
meet their own individual emission targets for greenhouse gases (GHG).
• The Convention just requires such nations to develop mitigation-related policies and
procedures and to report on a regular basis.
• According to the principle of "common but differentiated responsibility and respective
capabilities," it only binds developed nations and sets a greater burden on them because it
acknowledges that they are mostly to blame for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the
atmosphere.
COP 3 - Targets

• The Kyoto Protocol, in its first commitment phase, establishes legally binding carbon reduction
objectives for the European Union and 37 developed nations.
• It only binds developed nations since it acknowledges that due to more than 150 years of economic
activity, they are mostly to blame for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere.
• Under its guiding principle of "common but differentiated responsibility," KP lays a higher burden
on developed nations.
• Over the five-year period from 2008 to 2012, these targets come up to an average 5% reduction in
emissions relative to 1990 levels.
COP 3 - Architecture of the Kyoto Protocol Regime
• The fundamental architecture of the Kyoto Protocol has been developed over two decades of
experience, arduous effort, and political will.
• The heart of Kyoto Protocol is made up of the following:
• The reporting and verification processes.
• Adaptable market-based mechanisms with their own governance processes.
• A compliance system.
• These mechanisms should ideally encourage GHG abatement to begin where it is most cost-
effective, such as in developing countries. It makes no difference where emissions are reduced as
long as they are reduced.
• This has the added benefit of encouraging green investment in developing countries and involving
the private sector in the effort to reduce and stabilise GHG emissions at a safe level.
• It also makes leapfrogging more cost-effective—that is, skipping the use of older, dirtier
technology in favour of newer, cleaner infrastructure and systems with obvious long-term benefits.

Emissions Reduction Commitments

• The first was for developed country parties to make legally enforceable promises to reduce their
emissions. This implied that there wasn't much room to pollute.
• Carbon dioxide is the main greenhouse gas that has become a new commodity.
• Now that an unpriced externality was understood, Kyoto Protocol started to internalize it.
Flexible Market Mechanisms

• KP's adaptable market mechanisms are based on the trading of emissions permits.
• Target-bound KP nations must cut their emissions domestically in order to achieve their obligations.
• However, they can partially achieve their goals by utilizing three "market-based mechanisms" that
ideally encourage GHG abatement to begin where it is most affordable, such as in underdeveloped
nations.
• Simply put, as long as emissions are decreased and removed from the atmosphere of the earth, it
makes little difference where those reductions occur.
Objectives of Kyoto Mechanisms

• Its goal is to facilitate, promote, and enforce compliance with the Protocol's commitments.
• Encourage long-term development by transferring and investing in technology.
• Help Kyoto-committed countries meet their targets by reducing emissions or removing carbon from
the atmosphere in other countries in a cost-effective manner.
• Encourage the private sector and developing countries to contribute to the effort to reduce
emissions.
Joint Implementation (JI) of Kyoto Mechanisms

• A country with an emission reduction or limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol may
obtain emission reduction units (ERUs) by using the "joint implementation" process.
• This can be used to satisfy its Kyoto target and will be obtained from an emission-reduction or
emission-removal project in another Annex B Party, each of which is equal to one tonne of CO2.
• The flexibility and cost-effectiveness of joint implementation allow Parties to achieve a portion of
their Kyoto commitments and the host Party gains from foreign investment and knowledge transfer.
• Projects beginning in 2000 may be qualified as JI projects, with ERUs awarded starting in 2008.
Clean Development Mechanism

• A nation having a Kyoto Protocol commitment to reduce or restrict emissions may conduct an
emission-reduction project in developing nations thanks to the Clean Development Mechanism
(CDM).
• It is the first worldwide environmental investment and credit program of its kind, offering CERs, a
standardized mechanism for offsetting emissions.
• Such initiatives can generate saleable certified emission reduction (CER) credits, which are used
to count toward achieving Kyoto commitments and are each equal to one tonne of CO2.
Carbon Trading

• The trade of emission permits is referred to as carbon trading.

• This exchange could be a national or international transaction, depending on the context of the
economy.
• There are two types of Carbon trading namely:
o Emission trading
o Offset trading
• Emissions trading, also known as "cap and trade" or "allowance trading," is a method of
reducing pollution that has been successfully used to protect human health and the environment.
o Emissions trading programs consist of two major components: a pollution limit (or cap) and
tradable allowances equal to the limit that allow allowance holders to emit a specific quantity
(e.g., one tonne) of the pollutant.
• Carbon offset schemes enable individuals and businesses to invest in environmental projects all
over the world to offset their own carbon footprints.
o The projects are typically based in developing countries and are intended to reduce future
emissions.
Doha Amendment

• On December 8, 2012, the Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Doha,
Qatar, for a second commitment period beginning in 2013 and lasting until 2020.
• As of 28 October 2020, 147 Parties had deposited their instrument of acceptance, meeting the
threshold of 144 instruments of acceptance required for the Doha Amendment to enter into force.
• The amendment went into effect on December 31, 2020.
• The amendments were as follows:
o New commitments for Annex I Kyoto Protocol Parties who agreed to take on commitments in
a second commitment period from January 1, 2013 to December 31, 2020;
o Parties will report on a revised list of GHGs during the second commitment period; and
o Amendments to several Kyoto Protocol articles that specifically referenced issues from the first
commitment period and needed to be updated for the second commitment period.
• The amendment was distributed to all Kyoto Protocol Parties on December 21, 2012, by the
Secretary-General of the United Nations, acting in his capacity as Depositary, in accordance with
Articles 20 and 21 of the Protocol.
• During the first commitment period, 37 industrialised countries and economies in transition, as well
as the European Community, pledged to reduce GHG emissions by 5% on average compared to
1990 levels.
• Parties committed to reducing GHG emissions by at least 18% below 1990 levels in the eight-year
period from 2013 to 2020 during the second commitment period; however, the composition of
Parties differs from the first.
India at Kyoto Protocol

• India was exempted from legally binding greenhouse gas emission commitments.
• India highlighted the distinction between developed and developing countries in terms of the burden
of responsibility for climate action.
• India successfully defended its obligation to promote socioeconomic development while
simultaneously pressuring Annex I developed countries to take greater responsibility for reducing
greenhouse gas emissions.
Bali Climate Change Conference

• The Bali International Conference Centre, in Bali, Indonesia, hosted the 2007 United Nations
Climate Change Conference from December 3 to December 15, 2007.
• Along with participants from international and nongovernmental organizations, there were
representatives from more than 190 nations.
• The conference included the 13th Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on
Climate Change (COP 13), the 3rd Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (MOP 3 or CMP
3), as well as various subsidiary bodies and a meeting of ministers.
• The agenda for the Bali meeting included developing a roadmap to guide the negotiating process
toward a possible new regime that will include all countries, developed and developing.
Bali Roadmap

• The Bali Road Map was adopted by the participating countries as a two-year procedure leading
up to the Copenhagen Agreement's finalization in 2009.
• The Bali Road Map includes the following:
o Bali Action Plan (BAP);
o Ad Hoc Working Group on Further Commitments for Annex I Parties under the Kyoto Protocol
negotiations and their deadline of 2009;
o Launch of the Adaptation Fund;
o Decisions regarding technology transfer;
o Reductions in emissions from deforestation.
Bali Action Plan

• In order to enable the implementation of the Convention through long-term cooperative action up
to and beyond 2012, the Conference of Parties decided to launch a comprehensive process that
will address:
• Shared Vision: A shared vision for long-term cooperative action, including a long-term global goal
for emission reductions.
• Mitigation and Adaptation: Increased national and international efforts at climate change
mitigation and adaptation.
• Technology: Enhanced action on technology development and transfer to support action on
mitigation and adaptation.
• Financial Resource: Enhanced action on the provision of financial resources and investment to
support action on mitigation and adaptation as well as technology cooperation.
COP 15 Copenhagen Summit

• The Copenhagen Summit, also known as the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference,
took place on December 7 and 18, 2009, at the Bella Center in Copenhagen, Denmark.
• The conference featured both the 5th session of the Conference of the Parties (CMP-5) serving
as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol and the 15th session of the Conference of the
Parties (COP-15) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC).
• The Copenhagen Accord is a non-binding agreement.
• According to the Accord, significant international emissions reductions are required to keep the rise
in global temperature under two degrees Celsius.
• The Accord commits developed nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by a certain
percentage by the year 2020.
What are BASIC Countries?

• Four recently industrializing nations—Brazil, South Africa, India, and China—are grouped
together as BASIC.
• In November 2009, a Copenhagen agreement led to the formation of the coalition.
• At the Copenhagen Summit, the four nations decided to coordinate their actions.
• These developing countries share a similar perspective on reducing greenhouse gas
emissions and generating the significant funding needed to tackle climate change.
• Because of the magnitude of its members and the fact that they are all becoming economic
powerhouses, the BASIC countries group has a lot of clout in international fora.
COP 15 - Key Highlights

• Climate change policy was elevated to the highest political level at the Copenhagen Climate
Change Conference.
• The high-level segment featured nearly 115 world leaders, making it one of the biggest
gatherings of world leaders ever held outside the UN's New York headquarters.
• More than 40,000 applicants those representing governments, NGOs, intergovernmental
agencies, houses of worship, the media, and UN organizations had also applied for the
accreditation.
• It made great progress in the negotiations on the framework required for efficient international
collaboration on climate change, including enhancements to the Kyoto Protocol's Clean
Development Mechanism.
• Significant strides were achieved in reducing possibilities and making clear the decisions that must
be made on crucial subjects later in the negotiations.
• It resulted in the Copenhagen Accord, which made it plain that political action was intended to
limit carbon emissions and address climate change in the short and long terms.
COP 16 Cancun Summit

• The Cancun summit or COP16, is the 16th Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• The Environment Ministers and Officials gathered in Cancun, Mexico, from November 29 to
December 10, 2010, to continue work on a global agreement to reduce carbon emissions.
• The summit serves as the core of a series of UN conferences intended to coordinate global action
to combat climate change.
• It was already anticipated that the Cancun summit would not result in a binding agreement.
Therefore, it was not anticipated that the primary stalemate would end.
• The emphasis was on ancillary "building blocks" including financing for climate change,
fighting deforestation, and other issues.
• The goal was to create momentum for an overarching agreement that would take place in South
Africa or maybe at the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit in 2012.
COP 17 Durban Summit

• The United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP17) was held in Durban, South
Africa (November 28 to December 11, 2011) with the goal of creating a new agreement to
regulate carbon emissions.
• The conference decided to create a legally binding agreement involving all nations by 2015 that
would go into effect in 2020 but did not create a treaty.
• In addition, a management framework was adopted for the establishment of a Green Climate
Fund.
• The fund will disburse $100 billion annually to assist developing nations in coping with the effects
of climate change.
Establishment of Technology Mechanism

• The Conference of the Parties (COP), which has the authority and accountability for the Technology
Mechanism, created it at its 16th session in Cancun in 2010.
• In order to assist actions for climate change mitigation and adaptation, the Technology
Mechanism is anticipated to make it easier to implement greater action on technology development
and transfer.
• An executive board and a Climate Technology Center and Network (CTCN) currently make up
the mechanism.
• The development of domestic technological competence, the use and adoption of clean
technologies, investments in technology development, methods for monitoring climate change, and
national systems for innovation and technology development are among the priorities.
Agreement on a Framework to Reduce Deforestation

• Since the Bali meeting in 2006, deforestation rules have been seriously negotiated.
• Forest clearing and other land use changes are responsible for about 20% of the world's carbon
dioxide emissions.
• These requirements are now referred to as REDD+.
• The Cancun Agreements encourage industrialized nations to help developing countries identify
and carry out REDD+ activities that may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from deforestation
and land use change.
• They also provide guidelines for developing countries to do so. The accords just serve as a
framework and do not bind any government to make any specific cuts.
Process for Advancing Discussions on Adaptation

• An adaptation committee is created by the Cancun Agreements, and it was tasked with
coordinating adaptation efforts under the Convention.
• This Committee cannot, by itself, force nations to pay or encourage adaptation.
• Its convening ability and information brokering will be its main source of value, if any.
• However, many nations are pleased to see the arrival of the Committee because many nations have
requested assistance in identifying their own vulnerabilities, and having a formal framework could
aid in the more effective dissemination of good practices.
• In a related matter, the accords have also started a procedure to look into the viability of an
international climate risk insurance facility, which may be future development in global
governance.
Establishment of Adaptation Fund

• The Adaptation Fund was created to finance concrete adaptation projects and programmes in
developing countries that are particularly vulnerable to the negative effects of climate change.
• The Adaptation Fund is supported by a portion of the proceeds from the clean development
mechanism project activities as well as other sources of funding.
• The proceeds share is equal to 2% of the certified emission reductions (CERs) issued for a CDM
project activity.
• The Adaptation Fund Board (AFB) oversees and manages the Adaptation Fund. The AFB has 16
members and 16 alternates, and it meets at least twice a year.
• The Global Environment Facility (GEF) provides secretariat services to the AFB upon invitation
from Parties, and the World Bank serves as trustee of the Adaptation Fund on an interim basis.
Paris Climate Change Conference COP 21 (2015)

• The Paris Agreement came into effect on November 4, 2016, after being approved by 196 nations
at the UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in Paris on December 12, 2015.
• The agreement aims to cut and lessen greenhouse gas emissions. Countries were asked to submit
their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) prior to COP 21 in Paris.
• The pledges from various nations underwent a noticeable change.
• India was included in the group of rising economies and upheld its reputation as a nation that takes
climate change seriously.
• The Paris Agreement is a watershed moment in the multilateral climate change process because it
brings all nations together for the first time in a binding agreement to undertake ambitious efforts
to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.
What is the Paris Agreement?

• It is a multinational agreement that was signed as part of the UNFCCC with the intention of
reducing and mitigating greenhouse gas emissions.
• 196 nations ratified the climate change agreement at the Conference of the Parties (COP 21) in Paris
in December 2015. It is an international agreement that is binding on all parties involved.
• Achieving the long-term temperature goal was the purpose of the Paris Climate Accord.
• To attain a world without greenhouse gas emissions by the middle of the century, nations strive to
peak global greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible.
• The Paris Climate Accord's major objective is to keep global warming well below 2° Celsius and
ideally below 1.5° Celsius in comparison to pre-industrial levels.
• The Paris Agreement is a watershed moment in the multilateral climate change process because it
brings all nations together for the first time in a binding agreement to undertake ambitious efforts
to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.
COP 21 - Objectives

• To keep the rise in the average world temperature to well under 2°C above pre-industrial levels.
• To continue making efforts to keep global warming to 1.5°C over pre-industrial levels, knowing
that doing so would greatly lessen the dangers and effects of climate change.
• The Agreement also mentions achieving the global peaking of emissions by the middle of the
century while taking into account the fact that developing nation Parties will have a longer peaking
period.
How Does Paris Agreement Work?

• The Paris Agreement's implementation necessitates economic and social transformations based on
the best available science.
• The Paris Agreement is based on a five-year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action by
countries.
• Countries must submit their climate action plans, known as nationally determined contributions
(NDCs) by 2020.
NDCs

• Countries communicate actions they will take to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in order to meet
the Paris Agreement's goals in their NDCs.
• Countries also communicate actions they will take to build resilience in order to adapt to the effects
of rising temperatures in their NDCs.
Long Term Strategies

• To better frame long-term efforts, the Paris Agreement invites countries to develop and submit long-
term low greenhouse gas emission development strategies by 2020. (LT-LEDS).
• NDCs benefit from the long-term horizon provided by LT-LEDs. They are not required, unlike
NDCs.
• Nonetheless, they situate the NDCs within the context of countries' long-term development
planning and priorities, providing a vision and direction for future development.
What are Nationally Determined Contributions?

• At the Conference of the Parties (COP21) of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC), which took place in Paris in December 2015, nations from all over the world pledged
to establish a new global climate agreement by that time.
• In advance of a new international agreement, nations have committed to publicly state their
Intended Nationally Determined Contributions, or the climate activities they plan to take after 2020.
• The 2015 agreement's ambitious goals and whether the world is put on a course toward a low-
carbon, climate-resilient future will be largely determined by the INDCs.
• The Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (INDC) of India has also been submitted to the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
• The INDC includes protections that aid in reducing emissions, highlights actions taken to adapt to
the effects of climate change, and examines what the nation needs to put such actions into action.
• Before the United Nations Climate Change Conference, an assessment phase is conducted after a
country submits its INDC data to evaluate its impact.

• While the UNFCCC's COP 21 was taking place and the Paris Agreement was being signed, the
following INDC was submitted:

• China: China set a goal to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 60 to 65%.

• United States: Set a target to cut greenhouse gases by 26–28%
• European Union: Attempts to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 40%
• India: Provided a target of 33-35 % for the GDP unit.

How are Countries Supporting One Another?

• The Paris Agreement establishes a framework for countries in need of financial, technical, and
capacity-building assistance.
Finance
• The Paris Agreement reaffirms that developed countries should take the lead in providing financial
assistance to less endowed and vulnerable countries, while also encouraging voluntary
contributions from other Parties for the first time.
Technology

• The Paris Agreement expresses a vision of fully realizing technology development and transfer for
both improving climate resilience and lowering GHG emissions.
• It creates a technological framework to provide overarching guidance to the Technology
Mechanism.

Capacity Building
• Many of the challenges posed by climate change are not adequately addressed in all developing
countries. As a result, the Paris Agreement emphasizes climate-related capacity-building for
developing countries and requests that all developed countries increase their support for capacity-
building actions in developing countries.

How are we Tracking Progress?

• As a result of the Paris Agreement, countries established an enhanced transparency framework

(ETF).
• Beginning in 2024, countries will report transparently on actions taken and progress in climate
change mitigation, adaptation measures, and assistance provided or received under the ETF.
• It also includes international procedures for reviewing submitted reports.
• The data collected by the ETF will be fed into the Global stocktake, which will assess the global
progress toward long-term climate goals.
• This will result in recommendations for countries to develop more ambitious plans for the next
round.

Climate Ambition Summit 2020

• The Climate Ambition Summit 2020 was held in Glasgow, Scotland, to commemorate the fifth
anniversary of the Paris Agreement, and it was organized by the United Nations, France, the United
Kingdom, Italy, and Chile.
• The Summit gave corporations, cities, and other non-state actors a significant platform on which to
unite and work together to help governments and hasten the structural change necessary to cut
emissions and increase resilience.
• The goal of the Climate Ambition Summit was to lay forth new and challenging pledges under the
three pillars of the Paris Agreement, which include commitments to finance, adaptation, and
mitigation.

Status/Achievement of the Paris Agreement

• Although massive increases in climate change action are required to meet the Paris Agreement's
goals, the years since its implementation have already sparked low-carbon solutions and new
markets.
• Carbon neutrality targets are being established by an increasing number of countries, regions, cities,
and businesses.
• Zero-carbon solutions are becoming more competitive in economic sectors that account for 25%
of emissions. This trend is most visible in the power and transportation sectors, where it has created
numerous new business opportunities for early adopters.
• Zero-carbon solutions could be competitive in sectors accounting for more than 70% of global
emissions by 2030.
• After five years of the accord, every country has submitted its national contributions to combat and
prepare for climate change.
• China emits the most greenhouse gases (30%), followed by the US (13.5%) and the EU (8.7%).
• Previously, the emission status was (China at 13% while, the US had the highest emissions at 25
percent, followed by the EU at 22%).
• Only Bhutan, the Philippines, Costa Rica, Ethiopia, Morocco, and the Gambia agreed to the Paris
Climate Accord, leaving India as the sole exception.
• The contributions are drastically insufficient to achieve temperatures considerably below the Paris
Agreement's 1.5° Celsius goal, let alone well below the 2° limit.

India at COP 21

• India announced that it must expand quickly to meet the aspirations of its 1.25 billion people, 300
million of whom lack access to energy.
• However, India has promised to cut emissions intensity per unit GDP by 33-35 percent from 2005
levels despite the rising demands.
• It is aiming to use non-fossil fuels for 40% of its installed capacity.
• By 2022, 175 GW of renewable energy is to be produced.
• India is also preparing to increase the area covered by forests to absorb 2.5 billion tonnes of carbon
dioxide.
• India urged adherence to the values of equity and differentiated obligations.
• Equity, in India's view, entails national commitments that must be in line with the amount of carbon
space that each nation has to fill.
Marrakech Climate Change Conference – COP 22 (2016)

• In order to discuss environmental challenges, political leaders and activists from around the world
gathered at the 2016 United Nations Climate Change Conference.
• This conference took place from November 7–18, 2016, in Marrakech, Morocco. Parties took
measures and made declarations on a variety of other matters in addition to creating the Paris
rules.
• The conference's main goal was to discuss and put into practice various proposals to address climate
change.
• Developing nations have been asking for updates on this pledge, and what they have received from
the developed world has both disappointed and enraged them.
• The developed economies stated in a recent assessment that they were on track to raise at least USD
64 billion by 2020 from public funding alone.
Bonn Climate Change Conference - COP 23, 2017

• In order to discuss environmental challenges, world leaders from politics, non-state entities, and
activists gathered for the 2017 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP23).
• It took place from November 6–17, 2017, at the UN Campus in Bonn, Germany.
• The conference included the 23rd Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC, the 13th Meeting of
the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol, and the second session of the First Meeting of the Parties to the
Paris Agreement.
• The Talanoa Dialogue, a process intended to help countries improve and implement their
Nationally Determined Contributions by 2020, was launched at the end of COP23.

COP26 Major Outcomes:

Glasgow Climate Pact: Affirms the Paris Agreement’s temperature goals, urging countries to strengthen
2030 climate action plans by 2022. Calls for coal phase-down, subsidy elimination, and $100 billion
annual funding till 2025.

Carbon Markets: Allows unused carbon credits for meeting countries’ first NDC targets until 2025.

Paris Rulebook: Finalizes rules for Paris Agreement implementation, enabling emissions reduction
target pledges and progress reporting.

Article 6: Establishes conditions for bilateral markets and a central global market (SDM) to avoid
double counting of emissions reductions.

Global Methane Pledge: Over 100 countries commit to 30% methane emission reduction by 2030,
excluding India.
Enhanced Climate Actions: Nations pledge zero-emission cars, revised net-zero targets (e.g., Brazil,
China), and a cooperative agenda (Glasgow Breakthrough Agenda).

Glasgow Finance Alliance for Net Zero (GFANZ): Over 160 firms commit to net-zero emissions by
2050, aligning with UN Race to Zero criteria.
Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment): PM Modi launches a global initiative promoting sustainable
living, circular economy, and individual/environmental harmony
“Phase Down of Coal”: India advocates for “phase down” rather than “phase out” in the pact, aiming
to boost new technology viability.
Leaders’ Declaration on Forests: Over 100 countries commit to halting deforestation by 2030; India
abstains due to concerns about interlinking trade and climate issues.
COP27 Major Outcomes:
Venue and Participants - The 27th UNFCCC COP took place in November 2022 in Sharm El-Sheikh,
Egypt. It included the 4th meeting of the parties to the 2015 Paris Agreement (CMA4) and the 17th
meeting of the parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP17).
Global Shield Against Climate Risks Initiative - Launched at COP27, this initiative involves
collaboration between the V20 Group (comprising 58 climate-vulnerable countries) and G7 countries.
Aims to provide pre-arranged financial support for swift deployment during climate disasters. Initial
beneficiaries include Pakistan, Bangladesh, Costa Rica, Fiji, Senegal, Philippines, and Ghana.
UNODC Paper on Illegal Wildlife Trade (IWT) - Highlighting the overlooked impact of IWT on
ecosystem services related to climate change. Trees like Dalbergia (e.g., Indian Rosewood), essential
for carbon sequestration, are globally trafficked. Endangered species like African Forest Elephants,
white rhinos, and pangolins, recognized as Ecosystem Engineers, are threatened by IWT.
Long-Term Low-Emission Development Strategy (LT-LEDS) : India submitted its LT-LEDS during
COP27, aligning with the 2015 Paris Agreement’s requirements. Focuses on rational resource
utilization, low-carbon strategies, and building climate resilience. Strategies include increased use of
biofuels, three-fold nuclear capacity increase by 2032, and green hydrogen adoption for low-carbon
development.
Loss and Damage Fund - Decision to establish and operationalize the Loss and Damage fund was made
at COP27. Aims to assist vulnerable poor and developing countries impacted by climate change with
reparations.
Methane Alert and Response System (MARS) - It is a satellite-based monitoring system to track
methane emissions globally. Part of UNEP’s International Methane Emissions Observatory (IMEO), it
alerts governments and corporations. Supports the implementation of the Global Methane Pledge
initiated at COP26.
New Zealand’s Agricultural Emissions Tax
Carbon Border Tax - The EU proposes a carbon border tax on imports based on their carbon emissions,
starting from 2026.
The BASIC group (India, China, Brazil, and South Africa) opposes the tax, citing concerns about the
principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibility (CBDR) from the Paris Agreement.
Recently, the 28th Conference of Parties (COP28) to the United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC) was held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates.
What are the Key Highlights of the COP28?
Loss and Damage (L&D) Fund:
• COP28, member countries reached an agreement to operationalize the Loss and Damage
(L&D) fund aimed at compensating countries grappling with climate change impacts.
✓ The World Bank will be the "interim host" of the fund for four years, aligning with
UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement.
▪ All developing countries are eligible to apply, and every country is "invited" to contribute
voluntarily.
▪ A specific percentage is earmarked for Least Developed Countries and Small Island
Developing States.
Global Stocktake Text:
• The Global Stocktake (GST) is a periodic review mechanism established under the Paris
Agreement in 2015.
• The fifth iteration of the Global Stocktake (GST) text was released at COP28 and adopted with
no objection.

✓ The text proposes eight steps to keep the global temperature rise within the ambit of 1.5
degrees Celsius:
✓ Tripling renewable energy capacity globally and doubling the global average annual rate
of energy efficiency improvements by 2030;
✓ Accelerating efforts towards the phase-down of unabated coal power;
✓ Accelerating efforts globally towards net zero emissions energy systems, utilizing zero
and low carbon fuels well before or by around mid-century;
✓ Accelerating zero and low emissions technologies, including, inter alia, renewables,
nuclear, abatement and removal technologies, including such as carbon capture and
utilization and storage, and low carbon hydrogen production, to enhance efforts towards
substitution of unabated fossil fuels in energy systems.
✓ Transitioning away from fossil fuels in energy systems, in a just, orderly and equitable
manner, accelerating action in this critical decade, so as to achieve net zero by 2050 in
keeping with the science;
✓ Accelerating and substantially reducing non-CO2 emissions, including, in particular,
methane emissions globally by 2030;
✓ Accelerating emissions reductions from road transport through a range of pathways,
including development of infrastructure and rapid deployment of zero and low emission
vehicles;
✓ Phasing out of inefficient fossil fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption and
do not address energy poverty or just transitions, as soon as possible.
• The fifth iteration text maintains continuity with COP26 in Glasgow, balancing global
aspirations of countries like India with diverse energy needs.
• India argues that it needs to continue using coal to meet its developmental needs and
emphasizes the importance of adhering to nationally determined contributions (NDCs).
• Nearly 200 countries agreed to "transition away from fossil fuels in energy systems" at the
COP28.
✓ The agreement is the first time countries have made this pledge. The deal aims to signal
to policymakers and investors that the world is committed to breaking away from
fossil fuels.
• Developing and poor countries are expressing dissatisfaction with the latest draft of the
Global Stocktake (GST) at COP28, calling for significant changes.
• Several countries, including India, are extremely opposed to any mandate to cut methane
emissions, mainly because one of the major sources happens to be agriculture and livestock.
• Cutting methane emissions could involve tweaking agricultural patterns which could
be extremely sensitive in a country like India.
• Possibly in deference to the concerns of such countries, the agreement does not mention any
targets for methane emission cuts for the year 2030, although a group of about 100 countries
had made a voluntary commitment, in Glasgow in 2021, to reduce their methane emissions
by 30% by 2030.
• This pledge is known as the Global Methane Pledge. However, India is not a part of the
Global Methane Pledge.
• Developing countries call on rich nations to achieve negative carbon emissions, not just reaching
net zero by 2050. They emphasize principles of common but differentiated responsibilities
and respective capabilities (CBDR–RC) in combating climate change.
• Developing countries argue that rich nations, having consumed over 80% of the global carbon
budget, should allow developing nations their fair share of future emissions.
Global Renewables and Energy Efficiency Pledge:
• The Pledge stipulates that signatories commit to work together to triple the world’s
installed renewable energy generation capacity to at least 11,000 GW by 2030 and to
collectively double the global average annual rate of energy efficiency improvements from
around 2% to over 4% every year until 2030.
The Global Cooling Pledge for COP 28:
• It includes 66 national government signatories committed to working together to
reduce cooling-related emissions across all sectors by at least 68% globally relative to 2022
levels by 2050.
Climate Finance:
• The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) estimates that
wealthy nations owe developing countries USD 500 billion in 2025 under the New Collective
Quantified Goal (NCQG) for climate finance.
✓ The NCQG was confirmed by developed countries under the Paris Agreement in 2015.
✓ The goal is to set a new collective quantified goal before 2025. The goal will start from a
floor of USD 100 billion per year.
✓ This includes USD 250 billion for mitigation, USD 100 billion for adaptation, and USD
150 billion for loss and damage.
✓ The figure is expected to increase to USD 1.55 trillion by 2030.
• The current climate finance goal of USD 100 billion per year has not been met, and developing
countries are facing debt distress.
• Experts call for reform of the global financial architecture to address structural issues and
promote sustainable development.
Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA):
• The draft text on the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) was introduced. It was established under
the Paris Agreement to enhance climate change adaptation by increasing awareness of and
funding towards countries’ adaptation needs in the context of the 1.5/2°C goal of the Paris
Agreement.
• The draft text addresses critical issues:
✓ Climate-Induced Water Scarcity Reduction.
✓ Climate-resilient food and Agriculture Production.
✓ Strengthening Resilience Against Climate-Related Health Impacts.
Declaration to Triple Nuclear Energy:
• The declaration launched at COP28 aims to triple global nuclear energy capacity by 2050.
• Endorsed by 22 national governments, the declaration calls for support from shareholders of
international financial institutions. It encourages shareholders to advocate for the
incorporation of nuclear energy in energy lending policies.
Powering Past Coal Alliance(PPCA):
• PPCA is a coalition of national and sub-national governments, businesses and organizations
working to advance the transition from unabated coal power generation to clean energy.
✓ PPCA at COP28 welcomed new national and subnational governments, and called for
cleaner energy alternatives.
Coal Transition Accelerator:
• France, in collaboration with various countries and organizations, introduced the Coal Transition
Accelerator.
✓ Objectives include knowledge-sharing, policy design, and financial support to
facilitate just transitions from coal to clean energy.
✓ The initiative aims to leverage best practices and lessons learned for effective coal
transition policies.
Coalition for High Ambition Multilevel Partnership (CHAMP) for Climate Action:
• A total of 65 national governments signed CHAMP commitments to enhance cooperation, where
applicable and appropriate, with subnational governments in the planning, financing,
implementation, and monitoring of climate strategies.
India Led Initiatives at COP28:
Global River Cities Alliance (GRCA):
• It was launched at COP 28, led by the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) under
the Ministry of Jal Shakti, Government of India.
• The GRCA is a unique alliance covering 275+ global river-cities in 11 countries.
• Partner countries include Egypt, Netherlands, Denmark, Ghana, Australia, Bhutan, Cambodia,
Japan and river-cities of The Hague (Den Haag) from the Netherlands, Adelaide from
Australia, and Szolnok of Hungary.
• GRCA highlights India's role in sustainable river-centric development and climate
resilience.
• The GRCA platform will facilitate knowledge exchange, river-city twinning, and
dissemination of best practices.
Green Credit Initiative:
• India launched the Green Credit Initiative here at COP28, to create a participatory global
platform for exchange of innovative environmental programs and instruments.
• There are two main priorities of the initiative are water conservation and afforestation.
• The main purpose of this initiative is to boost voluntary environmental activities like tree
plantation, water conservation, sustainable agriculture, and waste management by
incentivizing it for big corporations and private companies, bringing about a change in
the climate issues faced by the country.
REDD

• The United Nations Programme on Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (UN-REDD) is a joint initiative of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),
the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP).
• It is the largest worldwide supplier of REDD+ assistance, assisting its 65 partner nations in
protecting their forests while meeting their climate and sustainable development targets.
• The United Nations-REDD Programme has its own Secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland.
• UN-REDD, the World Bank's Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), and the Forest
Investment Programme (FIP) are collaborating to maximise the harmonisation of their safeguard
 guidelines and procedures, ensuring that REDD+ implementation is as efficient as possible in
countries with multiple programmes in place.
REDD+

• Redd stands for “Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation”.
• The UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP) developed REDD+ as a framework to direct
operations in the forest sector that lower emissions from deforestation and forest degradation,
as well as the sustainable management of forests and the preservation and improvement of forest
carbon reserves in developing nations.
• Although it accepts subnational implementation as a temporary solution, its goal is for national
governments to carry out initiatives to lessen human pressure on forests that contribute to
greenhouse gas emissions.
• The adoption of REDD+ activities is optional and is based on the national circumstances,
capabilities, and support levels of each developing country.
Global Environment Facility (GEF)

• The Global Environment Facility (GEF) is a multilateral financial mechanism that grants
funds to developing countries for projects that benefit the global environment while
also promoting sustainable livelihoods in local communities.
• GEF was established to provide new and additional grants as well as concessional funding to cover
the additional costs associated with converting a project with national benefits into one with global
environmental benefits.
• The World Bank established the Global Environment Facility (GEF) in 1991 in collaboration
with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) to provide funding to protect the global environment.
• At the Rio Earth Summit in 1992, the GEF was restructured and separated from the World Bank
system to become a permanent, separate institution.
Climate – Smart Agriculture

• Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA) is a means of supporting individuals in charge of managing

agricultural systems in adapting to climate change in an effective manner.
• The CSA approach has three goals: growing output and revenues in a sustainable manner,
adapting to climate change, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions whenever practicable.
• Climate Smart Agriculture aims to decrease trade-offs and encourage synergies in agricultural and
livestock systems, forests, and fisheries and aquaculture to make them more productive and
sustainable.
• It is a novel strategy to plan development paths that can increase agricultural productivity and
sustainability while also contributing to climate change adaptation and mitigation.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change is a United Nations scientific government

agency established at the request of member governments to provide the world with an impartial,
scientific assessment of climate change and its political and economic implications on nations.
• The World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP) founded it in 1988, and the United Nations General Assembly later approved
it.
• Its headquarters are in Geneva, Switzerland, and it has 195 member countries.
• The IPCC creates comprehensive Assessment Reports on the current state of scientific,
technological, and socioeconomic knowledge about climate change, its consequences and future
dangers, and alternatives for slowing the rate of climate change.

National Green House Gas Inventories Programme (NGGIP)

• The National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme (NGGIP) was established by the
IPCC to offer techniques for calculating national inventories of greenhouse gas emissions and
removals from the atmosphere.
• Countries that are Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) utilise the NGGIP's advice to estimate the emissions and removals they submit to the
UNFCCC.
• Others who want to generate estimates that are consistent with national totals may use it.
• In order to compare emission and removal estimates between nations and over
time, internationally accepted advice is required.
• As a result, a diverse group of international authors and a thorough international review
process were used to construct all of the IPCC advice.
Green Economy

• A green economy is a practice of fostering social and environmental sustainability via the support
of public and private investment in infrastructure.
• The significance of the green economy is that it promotes economies to become more sustainable
and low-carbon, while also ensuring that natural assets continue to supply the resources and
environmental services that we require for our continuing well-being.
• Promoting the development and implementation of sustainable technology is an important
component of a green economy strategy.
• According to the United Nations, a Green Economy is one that "improves human well-being and
social fairness while considerably lowering environmental dangers and ecological scarcity."
• The Green Economy is the efficient application of sustainable development in economic activity,
not just a mere transformation of sustainable development.
The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)

• The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) is a global initiative to raise awareness
of the global economic benefits of biodiversity.
• It aims to "make the values of nature evident." In 2007, Germany and the European
Commission launched the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB). Pavan Sukhdev is
in charge of the research.
• Its primary goal is to incorporate biodiversity and ecosystem service values into decision-making
at all levels.
• The Initiative concentrated its efforts on three habitats: forests, inland wetlands, and coastal and
marine ecosystems.
Ecological Footprint

• William Rees proposed the concept of ecological footprint in 1992.

• It is a measure of human demand on Earth's ecosystems as well as the Earth's ecological ability to
renew the resources consumed by humans.
• The ecological footprint of an entity (nation/ town/ individual/ whole world) indicates the
influence that entity (nation/ town/ individual/ whole world) had on the Earth that year by using a
specific quantity of the Earth's resources.
• In other terms, an individual, population, or activity's ecological footprint is the amount of
biologically productive land and water required to produce all of the resources it consumes and
absorb the trash it creates using current technology and resource management methods.
What is Ocean Acidification?

• Ocean acidification is sometimes referred to as "climate change's equally evil twin," and
for good reason: it is a significant and harmful result of excess carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere that we don't see or feel because it occurs underwater.
• At least one-quarter of the carbon dioxide (CO2) produced by the combustion of coal, oil, and
gas does not remain in the atmosphere but dissolves in the ocean.
• Since the beginning of the industrial era, the ocean has absorbed approximately 525 billion
tonnes of CO2 from the atmosphere, at a current rate of approximately 22 million tonnes per
day.
• Scientists initially thought this was a good thing because it leaves less carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere to warm the planet.
• However, they've realized in the last decade that the slowed warming has come at the expense
of changing the chemistry of the ocean.
• When carbon dioxide dissolves in seawater, the water becomes more acidic, lowering the pH
(a measure of how acidic or basic the ocean is).
• Ocean water has become 30% more acidic in the last 200 years alone, faster than any known
change in ocean chemistry in the last 50 million years.
• Previously, scientists were unconcerned about this process because they assumed rivers
carried enough dissolved chemicals from rocks to the ocean to keep the ocean's pH stable.
This stabilising effect is referred to by scientists as "buffering."
• However, because so much carbon dioxide is dissolving into the ocean at such a rapid rate,
this natural buffering has been unable to keep up, resulting in relatively rapid pH drops in
surface waters.
What are pH and Acidity?

• The pH of a liquid solution indicates its acidity or basicity.

• On a scale of 0 to 14, the pH of a solution represents the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+)
and hydroxyl ions (OH-).
• Pure water has a pH of 7, is neutral (neither acidic nor basic), and contains equal amounts of
H+ and OH.
• A pH less than 7 indicates an acidic solution, while a pH greater than 7 indicates a basic
solution.
• Because the pH scale is logarithmic, a decrease of one pH unit results in a tenfold increase in
acidity.
• Prior to the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, the average pH of the ocean
was around 8.2. The average pH of the ocean today is 8.1.
• This means that the ocean is about 30% more acidic today than it was before the Industrial
Revolution.
 • By 2100, the ocean's pH could drop to around 7.8, making it 150 percent more acidic and
affecting half of all marine life.
Reactions of Ocean Acidification

• The term "ocean acidification" refers to a group of processes that occur when CO2 reacts with
seawater.
• When CO2 dissolves in seawater to form aqueous CO2, carbonic acid is formed (H2CO3).
• Carbonic acid dissociates (splits apart) quickly to produce bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).
• Bicarbonate ions can then dissociate into carbonate ions (CO32-).
• Both of these reactions generate protons (H+), which lower the pH of the solution.
Causes of Ocean Acidification

• Increased Carbon Dioxide Concentration in Ocean: When sea organisms die on the sea
floor, their remains accumulate and form corals, which are made up of carbons.
o These organisms also release calcium into the water. Because they add acidity to the
water, these compounds have a far-reaching negative impact on its composition.
• Increased Carbon Dioxide Concentration in Atmosphere: When carbon dioxide is released
into the atmosphere as a result of various human activities, it also contaminates the water
because the carbon gases dissolve in the seawater, lowering the pH and contributing to
acidification.
• Increased Hydrogen Ions Concentration in Water: Some chemical reactions that occur on
the sea floor may include an increase in hydrogen ions, which, when combined with other
compounds like nitrogen, water, and other gases, cause ocean water acidification.
• Burning of Fossil Fuels: When petroleum, diesel, and coal are burned, they emit a large
amount of carbon dioxide. This raises the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
which eventually finds its way into the water.
o Carbon and other atmospheric gases enter the sea via acidic rainfall or direct
dissolution into the water.
• Waste Disposal: Many countries that live near sea water masses have been too quick to use
the oceans as potential dumping grounds for domestic and industrial waste.
o Other wastes, in addition to direct sewage waste disposal, increase the acidity of the
water.
o Acidic compounds in industrial and agricultural waste, for example, are extremely
dangerous because they lower the PH of ocean water.
• Improper Land Management: Agriculture also plays a role in the problem of ocean
acidification.
o Some of the farmers' methods are ineffective and prone to soil erosion, and the
chemicals are washed downstream into the ocean as a result.
o In short, if the land is not well managed, the impact of acidifying soil mineral content
and water pollution can harm water bodies.
• Industrialization: Countries or cities that have embraced industrialization pose serious
environmental risks.
o Their presence can only mean that there is more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
which, when absorbed by the water, raises the level of acidity.
 o Industries contribute to the release of hazardous gases such as carbon dioxide, sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and others, which eventually form acid rain or dissolve in
the oceans, resulting in acidic conditions.
CO2 Effect on Ocean Acidification

• Carbon dioxide is being absorbed from the atmosphere at a rate that exceeds the ocean's
natural buffering capacity.
• Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, the pH of the ocean surface waters has
decreased by about 0.1 pH unit (a 26 percent increase in ocean hydrogen ion concentration).
• The ocean currently has a pH of around 8.0 and is thus 'basic,' and it is chemically impossible
for all of it to become a pH less than 7.0. But it is still referred to as ocean acidification
because acidification is the trend, regardless of the starting point.
• Acidification is the process of lowering the pH of a solution from any starting point to any
endpoint on the pH scale.
Influence of Other Factors
Several factors can locally influence CO2 chemical reactions with seawater, contributing to the effects
of ocean acidification.
Acid Rain

• Acid rain has an impact on surface ocean chemistry and has a pH range of 1 to 6.
• It has a significant local and regional impact on ocean acidification, but a negligible global
impact.
Eutrophication

• Excess nutrient inputs, mostly nitrogen, from agriculture, fertilizers, and sewage also have an
impact on coastal waters.
• The resulting eutrophication causes large plankton blooms, and when these blooms collapse
and sink to the sea bed, the subsequent respiration of bacteria decomposing the algae causes a
decrease in seawater oxygen and an increase in CO2 (a decline in pH).
Effects of Ocean Acidification

• The oceans are a significant CO2 reservoir, absorbing a significant amount of it (one-third)
produced by anthropogenic activities and effectively mitigating climate change.
• Carbon dioxide is being absorbed from the atmosphere at a rate that exceeds the oceans'
natural buffering capacity.
• In some organisms, increasing acidity reduces metabolic rates and immune responses.
• Carbonic acid, bicarbonate, and carbonate ions are formed when sea water absorbs CO2.
• However, increased CO2 levels in the atmosphere cause a decrease in pH, an increase in the
concentration of carbonic acid and bicarbonate ions, and a decrease in the concentration of
carbonate ions.
• The reduced availability of carbonate ions makes it more difficult for marine calcifying
organisms like coral (calcareous corals) and some plankton (calcareous plankton) to form
biogenic calcium carbonate.
• Commercial fisheries are under threat as a result of acidification, which harms calcifying
organisms, which form the foundation of Arctic food webs.
 • Coral bleaching is exacerbated by rising acidity because corals are extremely sensitive to
changes in water composition.
Effect of Ocean Acidification on Cloud Formation

• The ocean emits the majority of the sulfur in the atmosphere, often in the form of dimethyl
sulfide (DMS) produced by phytoplankton.
• Some dimethyl sulfide (DMS) produced by phytoplankton enters the atmosphere and
combines with oxygen to form sulphuric acid, which clumps into aerosols, or microscopic
airborne particles.
• Aerosols cause clouds to form, which help to cool the Earth by reflecting sunlight.
• However, phytoplankton produces less DMS in acidified ocean water.
• This sulphur reduction may result in less cloud formation, raising global temperatures.
Effect of Ocean Acidification on Marine Organisms and Ecosystem

• Ocean acidification reduces the amount of Artificial Cloud Seeding

carbonate, a key building block in seawater.
• This makes it more difficult for marine • Cloud seeding is the process of
organisms, such as coral and some plankton, introducing dry ice or, more
to form shells and skeletons, and existing commonly, silver iodide aerosols into
shells may begin to dissolve. the upper layers of clouds in order to
stimulate precipitation and form rain.
• The pH of seawater is highly variable, and a
single organism can cope with fluctuations • Because most rainfall is caused by the
of different pH levels over its lifetime. formation of ice crystals from super-
cooled cloud droplets in the upper
• The issue with ocean acidification is the parts of clouds, the silver iodide
long-term nature of the change, as the risk
particles are intended to promote the
comes from lifetime exposure to lower pH
formation of new ice particles.
levels. The rate of acidification will affect
the ability of calcifying organisms to adapt.
• The effects of ocean acidification are not the same for all species. Higher CO2 concentrations
in the ocean may benefit some algae and seagrass by increasing photosynthetic and growth
rates.
• A more acidic environment, on the other hand, will harm other marine species such as
mollusks, corals, and some types of plankton. These animals' shells and skeletons may
become less dense or strong.
• This may make coral reefs more vulnerable to storm damage and slow their recovery rate.
• In response to ocean acidification, marine organisms may experience changes in growth,
development, abundance, and survival.
• Most species appear to be more vulnerable in their early stages of development. Juvenile fish,
for example, may have difficulty finding suitable habitat to live in.
• Regardless of whether the responses within and between marine groups are positive or
negative, research indicates that ocean acidification will be a driver of significant changes in
ocean ecosystems this century.
• These changes may be exacerbated by the interaction with other emerging climate-related
hazards, such as the decrease in ocean oxygen levels, known as ocean deoxygenation, which
is already affecting marine life in some areas.
Effect of Ocean Acidification on Human Society
Food

• Ocean acidification has the potential to impact food security.

• The global annual costs of mollusk loss due to ocean acidification could exceed $100 by
2100.
• When fish die, humans who rely on them for food and a living suffer from socioeconomic
problems.
• This process also contributes to acidic waters, which harm agricultural production even more.
• Soil acidity rises as a result of acidic water. This makes the cultivation and production of
certain crops impossible.
Human Health

• When the acidity of the ocean water rises, the consumers or users of that water are put in
danger.
• Cancers can be easily transmitted to humans when they consume fish tainted with higher
sulphur concentrations.
Coastal Protection

• Coral reefs, which protect coastlines from storm surges and cyclones, will be harmed.
• The coastal estuaries and waterways are being affected by ocean acidification.
Tourism

• This industry could be severely impacted by the effects of ocean acidification on marine
ecosystems.
• Acidification could harm the Arctic tourism economy and indigenous peoples' way of life.
Carbon Storage and Climate Regulation

• As the ocean acidifies, its ability to absorb CO2 decreases.

• More acidic oceans are less effective at mitigating climate change.
Ocean Acidification in the Indian Ocean

• The Arabian Sea's surface waters are becoming acidic as a result of excess carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere.
• Pollutants from the Indo-Gangetic plains mix with seawater in the northern Bay of Bengal,
causing ocean acidification.
• During the winter, air blowing from land to sea carries all pollutants with it and deposits them
in the ocean.
• A study found that the presence of marine phytoplankton in the western Indian Ocean is
rapidly declining.
• Given the levels of ocean warming, a report warns that the Indian Ocean may be reduced to
an ecological desert.
• The Indian Ocean, which is one of the most pristine and fertile regions on the planet, will be
devastated by ocean acidification in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal.
Mitigation of Ocean Acidification

• The primary cause of ocean acidification is the release of CO2 into the atmosphere as a result
of human activity. On a global scale, the only known realistic mitigation option is to limit
future atmospheric CO2 levels.
• Appropriate land use and land-use change management can increase the uptake of
atmospheric CO2 by vegetation and soils through activities such as wetlands restoration,
forest planting, and reforestation.
• Proposals for geoengineering that do not reduce atmospheric CO2 levels, such as methods
that focus solely on temperature (such as aerosol backscatter or reduction of greenhouse gases
other than CO2), will not prevent ocean acidification.
o Adding alkaline minerals to the ocean would be effective and cost-effective only on a
very small scale in coastal areas, and the unintended environmental consequences are
unknown.
• Other stressors on ocean ecosystems, such as higher temperatures and deoxygenation, which
are also associated with rising CO2, will be mitigated by limiting CO2 levels.
• The shellfish aquaculture industry faces significant threats, and a risk assessment and analysis
of mitigation and adaptation strategies may be beneficial.
o For example, seawater monitoring near shellfish hatcheries can identify when to limit
the intake of lower pH seawater, when to relocate hatcheries, or when to select larval
stages or strains that are more resilient to ocean acidification for breeding.
Saturation Horizons

• Deep, cold ocean waters are naturally deficient in carbonate ions, causing most calcifying
organisms' shells to dissolve.
• Surface waters are oversaturated with carbonate ions and do not dissolve calcifying organism
shells easily.
• The saturation horizon is the point at which calcium carbonate minerals dissolve.
• Those organisms that can survive below the saturation horizon do so because they have
special mechanisms in place to keep their calcium carbonate from dissolving.
• As ocean acidification causes this horizon to rise vertically in the water column, more and
more calcifying organisms will be exposed to undersaturated water, leaving their shells and
skeletons vulnerable to dissolution.
• Calcite's saturation horizon is deeper in the ocean than aragonite's, but both horizons have
moved closer to the surface in recent years when compared to the 1800s.
Ocean Acidification and the Short and Long-term Fate of Carbon in the System

• On long timescales (>100,000 years), a natural balance between CO2 uptake and release on
Earth is maintained; the CO2 produced by volcanoes, the main natural source of CO2, is
taken up by the production of organic matter by plants and rock weathering on land.
• However, because rock weathering takes tens of thousands of years, the current anthropogenic
CO2 input to the atmosphere and ocean will not be removed quickly enough.
• On shorter time scales (>1,000 years), the ocean has internal stabilizing feedback known as
carbonate compensation that connects the ocean carbon cycle to the underlying carbonate-rich
sediment.
• Because the upper layers of the ocean are supersaturated with CaCO3, little dissolution
occurs, whereas the deep ocean is undersaturated and carbonate dissolves readily.
 • The lysocline, or depth at which dissolution strongly increases in the deep ocean, is the first
boundary between these two states.
• CaCO3 in the form of dead shells sinks to the ocean floor.
• The majority is buried in the sediment and trapped for a long time in shallow water, but when
the shells sink in deep water, nearly all of the CaCO3 is dissolved, preventing the carbon from
being locked away for millions of years.
• The current increased rate of atmospheric CO2 dissolution into the ocean causes an imbalance
in the carbonate compensation depth (CCD), which is the depth at which all carbonate is
dissolved.
• As the pH of the ocean falls, the lysocline and the CCD become shallower, exposing more
shells trapped in the sediments to suboptimal conditions and causing them to dissolve, which
will help buffer ocean acidification over a thousand years.
CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: ACTIONS, POLICIES, AND INITIATIVES

How is Climate Change Affecting India?

• South Asia is one of the major regions that will be extremely vulnerable to climate change in the
future.
• Because of its diverse terrain and rapid use of natural resources as a result of the current trend of
precipitous urbanisation, industrialisation, and economic growth, India will be particularly
vulnerable to climate change.
• India is currently facing environmental and socioeconomic challenges in its efforts to protect its
rapidly depleting natural resources.
• Environmental pollution is deteriorating water and air quality on a daily basis. The country's
coastal ecosystems, biodiversity, and agricultural productivity are particularly vulnerable to
climate change.
• The increasing frequency and severity of natural disasters are having a negative impact on the
already struggling Indian economy.
• The negative consequences of such disasters include poverty, disease vulnerability, and loss of
income and livelihood.
• According to the World Bank, a 2°C increase in global average temperature over the next few
decades will only make the Indian monsoon more unpredictable.
• The changing rain patterns in India are expected to flood many areas while leaving others dry.
• More than 60% of India's agriculture is rain-dependent, and the majority of the population relies
on agriculture for survival. As a result, India is more vulnerable to climate change.
• Water levels in the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra river basins are expected to fall by the 2050s
if temperatures rise by 2-2.5°C. This could jeopardise the food security of approximately 63
million people.
• The rate of poverty reduction will also be slowed as the temperature of the atmosphere rises.
• The poor will be more vulnerable to climate change because many of them rely on rain-fed
agriculture.
• A 2°C increase by the 2040s will have an impact on crop production, reducing crop output by
12% and necessitating more imports to meet domestic demand.
• Furthermore, decreasing food availability can lead to serious health problems, particularly
among women and children.
• The melting glaciers and loss of snow can endanger India's reliable water resources.
• Snow and glacial meltwater are the primary sources of water for major rivers such as the Ganges,
Indus, and Brahmaputra. As a result, they are vulnerable to global warming.
• Climate change increases the risk of flooding in low-lying areas and endangers agriculture.

Observed Climate and Weather Changes in India

Surface Temperature

• Surface air temperatures have increased by 0.4°C at the national level over the last century.
• Warming has been observed along the west coast of India, as well as in central India, the interior
peninsula, and north-eastern India.
Rainfall

• While there is no discernible trend in observed monsoon rainfall across India, regional monsoon
variations have been documented.
• A trend of increasing monsoon seasonal rainfall has been observed along the west coast, northern
Andhra Pradesh, and north-western India (+10% to +12% of the normal over the last 100 years).
• A trend of decreasing monsoon seasonal rainfall has been observed over eastern Madhya Pradesh,
north-eastern India, and some parts of Gujarat and Kerala (-6% to -8% of the normal over the last
100 years).
Extreme Weather Events

• Trends are observed in multi-decadal periods of more frequent droughts followed by less severe
droughts.
• The frequency of severe storms along the coast has been increasing at a rate of 0.011 events per
year.
• While West Bengal and Gujarat have seen increases, Orissa has seen a decrease.
Rise in Sea Level

• The records of coastal tide gauges in the north Indian Ocean for more than 40 years show that sea
level rise was between 1.06-1.75 mm per year.
• These rates are consistent with IPCC estimates of 1-2 mm per year global sea level rise.
Impact on Himalayan Glaciers

• The Himalayas have one of the most extensive snow and ice resources, and its glaciers supply
water to perennial rivers such as the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra.
• Glacial melt may have an impact on their long-term lean-season flows, which could have a
negative impact on the economy in terms of water availability and hydropower generation.

INDIA’S POSITION ON CLIMATE CHANGE

• India is the world’s third largest emitter of greenhouse gasses (GHGs), after China and the US.
• Major sources of emissions & Climate Change In India – Coal power plants, rice paddies,
cattle.
• Per-capita emissions remain below global average.
 • Displacement and extinction of animal populations due to habitat loss adds more species to the
‘threatened’ and ‘extinct’ list.
• Spread of diseases like malaria, etc. puts stress on the health sector.
• The country has pledged a 33-35% reduction in the “emissions intensity” of its economy by
2030, compared to 2005 levels.
• Increase tree cover to create an additional cumulative carbon sink of 2,500-3,000Mt CO2 by
2030.
• India also aims to install 5GW of offshore wind by 2022 and 30 GW by 2030. None has yet
been installed.
• The country could integrate 390GW of low-cost wind and solar generation into its grid by
2030, according to the Climate Policy Initiative (CPI).
• India’s climate pledge notes that around 70% of its population depends on traditional biomass
energy, which is inefficient and causes high levels of indoor air pollution.
• India is targeting 10GW of such bioenergy by 2022.
• India has around 4.5GW of small hydro plants (below 25MW), against a 5GW target for 2022.
CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: CURRENT ACTIONS FOR ADAPTATION &
MITIGATION
• Actions taken to reduce negative consequences of Climate Change In India.
Adaptation: • E.g. Switching to drought-resistant crops, creating coastal buffer zones,
early warning systems, etc.

• Actions taken to lower Greenhouse Gas (GHG) concentrations.

• Eliminate emissions at source to control Climate Change In India.
Mitigation:
• E.g. Wind farms, afforestation, energy-efficient vehicles, sequestering GHGs
etc.

CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: NATIONAL ACTION PLAN ON CLIMATE CHANGE

(NAPCC)
• Launched in 2008. Outlines existing and future policies and programs addressing climate
change. Plan identifies 8 core national missions. 9th mission recently added.

National Solar Mission:

• To promote development & use of solar energy for power generation & other uses.
• Inaugurated in 2010 with a target of 20 GW by 2022. Later increased to 100 GW in 2015.
• MNRE has proposed to achieve 60 GW from large and medium scale solar projects, and 40 GW
through rooftop solar projects.
• Committed to Nationally Determined Contributions (Paris Accord), India made a pledge that by
2030, 40% of installed power generation capacity shall be based on clean sources.
• It was determined that 175 GW of renewable energy capacity will be installed by 2022.
• This includes 100 GW from solar, 60 GW from wind, 10 GW from bio-power and 5 GW from
small hydro power.
• India is at 5th global position for overall installed renewable energy capacity.

National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE): A initiative to control Climate
Change In India
• NAPCC recognizes energy efficiency as an important lever to address the issue of climate
change. The National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency (NMEEE) is aimed to promote
the market for energy efficiency by fostering innovative policies and effective market
instruments to control Climate Change In India. The Energy Conservation Act led to the creation
of a statutory body, the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) with dedicated powers and
responsibilities to promote energy efficiency and conservation in different sectors of the
economy. The Ministry of Power, Government of India through Bureau of Energy Efficiency
(BEE), looks over the progress of the NMEEE mission.
• Mandating energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming industries with trade of
energy-saving certificates.
• Energy incentives, including taxes on energy efficient appliances.
• 4 new initiatives under this:
Market
Framework for Energy
Perform Achieve & Transformation for Energy Efficiency
Efficient Economic
Trade (PAT) Energy Efficiency Financing Platform (EEP)
Development (FEED)
(MTEE)
Assigning energy
reduction targets to To protect the
Promoting adoption of Catalyzing the finances for
large energy intensive confidence of banks
energy efficient the energy efficiency
industries and and investors in energy
equipment and sector by addressing the
distributing Energy efficiency projects and
appliances through barriers and challenges in
Saving Certificates to avoid the stalling of
innovative business market development and
(ESCerts) on projects due to lack of
models. project implementation.
achievement of the funds.
targets.

National Mission on Sustainable Habitat: Step taken to Mitigate Side Effect of Climate Change
in India
• To promote energy efficiency as a core component of urban planning. Extending existing Energy
Conservation Building Code
• Waste management, recycling, including power production from waste. Incentives to use public
transport.
• Use of automotive fuel economy standards & pricing measures.
The Mission is being implemented through the following programmes of Ministry of Urban
Development:
• Atal Mission on Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT)
• Swachh Bharat Mission
• Smart Cities Mission
• Urban Transport Programme
National Water Mission
• To ensure integrated water resource management helping to conserve water, minimize wastage
and ensure more equitable distribution both across and within states.
• Ensure that a considerable share of the water needs of urban areas are met through recycling.
• Ensure that the water requirements of coastal cities are met through modern desalination
technologies.
• Increase storage both above and below ground, rainwater harvesting.

National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystems

• To conserve biodiversity, forest cover & study traditional societies where global warming has
resulted in receding of glaciers. Building human & institutional capacities.
• Network knowledge systems & develop coherent databases.
• Detect & decouple natural & anthropogenic global environment changes.

National Mission for a Green India

Aims at protecting; The mission has a cumulative target of increasing forest cover on 5 million
hectares of land while improving the forest cover on additional 5 hectares.

The scheme also has an important goal of fulfilling India’s Nationally Determined Contribution
(NDC) target of sequestering 2.5 Billion tonnes of “Carbon emissions” by 2020-30, which it
submitted to UNFCCC
• Goals include afforestation of 10 million hectares of land, expanding forest cover from 23% to
33%.
• Increase forest-based livelihood income of about 3 million households.
• Enhanced annual CO2 sequestration by 50 to 60 million tons in the year 2020.
• Eco-restoration of shifting cultivation areas, cold deserts, mangroves, ravines and abandoned
mining areas.
• Increase wage labor opportunities during the lean agriculture season, especially communities
living in remote forest areas.
• A submission on Cold Desert Ecosystems under this mission is ‘National Sea buckthorn
Initiative’ launched by MoEF & DRDO to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
• Sea buckthorn, popularly known as Leh berries, called the “Wonder plant” and “Ladakh gold”
has medicinal properties & prevents desertification.

National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture

• Aim: to develop climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance & agricultural practices
especially in rain-fed areas.
• 60% of the country’s net sown area is rainfed and accounts for 40% of the total food production.
• Promote ‘laboratory to land’ research through model village & farm units.
• Link panchayat-level Automatic Weather Station Networks to existing insurance mechanisms.
• Key dimensions by NMSA: Improved crop seeds, livestock and fish cultures + Water Use
Efficiency + Pest Management + Improved Farm Practices + Nutrient Management +
 Agricultural insurance + Credit support + Markets + Access to Information + Livelihood
diversification + Soil Health Management (SHM) – Soil Health Card Scheme.

National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

• Formation of knowledge networks among the existing knowledge institutions engaged in research
and development relating to climate science.
• Research networks in the areas of climate change impacts on important socio-economic sectors
like agriculture, health, natural ecosystems, biodiversity, coastal zones, etc.
• Data sharing & exchange through policy framework & institutional support.
• Strengthen indigenous capacity build partnerships through global collaboration.

CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: NATIONAL COMMUNICATION (NATCOM)

• In partnership with MoEFCC, funded by Global Environment Facility, the project aims to enable
India undertake activities to prepare its Third National Communication to the UNFCCC
according to the guidelines provided by the Conference of Parties (COP).

GREEN BUILDINGS
• Practice of creating structures & using processes that are environmentally responsible & resource-
efficient throughout a building’s life-cycle from design to construction, operation, maintenance,
renovation, deconstruction.
• Designed to reduce the overall impact of the built environment on human & environmental health.

CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: GRIHA – GREEN RATING FOR INTEGRATED HABITAT

ASSESSMENT
• Conceived by TERI (The Energy & Resources Institute), developed by the Ministry of New &
Renewable Energy.
• Rating tool that helps assess ecological impact of building against nationally acceptable
benchmarks.
• Objective – to help evaluate ‘greenness’ of buildings.
• Benefits of GRIHA buildings: Reduced energy consumption without sacrificing the comfort
levels + Reduced destruction of natural areas, habitats, and biodiversity, and reduced soil loss
from erosion etc. + Reduced air and water pollution (with direct health benefits) + Reduced
water consumption + Limited waste generation due to recycling and reuse + Reduced pollution
loads + Increased user productivity + Enhanced image and marketability.

CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: NATIONAL INITIATIVE ON CLIMATE RESILIENT

AGRICULTURE (NICRA)
• Launched by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 2010-2011.
• Objective – To primarily enhance resilience of crops, livestock & fisheries through development
of production & risk management.
• Project components: Strategic research on adaptation and mitigation + Technology demonstration
on farmers’ fields to cope with current climate variability + Sponsored and competitive research
grants to fill critical research gaps + Capacity building of different stakeholders.
CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: BSE – GREENEX
• 25th dynamic index hosted on the Bombay Stock Exchange; it is India’s first carbon-efficient live
index developed by BSE in collaboration with IIM Ahmedabad in 2012.
• India’s first objective green equity index to employ index constituent weight capping.
• g-Trade Carbon Ex Ratings Services Private Limited has co-developed with BSE.
• The index seeks to assess and quantify the energy efficiency of firms, based on energy and
financial data.
• It follows a sector-specific algorithm whereby a firm’s performance is measured in comparison to
others in the same sector.
• The index carries weight for two major criteria that together indicate long-term sustainability of
businesses
• Energy efficiency measured by gauging reduction in the amount of energy consumed, reduced
wastage, renewable energy adoption and costs incurred on energy.
• Profitability

CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: FAME – INDIA PROGRAMME

• National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 2020 is a National Mission document
providing the vision and the roadmap for the faster adoption of electric vehicles and their
manufacturing.
• Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles in India (FAME India), 2015
• By Department of Heavy Industry to promote manufacturing of electric and hybrid vehicle
technology under NEMMP 2020.
• 1st Phase of FAME India Scheme was implemented in 2015 through four focus areas: Demand
Creation + Technology Platform + Pilot Project + Charging Infrastructure
FAME INDIA SCHEME PHASE II – 2019-2020
• Aims to generate demand by way of supporting 7000 e-Buses, 5 lakh e-3 Wheelers, 55000 e-4
Wheeler Passenger Cars (including Strong Hybrid) and 10 lakh e-2 Wheelers
• Applicable mainly to vehicles used for public transport or those registered for commercial
purposes in e-3W, e-4W and e-bus segments
• Privately owned registered e-2Ws also covered under the scheme
• Construction of electric charging stations to be carried out.

CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: LONG TERM ECOLOGICAL OBSERVATORIES (LTEO)

• Under ‘Climate Change Action Programme’.
• A science plan of LTEO was released during 21st COP to the UNFCCC at Paris in December
2015.
• 1st phase includes health assessment of: Western Himalaya + Eastern Himalaya + North-Western
Arid Zone + Central Indian Forests + Western Ghats + Andaman & Nicobar Islands + Jammu &
Kashmir +Sundarbans
• Aims to understand biophysical & anthropogenic drivers in select biomes & effects on socio-
ecological responses.
• Activities include assessment of change of structure & function in natural ecosystems,
monitoring population of species, animal movements, soil processes, biophysical variables, etc.
CLIMATE CHANGE IN INDIA: NATIONAL ADAPTATION FUND FOR CLIMATE
CHANGE (NAFCC)
• Introduced in 2015-16. Was to be revised in 2020.
• Fund meant to assist national & state level activities for areas vulnerable to climate change.
• Central Sector Scheme with NABARD as National Implementing Entity.
• Aim – Support adaptive activities which are not covered under ongoing government schemes.

6TH MASS EXTINCTION DUE TO CLIMATE CHANGE

• The Holocene extinction, otherwise referred to as the sixth mass extinction or Anthropocene
extinction, is an ongoing extinction event of species during the present Holocene epoch.
• Human beings are causing this event on the planet.
• It’s irreversible – the researchers have found that populations on the brink go extinct 94% of the
time.
• Ways to control mass extinction: Scientists propose classifying all species with less than 5000
individuals as critically endangered on the IUCN list + Implement a global comprehensive
binding agreement requiring parties to address the extinction crisis + Tackling the illegal and legal
wildlife trade + Stop the land-grabbing and devastating deforestation.

Causes of extinction: Increasing population and consumption rates + Meat consumption, overhunting,
overfishing, and ocean acidification and the decline in amphibian populations + Breakage of food
web/species links + Population boom of urchins on kelp forests in the Bering sea, leading to the
extinction of the kelp-eating steller’s sea cow + Massive volcanic eruptions, depletion of oceoxygen or
collision with an asteroid.

Ozone Depletion and Protection

What is ozone?

o Ozone is a naturally occurring molecule made up of three oxygen atoms. It has the
chemical formula O3

o Ozone is found in different levels of the earth’s atmosphere. About 90% of ozone in the
atmosphere is concentrated between 15 and 30 kilometres above the earth ’s surface
(stratospheric ozone).

o It is also found at ground level in lower concentrations (tropospheric ozone). Here ozone
is a pollutant that is a key part of smog over cities

o The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French physicists Charles Fabry and Henri
Buisson.
What is the ozone layer?

o The ozone layer is the common term for the high concentration of ozone that is found in
the stratosphere between 15 and 30km above the earth’s surface

o The ozone layer absorbs 97 to 99 percent of the Sun’s medium-frequency ultraviolet light
(from about 200 nm to 315 nm wavelength), which otherwise would potentially damage
exposed life forms near the surface

Distribution in the stratosphere

o The thickness of the ozone layer varies worldwide and is generally thinner near the equator
and thicker near the poles

o Thickness refers to how much ozone is in a column over a given area and varies from
season to season.

▪ The reasons for these variations are due to atmospheric circulation patterns and solar
intensity

o The majority of ozone is produced over the tropics and is transported towards the poles by
stratospheric wind patterns

▪ When ozone is produced by solar UV radiation in the tropics, it is done so by circulation

lifting ozone-poor air out of the troposphere and into the stratosphere where the sun
photolyzes oxygen molecules and turns them into ozone. Then, the ozone -rich air is carried
to higher latitudes and drops into lower layers of the atmosphere
Ozone Depletion

• Ozone layer depletion is the gradual thinning of the earth’s ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere caused due to the release of chemical compounds containing gaseous bromine
or chlorine from industries or other human activities.

• How Ozone Depletion Occurs?

o When chlorine and bromine atoms come into contact with ozone in the stratosphere, they
destroy ozone molecules. One chlorine atom can destroy over 100,000 ozone molecules
before it is removed from the stratosphere

o Some compounds release chlorine or bromine when they are exposed to intense UV light
in the stratosphere. These compounds contribute to ozone depletion, and are called ozone-
depleting substances (ODS)

▪ ODS that release chlorine include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons

(HCFCs), carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform
▪ ODS that release bromine include halons and methyl bromide.

o The ODS are emitted at the Earth’s surface, they are eventually carried into the
stratosphere in a process that can take as long as two to five years.

o Also the natural processes, such as large volcanic eruptions, can have an indirect
effect on ozone levels, with the production of tiny particles called Aerosols

▪ These aerosols increase chlorine’s effectiveness at destroying ozone. The aerosols in the
stratosphere create a surface on which CFC-based chlorine can destroy ozone. However,
the effect from volcanoes is short-lived

o This severe depletion creates the so-called “ozone hole” that can be seen in images
of Antarctic ozone, made using satellite observations.

▪ Although ozone losses are less radical in the Northern Hemisphere, significant thinning of
the ozone layer is also observed over the Arctic and even over continental Europe.

• When was the depletion of the ozone layer discovered?

o In 1974, chemists Mario Molina and Frank Sherwood Rowland discovered a link between
CFCs and the breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere

o In 1985, geophysicist Joe Farman, along with meteorologists Brian G Gardiner an d Jon
Shanklin published findings of abnormally low ozone concentrations above the Antarctic,
which galvanized world-wide action

o Further, Subsequent laboratory measurements, atmospheric measurements, and

atmospheric-modelling studies soon substantiated the importance of their findings.
Crutzen, Molina, and Rowland received the Nobel Prize for Chemistry in 1995 for their
efforts

Effects

Effects on Human Health

▪ Ozone layer depletion increases the amount of UV that reaches the Earth ’s surface.
Laboratory and epidemiological studies demonstrate that UV causes non -melanoma skin
cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. In addition, UV has
been linked to the development of cataracts, a clouding of the eye ’s lens.

Effects on Plants

▪ UV radiation affects the physiological and developmental processes of plants.

▪ Despite mechanisms to reduce or repair these effects and an ability to adapt to increased
levels of UV, plant growth can be directly affected by UV radiation

Effects on Marine Ecosystems

▪ Phytoplankton productivity is limited to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of the water
column in which there is sufficient sunlight to support net productivity.

▪ Exposure to solar UV radiation has been shown to affect both orientation and motility in
phytoplankton, resulting in reduced survival rates for these organisms

▪ UV radiation has been found to cause damage to early developmental stages of fish, shrimp,
crab, amphibians, and other marine animals.

▪ The most severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval
development.

▪ Small increases in UV exposure could result in population reductions for small marine
organisms with implications for the whole marine food chain

Effects on Biogeochemical Cycles

▪ Increases in UV radiation could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles, thus
altering both sources and sinks of greenhouse and chemically important trace gases (e.g.,
carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonyl sulfide, ozone, and possibly other gases).

▪ These potential changes would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks that mitigate

or amplify the atmospheric concentrations of these gases.

Ozone Protection

• World governments agreed in the late 1980s to protect the Earth’s ozone layer by phasing
out ozone-depleting substances emitted by human activities, the actions of which are as
follows:

The Montreal Protocol

▪ In 1987, to address the destruction of the ozone layer, the international community
established the Montreal Protocol on ozone-depleting substances.

▪ It was the first international treaty to be signed by all countries of the world and is
considered the greatest environmental success story in the history of the United Nations
▪ The Montreal Protocol’s objective is to cut down the production and consumption of
ozone-depleting substances, in order to reduce their presence in the atmosphere and thus
protect the Earth’s ozone layer.

▪ Under the original Montreal Protocol agreement (1987), developed countries were
required to begin phasing out CFCs in 1993 and achieve a 20% reducti on relative to 1986
consumption levels by 1994 and a 50% reduction by 1998.

▪ Additionally, developed countries were required to freeze their production and

consumption of halons relative to their 1986 levels

▪ Further, The Parties to the Montreal Protocol have amended the Protocol to enable

▪ the control of new chemicals and

▪ the creation of a financial mechanism to enable developing countries to comply

Amendments to the Montreal Protocol

▪ The London Amendment (1990) changed the ODS emission schedule by requiring the
complete phaseout of CFCs, halons, and carbon tetrachloride by 2000 in developed
countries, and by 2010 in developing countries. Methyl chloroform was also added to the
list of controlled ODSs, with phaseout in developed countries targeted in 2005, and in 2015
for developing countries.

▪ The Copenhagen Amendment (1992) significantly accelerated the phaseout of ODSs and
incorporated an hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFC) phaseout for developed countries,
beginning in 2004. Under this agreement, CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl
chloroform were targeted for complete phaseout in 1996 in developed countries. In
addition, methyl bromide consumption of methyl bromide was capped at 1991 levels

▪ The Montreal Amendment (1997) included the phaseout of HCFCs in developing

countries, as well as the phaseout of methyl bromide in developed and developing countries
in 2005 and 2015, respectively

▪ The Beijing Amendment (1999) included tightened controls on the production and trade
of HCFCs. Bromochloromethane was also added to the list of controlled substances with
phaseout targeted for 2004

▪ The Kigali Amendment (2016) extended controls to phase down the production and
consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) because these substances were adopted by
industries in moving away from ozone-depleting substances and they are potent greenhouse
gases damaging to the earth’s climate.
▪ The Quito Adjustment is an adjustment made to the Montreal Protocol in 2018. The adjustment
aims to avoid 1°C of future warming. It includes strengthening enforcement mechanisms in
response to a rise in global emissions of the banned chemical trichlorofluoromethane or CFC-11.

The Vienna Convention

▪ Adopted in 1985, The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer is
the precursor to the Montreal Protocol.

▪ The Vienna Convention is often called a framework convention, because it served as a

framework for efforts to protect the globe’s ozone layer.

▪ The Vienna Convention did not require countries to take concrete actions to control ozone
depleting substances.

▪ Instead, in accordance with the provisions of the Convention, the countries of the world
agreed the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer under the
Convention, to advance that goal
Ozone layer recovery

• Global consumption of ozone-depleting substances has been reduced by some 98% since
countries began taking action under the Montreal Protocol.

o As a result, the atmospheric concentration of the most aggressive types of ozone -

depleting substances is falling and the ozone layer is showing the first signs of recovery.

• During the early 2000s, scientists expected that stratospheric ozone levels would continue
to rise slowly over subsequent decades.

o However, the size of the Antarctic ozone hole reached its greatest exten t in 2000, when
it spanned 29.9 million square km (11.5 million square miles); by 2021 its area had
shrunk to 24.8 million square km (9.6 million square miles).

• A 2018 United Nations report estimated that the Antarctic ozone hole would close slowly
and stratospheric ozone concentrations would return to 1980 values by the 2060s

o Above the Arctic, ozone levels are expected to return to 1980 values by the mid -2030
Ozone Protection: India

• The Government of India has entrusted the work relating to the ozone layer protection and
implementation of the Montreal Protocol on Substances the Ozone Layer to the Ministry
of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC)
o The Ministry has established an Empowered Steering Committee (ESC) Chaired by
Secretary (EF&CC), which is supported by two standing committees viz. Technology and
Finance Standing Committee (TFSC) and the Standing Committee on Monitoring

o The ESC is overall responsible for implementation of the Montreal Protocol provisions,
review of various policies including implementation options, project approvals and
monitoring.

o The Ministry has set up an Ozone Cell as a National Ozone Unit (NOU) to render necessary
services for effective and timely implementation of the Montreal Protocol and its ODS
phase-out program in India

• India had prepared a detailed Country Program (CP) in 1993 for the phase-out of ODSs
in accordance with its National Industrial Development Strategy by accessing funds from
financial mechanism of the Montreal Protocol

o India has proactively phased out the production and consumption of CFCs except use
in Metered Dose Inhalers (MDIs) used for treatment of Asthma and Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD) ailments from 1st August, 2008.

o Subsequently, the use of CFCs in MDIs has been phased out from December, 2012.

o India has also completely phased out production and consumption of halons as of 1st
January, 2010.

• Currently, the Ozone Cell is engaged in phase-out of production and consumption of next
category of chemicals, Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) with an accelerated phase-out
schedule as per the Montreal Protocol. The Ozone Cell, MoEF&CC in association with the
implementing agencies and in close cooperation with the stakeholders in the country has
been implementing following projects :

o Accelerated CFC Production Sector Phase-out Project

o National CTC Phase-out Plan

o National Strategy for Transition to Non-CFC MDIs and Plan for Phase-out of CFCs in the
Manufacture of Pharmaceutical MDIs

o HCFC Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) – Stage-I

▪ Foam Manufacturing Sector

▪ Systems House

▪ Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Servicing Sector

o HCFC Phase-out Management Plan (HPMP) – Stage-II

• In India, nearly 50 % of the consumption of ozone depleting chemicals in the country was
attributable to HCFC-141 b in the foam sector

o In the year 2020, India has successfully achieved the complete phase out of
Hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC)-141 b, which is a chemical used by foam manufacturing
enterprises and one of the most potent ozone depleting chemical after Chlorofluo rocarbons
(CFCs)

What are Polar Stratospheric Clouds?

• Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), often called nacreous clouds from nacre or mother of pearl
due to their iridescence, are clouds in the winter polar stratosphere.
• PSCs are wave clouds. They frequently occur downstream of mountain ranges, which can
cause gravity waves in the lower stratosphere.
• As the waves progress, their sheet-like formations gradually undulate and extend.
• The clouds may also be accompanied by extremely strong surface winds, which could be a sign
of or cause waves and winds in the stratosphere.

Formation of Polar Stratospheric Clouds

• PSCs form at temperatures around -85°C, which are colder than average lower stratosphere
temperatures, and are made up of ice particles 10m in diameter.
• To produce the characteristic bright iridescent colours through diffraction and interference, the
clouds must be composed of similar sized crystals.
• PSCs form at extremely high altitudes, between 15 and 25 kilometres (about 50,000 to 80,000
feet). Only at extremely low temperatures is enough condensation present to form clouds in the
extremely dry air at these altitudes.
• Temperatures in the lower stratosphere can drop low enough in winter near the North or South
Pole for PSCs to form.
• According to one theory, when orographic features are encountered, strong winds in the
troposphere can cause mountain waves. These waves may propagate upward into the
stratosphere, where the resulting lifting and cooling can produce PSCs.
• PSCs are more common near the South Pole, where temperatures are typically lower, but
PSCs have recently been observed near the North Pole.

Types of Polar Stratospheric Clouds

PSCs are divided into two types based on their chemical composition, which can be measured using
LIDAR. The technique also determines the cloud's height and ambient temperature.
Type I Clouds

• They are a source of polar ozone depletion because they contain water, nitric acid, and/or sulfuric
acid. When temperatures fall to -78°C or lower, they form.
• Type Ia clouds are made up of large, aspherical particles made up of nitric acid trihydrate (NAT).
• Type Ib clouds contain small, non-depolarizing spherical particles of a liquid supercooled ternary
solution (STS) of sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and water.
• Type Ic clouds are composed of metastable water-rich nitric acid in solid form.
Type II Clouds

• They are extremely rare in the Arctic and are made up entirely of water ice.
• They can only form at temperatures of -83°C or lower.
• Only Type II clouds are necessarily nacreous, whereas Type I clouds, like any other cloud, can be
iridescent under certain conditions.

PSCs as a Cause of Ozone Depletion

• PSCs were long regarded as oddities with no real significance. However, Type I clouds are now
recognised as sites of harmful stratospheric ozone destruction over Antarctica and the Arctic.
• Their surfaces serve as catalysts, converting less dangerous forms of man-made chlorine into active
free radicals (for example ClO, chlorine monoxide).
• In a series of chain reactions, these radicals destroy many ozone molecules as spring sunlight
returns.
• Cloud formation is doubly damaging because it removes gaseous nitric acid from the stratosphere,
which would otherwise combine with ClO to form less reactive forms of chlorine.

• The chlorine released by the breakdown of CFCs exists initially as pure chlorine or chlorine
monoxide (active chlorine/unstable), but these two forms react further to form the stable
compounds chlorine nitrate and HCL (inactive chlorine).
• Because the stable compounds HCL and CLONO2 are chlorine reservoirs, chlorine must be
liberated before it can participate in any reaction.
• There is a link between the ozone depletion cycle and the presence of polar stratospheric clouds
(PSCs), which provided substrates for chemical reactions that liberated chlorine from its reservoirs.
• Normally, the reaction between HCl and CLONO2 is very slow, but it occurs at a faster rate when
a suitable substrate is present, which is provided by stratospheric clouds at the poles.
HCl + Chlorine nitrate -> Molecular Chlorine

• As a result, molecular chlorine and nitric acid are formed. The atomic chlorine formed in the above
reaction can be broken down to form molecular chlorine, allowing the ozone depletion reaction to
continue.
• PSCs absorb reactive nitrogen as well as activate chlorine. Nitrogen oxides would combine with
chlorine monoxide to form a reservoir of chlorine nitrate if they were present (CLONO2).
• Dimer Cl2O2 is formed when stratospheric chlorine monoxide reacts with itself.
• Sunlight easily dissociates this dimer, releasing free chlorine atoms that can then react further to
destroy ozone.
ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS IN INDIA: BIODIVERSITY,
CONSERVATION, WELFARE

ANIMAL WELFARE BOARD OF INDIA (AWBI)

• Established in 1962 + HQ: Ballabgarh in Haryana (earlier based at Chennai), stands as a significant
environmental organization.
• Key person: Rukmini Devi Arundale (also the 1st Chairperson of AWBI).
• AWBI is a statutory advisory body under The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 under the
Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying.
• Functions: It advises governments on the matters related to Animal welfare + Provides grants to
Animal Welfare organizations.

CENTRAL ZOO AUTHORITY (CZA)

• This environmental organization was established in 1992 (HQ: New Delhi)
• CZA is a statutory body + under 1991 Amendment to Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 + under
MoEF&CC.
• Objectives: To complement the national effort in conservation of wildlife + To maintain Indian Zoos
on par with International standards + Exchange of animals between Indian and foreign zoos.
• The Authority consists: Chairman: Minister of Environment + 10 members & a member Secretary.

FOREST SURVEY OF INDIA (FSI)

• This environmental organization was established in 1981 + HQ: Dehradun in Uttarakhand + under
MoEF & CC.
• It started as ‘Pre-Investment Survey of Forest Resources (PISFR)’ in 1965 before re-organized as
FSI in 1981.
• Objective: to conduct survey and assessment of forest resources.
• Forest Survey Report: Released by FSI since 1987, biennially (once in two years).

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (BSI)

• Established in 1890 (under the direction of Sir George King) + HQ: Kolkata + under MoEF & CC.
• BSI is the apex taxonomic research organization of the country.
• Mandate: biosystematics research, floristic studies, documentation of flora, digitization of
herbarium specimens, & advisory services etc.,
• BSI publishes ‘Red Data Book of Indian Plants’.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (ZSI)

• Established in 1916 + HQ: Kolkata + under MoEF & CC
• Objective: to promote the survey, exploration and research of the fauna.
• The history of ZSI goes back to Asiatic Society of Bengal founded by Sir William Jones in 1784.

NATIONAL BIODIVERSITY AUTHORITY (NBA)

• Established in 2003 + HQ: Chennai + under MoEF & CC
• NBA is a statutory body under Biological Diversity Act, 2002.
• The act was enacted to give effect-to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (India signed
it in 1992)
• Mandate: to perform regulatory & advisory functions for the GoI on issues of conservation,
sustainable use of biological resources.
• NBA supports creation of State Biodiversity Boards (SBBs).
• Biodiversity Heritage Sites: Notified by State Governments in consultation with local bodies.

WILDLIFE CRIME CONTROL BUREAU (WCCB)

• Established in 2006 + HQ: New Delhi + under MoEF & CC
• WCCB is a statutory body constituted under the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 (WPA 2006,
Amendment).
• Have five regional offices at Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai & Jabalpur.
• Objective: to combat organized wildlife crime
• Additional Director General (Wild Life) is the ex-officio director of the WCCB.
• WCCB is the nodal point for SAWEN (South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network) in India.
• WCCB has conducted: Operation Save Kurma, ThunderBird, Wild-Net, Lesknow, Birbil, Clean Art
• It also assists & advises the Customs authorities in inspection of the consignments of flora & fauna
as per the provisions of WPA, CITES & EXIM Policy.
• UNEP has awarded WCCB with ‘Asia Environment Enforcement Awards’ in 2018.

NATIONAL PLAN FOR CONSERVATION OF AQUATIC ECO-SYSTEMS (NPCA)

• NPCA was launched in 2013 by merging National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) and National
Wetlands Conservation Programme (NWCP)
• Objective: Holistic conservation & restoration of lakes, wetlands to enhance water quality besides
improving biodiversity and the ecosystem.
• NPCA is presently operational on cost sharing between Central and respective state governments.

NATIONAL GANGA RIVER BASIN AUTHORITY

• Established in 2009 + HQ: New Delhi + under Ministry of Jal Shakti
• Mandate: Abatement of pollution & conservation of the river Ganga.
• The NGRBA is chaired by the Prime Minister
• Members include: Union Ministers concerned, the Chief Ministers of the States through which
Ganga flows.

NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILDLIFE (NBWL)

• Established in 2003 + HQ: New Delhi + under MoEF & CC
• It replaced the ‘Indian Board for Wildlife’, which was formed in 1952 as an advisory board.
• NBWL is a statutory body constituted under the WPA, 1972.
• NBWL Composition: Chairperson: the Prime Minister | Vice-Chair: Minister of Environment | 45
other members including 19 ex-officio members, 3 MPs (2 from LS & 1 from RS), 5 NGOs.
• Objective: To promote the conservation and development of wildlife and forests.
• It has power to review all wildlife-related matters and approve projects in and around national parks
and sanctuaries.
• No alteration of boundaries in National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries can be done without
approval of the NBWL

NATIONAL TIGER CONSERVATION AUTHORITY (NTCA)

• Established in 2006 + HQ: New Delhi + under MoEF & CC
• NTCA is a statutory body constituted under the WPA, 1972 (Amendment Act, 2006).
• Chairperson: Minister of Environment.
• It provides statutory authority to Project Tiger.
• Addresses the livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding Tiger Reserves.
• State level Steering Committees will be set up in the Tiger States under the Chairmanship of
respective Chief Ministers.

National Green Tribunal (NGT)

• The National Green Tribunal (NGT) is a specialized organization established under the NGT
Act, 2010 to handle matters involving the protection and conservation of the environment, forests,
and other natural resources.
• After Australia and New Zealand, India has become the third country in the world to establish a
specialized environmental tribunal, and the first developing country to do so.
• The stated goal of the Central Government was to provide a specialized forum for the effective
and timely resolution of cases involving environmental protection, forest conservation, and
compensation for damages caused to people or property due to violations of environmental laws or
conditions specified when granting permissions.
• The Tribunal's dedicated jurisdiction in environmental disputes will expedite environmental
justice while reducing the burden of litigation in higher courts.
• The Tribunal is required to make an attempt to resolve applications or appeals within six months
after their submission.
• The National Green Tribunal has five sitting locations: Bhopal, Pune, New Delhi, Kolkata, and
Chennai, with New Delhi serving as the primary location.

National Green Tribunal (NGT) Act, 2010

• The National Green Tribunal Act, 2010 is an Act of the Indian Parliament that allows for the
establishment of a special tribunal to handle the fast resolution of environmental complaints.
• It is inspired by India's constitutional provision of Article 21 - Protection of life and personal liberty,
which guarantees the right to a healthy environment to all inhabitants of India.
• The National Green Tribunal Act of 2010 provides for the effective and expeditious resolution of
cases involving environmental protection and the conservation of forests and other natural
resources.
• As well as the enforcement of any legal right relating to the environment and the provision of relief
and compensation for damages to persons and property, as well as matters connected with or
incidental thereto.
• It is a specialist body with the required ability to resolve multi-disciplinary environmental disputes.

Structure of the National Green Tribunal (NGT)

• The Tribunal is made up of a Chairperson, Judicial Members, and Expert Members.

• They are appointed for a five-year term and are not eligible for reappointment.
• The Central Government appoints the Chairperson in collaboration with the Chief Justice of India
(CJI).
• The national government will organize a Selection Committee to designate Judicial and Expert
Members.
• The tribunal must have at least 10 and no more than 20 full-time Judicial and Expert Members.
Powers and Jurisdiction

• The Tribunal has jurisdiction over all civil proceedings involving significant environmental issues
(including enforcement of any legal right relating to the environment).
• As a statutory adjudicatory body, the NGT, like the Courts, has appellate jurisdiction to consider
appeals in addition to original jurisdiction on the filing of an application (Tribunal).
• The Tribunal is not bound by the method outlined in the Code of Civil Procedure 1908, but rather
by the principles of 'natural justice.'
• It shall apply the principles of sustainable development, the precautionary principle, and the polluter
pays principle when giving any order/decision/award.
• By order, the NGT can provide:
• relief and compensation to victims of pollution and other environmental damage (including
accidents happening when handling any hazardous chemical), property restoration, and
• for environmental reparation in such areas or regions as the Tribunal deems appropriate.
• A Tribunal order/decision/award is enforceable as a civil court decree.
• The NGT Act also includes a penalty procedure for non-compliance:
• Imprisonment for a term of up to three years,
• A fine of up to ten crore rupees is possible,
• Both fines and jail are possible.
• An appeal against an NGT order/decision/award must be filed with the Supreme Court within ninety
days of transmission.
• The NGT hears civil cases under the seven environmental statutes, which are as follows:
o The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974
o The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Cess Act, 1977
o The Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
o The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
o The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
o The Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991
o The Biological Diversity Act, 2002
• Any breach of these laws, or any decision made by the government in accordance with these rules,
can be brought before the NGT.
• Strengths of the National Green Tribunal (NGT)
• The NGT has developed as a key player in environmental control over the years, issuing tough
directives on topics ranging from pollution to deforestation to waste management.
• By establishing an alternative dispute resolution process, the NGT paves the way for the expansion
of environmental law.
• It contributes to lessening the burden of environmental litigation in higher courts.
• NGT is a less formal, less expensive, and speedier means to settle environmental issues.
• It is critical in reducing environmentally destructive practices.
• Because the Chairperson and members are not eligible for reappointment, they are more likely to
make decisions independently, without submitting to pressure from any source.
• The NGT has played an important role in ensuring that the Environmental Impact
Assessment process is carefully followed.

National Green Tribunal (NGT) - Challenges

• The NGT lacks jurisdiction over two major acts: the Wildlife (Protection) Act of 1972 and the
Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act
of 2006.
• This limits the NGT's authority and, at times, impedes its operation, as critical forest rights issues
are inextricably related to the environment.
• The NGT verdicts are being challenged in several High Courts under Article 226 (authority of High
Courts to issue certain writs), with many arguing the superiority of a High Court over the NGT,
claiming that "the High Court is a constitutional body, whereas the NGT is a statutory one."
• This is one of the Act's flaws since there is a lack of clarity on what types of decisions can be
challenged, despite the fact that, according to the NGT Act, its decision can be appealed before
the Supreme Court.
• NGT decisions have also been criticized and questioned because of their implications for economic
growth and development.
• The tribunal has also faced criticism for the lack of a formula-based method for assessing
compensation.
• The NGT's decisions are not fully implemented by stakeholders or the government. Its judgments
are sometimes pointed out as being impractical to implement within a specified timeframe.
• The lack of human and financial resources has resulted in a high number of cases pending,
undermining the NGT's stated goal of resolving appeals within 6 months.
• The insufficient number of regional benches also impedes the justice delivery mechanism.

National Green Tribunal (NGT) - Landmark Judgements

• POSCO, a steelmaker, struck an agreement with the Odisha government in 2012 to establish a
steel plant. The NGT postponed the order, which was viewed as a dramatic step in favour of local
communities and forests.
• In the 2012 Almitra H. Patel vs. Union of India case, the National Green Tribunal issued a
judgement prohibiting open burning of rubbish on lands, including landfills - widely recognised as
the single most important landmark case dealing with the subject of solid waste management in
India.
• In the Uttarakhand floods case in 2013, the Alaknanda Hydro Power Co. Ltd. was compelled to
compensate the petitioner - here, the NGT squarely relied on the 'polluter pays' premise.
• The NGT ruled in 2015 that all diesel vehicles older than ten years will be prohibited from operating
in Delhi-NCR.
• The Art of Living Festival on Yamuna Food Plain was considered an environmental violation in
2017, and the NGT panel assessed a Rs. 5 crore penalty.
• In 2017, the NGT placed an interim ban on plastic bags with a thickness of fewer than 50 microns
in Delhi because "they were causing animal fatalities, blocking sewers, and damaging the
environment."
Wildlife Trust of India:

• The Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) was founded in 1998 in response to the numerous crises
confronting India's wildlife and natural habitats.
• A three-person team set out on a mission to save the environment which is now increased to 150
full time professionals.
• The goal is to conserve nature, particularly endangered species and threatened habitats, in
collaboration with communities and governments.
• The Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) is dedicated to the conservation of India's wildlife, which it
accomplishes by collaborating with local communities and governments on a variety of projects
ranging from species rehabilitation to the prevention of illegal wildlife trade.
• WTI has been working:
o to help endangered species recover;
o addressing wildlife emergencies and wild animal rescue and rehabilitation;
o empowering and assisting law enforcement in the fight against wildlife crime;
o preserving natural habitats;
o raising conservation awareness;
o promoting green livelihoods;
o assisting with grassroots conservation initiatives.

Jointly run centres

• The Wildlife Trust of India and the Assam Forest Department run the Centre for Wildlife
Rehabilitation and Conservation, which is funded by the International Fund for Animal Welfare.
• The Wildlife Trust of India and the Chhattisgarh Forest Department jointly manage the Udanti
Tiger Reserve in Gariaband district, Chhattisgarh.

Wildlife Trust of India - Conservation Achievements

• India has one of the world's richest biodiversity reserves and has been conscious of its rich natural
heritage and conservation priorities. The Indian government and civil society organisations have
taken the lead on this front.
• The Wildlife Trust of India (WTI), a leading Indian nature conservation organisation dedicated to
the service of nature, is one such organisation.
• WTI currently operates 44 projects in India.
• While working tirelessly in partnership with communities and governments to achieve its mission
of conserving wildlife and its habitat, as well as the welfare of individual wild animals, WTI has
reached some significant conservation milestones.
• WTI's conservation efforts have also aided hornbills, which are particularly endangered in North-
east India.
o The Nyishi tribe of Arunachal Pradesh adorned their headgears with hornbill beaks, which
served as a source of pride for the entire community. As a result, hundreds of hornbills are killed
each year.
o Instead of killing the bird, WTI intervened and persuaded the tribe to use fibreglass hornbill
beaks to adorn their headgears.
 o Not only has the slaughter ceased, but the tribal community is now earning a living by producing
these fibreglass beaks.
• Elephants, which have a large home range and food requirements that necessitate transboundary
movement, have been among the species most affected by habitat alteration and loss of habitat
connectivity.
o WTI is the first Indian organisation to map 101 corridors used by Asian Elephants to
traverse the country.
o It has also published a seminal publication on corridor securement, "The Right of Passage,"
which explains the four workable securement models.
o Six of these corridors have already been secured with the assistance of the state government and
international partners.

Manas Landscape

• WTI's Greater Manas Conservation Project restored the ecological functionality of the Manas
landscape, restoring it to its former glory.
• The Manas Landscape is home to a diverse range of wildlife, including many endangered species,
and is located at the crossroads of three bio-geographic realms: the lower Gangetic plain, the Central
Himalayas, and the Brahmaputra Valley. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985.
• The landscape has five conservation designations: Tiger Reserve, National Park, Elephant Reserve,
Biosphere Reserve, and World Heritage Site.
• Since early 1988, civil and political unrest caused by the ethnic Bodo community's demand for a
separate "Bodoland" has resulted in extensive damage to the landscape's wildlife and wild habitats.
• However, after the formation of the "Bodoland Territorial Council" in 2003, with a tripartite
agreement between the Bodoland People's Front, the Government of Assam, and the Government
of India for the creation of a territorial council, peace and normalcy prevailed.
• WTI's efforts, in collaboration with its partner, the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW),
were successful in adding 350 square kilometres of land to the existing National Park, which was
officially designated as the "First Addition to Manas National Park."
• The critical ecosystem, which was once listed as a UNESCO World Heritage site in danger, has
been resurrected.

National Ganga Council: Established by the River Ganga (Rejuvenation, Protection, and Management)
Authorities Order, 2016. It replaced the National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) and headed
by Prime Minister.

Aim: preventing pollution and rejuvenating the Ganga River Basin.

National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) – registered as a society under the Societies Registration
Act 1860) is the implementation wing of NGC, which is implementing the Namami Gange Programme.

Namami Gange Programme(2019) : The main pillars of the programme are Sewerage Treatment
Infrastructure, River-Front Development, River-Surface Cleaning, Biodiversity, Afforestation, Public
Awareness, Industrial Effluent Monitoring and Ganga Gram.

Clean Ganga Fund: Set up in 2014 as a trust under the Indian Trust Act, 1882. It allows resident Indians,
Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origins (PIOs), Corporates (Public as well as private
 sector) to contribute towards the conservation of the river Ganga. The contributions to the Clean Ganga
Fund fall within the purview of Corporate Social Responsibility CSR).

Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM, 2014): It is implemented by the Ministry of Drinking Water and
Sanitation (Ministry of Jal Shakti from 2019). SBM seeks to achieve universal sanitation coverage by
making Gram Panchayats Open Defecation Free (ODF). Under SBM, incentives are provided for the
construction of household latrines.

Swachh Bharat Mission II (2020-21 and 2024-2025): It focuses on Open Defecation Free Plus (ODF
Plus), which includes ODF sustainability and solid and liquid waste management(SLWM).

The ODF Plus will converge with MGNREGA and will complement the newly launched Jal Jeevan
Mission. National Water Quality Monitoring Programme: Executed by CPCBs in association with the
SPCBs
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) : Statutory body constituted under the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
Entrusted more powers and functions under the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
Provides technical services to the MOEFCC under provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986.
Oversees the National Air Monitoring Programme (NAMP) and Water Quality Monitoring (WQM).

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY (BNHS)

The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS) opened its regional centre on the campus of
Wetland Research and Training Centre near Chilika Lake in Odisha.
About:
• It is a Non-Governmental Organisation in India engaged in conservation and biodiversity research.

• HQ:

• Established in:

• BNHS has been designated as a 'Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation' by the Department
of Science and Technology.

• BNHS is the partner of Bird Life Internationalin India. Bird Life International is a global partnership
of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats and global biodiversity. It is
headquartered in Cambrige, UK.

• Logo: The BNHS logo is the great hornbill.

Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), Dehradun

Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) is an apex body in the national forestry
research system. It undertakes the holistic promotion of forestry research through need based planning,
promoting, conducting and coordinating research, education and extension covering all aspects of
forestry.
Its objectives are:
1. To undertake, aid, promote and coordinate forestry education, research and their applications.
2. To develop and maintain a national library and information centre for forestry and allied sciences.
3. To act as a clearing-house for research and general information related to forests and wildlife.
Wildlife Institute of India (WII)
The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) is working to develop immuno-contraceptive measures for
population management of species that have become problematic for humans in many parts of the
country.
About WII:

• It is an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change.
• It was established in 1982.
• It is based in Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
• It offers training programs, academic courses, and advisory in wildlife research and
management.

ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS IN INDIA

Wildlife Protection Act 1972:
Objective –a key legislation within India’s environmental laws, aims to protect wild animals, birds,
plants & matter connected with them.
• Appointment of Wildlife Advisory Board, Wildlife Warden.
• Central Zoo Authority and National Board for Wildlife.
• Establishment of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Conservation reserve, community
reserves, & Tiger reserves.
• License for Trade & commerce in some wildlife species & Ban trade or commerce in scheduled
animals.
• In-situ & ex-situ conservation of wildlife. Regulations for hunting wild animals & birds.

There are 4 Schedules which gives varying degree of protection:

Schedule I: Specifying the animal species with the highest level of protection.

Schedule II: Specifying the animal species with a relatively lower degree of protection.

Schedule III: For plant species.

Schedule IV: For species protected under Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
Amendments in 2006 expanded its scope by creating the National Tiger Conservation Authority and
the Wildlife Crime Control Bureau (WCCB) under the umbrella of environmental laws.
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986:
The Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 stands as a pivotal component of India’s environmental
laws. Formulated with the objective of safeguarding and enhancing the environment while minimizing
pollution. Enacted aftermath of Bhopal Gas Tragedy (1984).
• Authorizes the central government to control & reduce pollution from all sources.
Provides procedures for setting standards of emission or discharge of environmental pollutants.
Indian Forest Act, 1927
Objective – To protect & conserve forests.
• It conserves the environment by categorizing forest into Reserve forest, Protected forest & Village
forest.
• The Act defines forest offense, Specifies the acts prohibited inside a Reserved Forest, and
penalties for the violation to ensure environmental preservation.
Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980
Objective – To protect the forest and control its deterioration to ensure environmental preservation.
• Mandatory Central Government’s prior approval for diversion of forest land for non-forestry
purposes.
• It conserves the environment by checking deforestation & encouraging afforestation.
National Forest Policy, 1988
The National Forest Policy of 1988 stands as a key component within India’s environmental laws,
with its primary objective being to ensure environmental stability & ecological balance to ensure
environmental preservation.
• It conserves the environment by Conservation of existing Natural Heritage.
• Checking Soil Erosion & Denudation in catchment areas.
• Checking extension of dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan & along coastal tracts.
• It conserves the environment by Substantially increasing Forest or Tree Cover through
Afforestation & Social Forestry.
• Increasing the productivity of Forests to meet National Needs.
• It conserves the environment by encouraging efficient utilization of Forest Produce & Optimum
Use of Wood (Timber).
• Generation of Work Opportunities, the involvement of Women.

Note – Forest policy, 1952 recommends 33% forest cover (60% in mountainous region & 25% in
plain area) of the total area
The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006
Objective – To restore the deprived forest rights of the Scheduled Tribes & other traditional forest
dwellers across India to ensure environmental preservation.
• Grants legal recognition to the rights of traditional forest-dwelling communities.
• National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forest & Protected Forests are included for the recognition
of Rights.
• The Act defines ‘Critical wildlife habitats’ as areas of national parks & wildlife sanctuaries that
are kept aloof for wildlife conservation.
Rights recognized:

1. Title Rights: To legally hold forest lands (up to 4 acres). Applies for land that is being cultivated by
the concerned family, no new lands are granted.

2. Use Rights: Forest produce including non-timber forest produce of plants by the community.

3. Community forest resource rights: To protect, regenerate, conserve or manage forest resources for
sustainable use, providing for community governance of forests.

Eligibility criteria:

1. Must be a Scheduled Tribe in the area where the right is claimed.

2. Primarily resided in forest or forests land for three generations (75 years) before 13-12-2005; and

3. Depend on the forest or forest land for livelihood needs.

Process of recognition of rights:

1. Gram Sabha – Pass a resolution recommending whose rights to which resources should be
recognized.

2. Screening committees – Resolution is screened & approved at the level of the sub-division (or
taluka) and the district level.

The screening committees consist of three government officials (Forest, Revenue & Tribal Welfare
departments) and three elected members of the local body at that level. These committees also hear
appeals.
Biological Diversity Act 2002
Objective – To conserve, promote sustainable use of biological diversity & ensure fair & equitable
sharing of its benefits to ensure environmental preservation.
• The Act was enacted to meet the obligations under the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD).
• Prohibits the transfer of Indian genetic material outside the country, without specific approval.
• Prior permission is mandatory to claim IPR over Biodiversity & its derivatives.
• Regulation of the use of GM organisms.
• Establishes National, State, & Local Biodiversity Funds.
• Set up Biodiversity Management Committees at the local village level, State Biodiversity Boards
at the state level, & a National Biodiversity Authority at the national level.
The Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers Right Act, 2001
Objective –The Protection of Plant Variety and Farmers’ Rights Act of 2001 plays a crucial role in
India’s environmental laws by aiming to protect plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant
breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants + Recognizes rights of Farmers,
Breeders & researchers to ensure nature’s preservation.
Farmers Rights:
• Under the umbrella of environmental laws in India, the act delineates Farmers’ Rights, which
include Recognition and rewards for the conservation of Plant Genetic Resources.
• A farmer who has developed a new variety is entitled to registration and protection.
• Compensation to the farmers for non-performance of variety.
• Farmers are not liable to pay any fee in any proceeding before the
Authority/Registrar/Tribunal/High Court under the Act.

Breeders’ Rights:
• Breeders will have exclusive rights to produce, sell, market, distribute, import, or export the
protected variety.

Researchers’ Rights:
• Researchers can use any of the registered varieties under the Act for conducting experiments or
research.
• Investment in R&D for the development of new plant varieties.

Facilitate the growth of the seed industry, ensure the availability of high-quality seeds & planting
material —a testament to its integral role within the broader framework of environmental laws in
India.
Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act (CAMPA Act), 2016.

The Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act (CAMPA Act) of 2016 holds a crucial position within the
spectrum of India’s environmental laws.

Objective – To provide an appropriate institutional mechanism to utilize afforestation funds to ensure

nature’s preservation.
• Set up Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management & Planning Authority (CAMPA) at central
& state level.
• Establishes a National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India, & a
State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state.
• The National Fund receives 10% & State Fund gets 90% of funds collected.
• The funds are utilized for afforestation, regeneration of forest ecosystem, wildlife protection &
infrastructure development.
• The Forest Conservation Act of 1980 provides that non-forest land, equal to the size of the forest
being “diverted”, is afforested or money deposited for the same, emphasizing the
interconnectedness of environmental laws in India.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS

ENVIRONMENTAL CONVENTIONS: UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON THE HUMAN

ENVIRONMENT (1972)
• It marked the emergence of international environmental law.
• The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was created as a result of this conference.
• First conference was held in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1972.
 Stockholm Declaration
• It set out the principles for various international environmental issues, &
the relationship between the environment and development.
• It is also known as ‘The Declaration on the Human Environment’.

BRUNDTLAND COMMISSION
• Formerly known as the World Commission on Environment & Development (WCED)
• Mission: to unite countries to pursue sustainable development together.
• The Commission was officially dissolved in December 1987 after releasing “Our Common
Future”, also known as the Brundtland Report, in October 1987.
• The document popularized (and defined) the term “Sustainable Development”.

RIO EARTH SUMMIT, 1992

• Also known as the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held
in Rio de Janeiro, June 1992.
• Earth Summit was held as a platform for Member States to collaborate in conservation efforts.

Major Outcomes:
1. Rio Declaration on Environment and Development
2. Agenda 21
3. Forest Principles

Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (Rio Declaration):

The Rio Declaration consisted of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future sustainable
development. It was signed by over 175 countries.

AGENDA 21
• It is a non-binding action plan sourced from Rio Earth Summit, 1992.
• The number 21 refers to an agenda for the 21st century.
• Objective: to achieve Global sustainable development.
• Since 2015, Sustainable Development Goals are included in the Agenda 2030.

FOREST PRINCIPLES
• Also known as Rio Forest Principles, 1992.
• It is a Non-legally binding document on Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types
of Forest.
CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD
FAUNA AND FLORA (CITES)
• Also known as the Washington Convention
• Objective: to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals & plants does not
threaten their survival.
• Drafted in 1963, at IUCN members meet + Came into force by July 1975, currently has 183 Parties.
Location: Geneva.
• 1976: India joined the CITES.
• CITES, legally binding but does not take the place of national laws.
• Amendments to the Convention must be supported by a two-thirds majority who are “present and
voting”.

THE WILDLIFE TRADE MONITORING NETWORK (TRAFFIC)

• TRAFFIC is a non-governmental organization working globally on trade in wild animals & plants
in the context of both biodiversity conservation & sustainable development.
• A joint programme of WWF & IUCN + estb. in 1976.
• TRAFFIC is complementary to CITES.
• Objective: is to ensure that trade in wild plants & animals is not a threat to the conservation of
nature.
• It investigates and analyses wildlife trade trends, patterns, impacts & drivers to provide the leading
knowledge base on trade in wild animals & plants.

Initiatives of TRAFFIC
• An initiative of TRAFFIC in India.
“Don’t Buy • Aim: to send warning message against buying illegal wildlife products.
Trouble” • Targeted at tourists & other potential buyers of wildlife products.
campaign:
• Under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 not only the Poacher or Trader of endangered
wildlife, but also the Buyers are also liable for punishment.
• It is an advertisement campaign designed to remind Asia’s Big Cats conservation.
“Wanted (2012)
Alive”
campaign: • Campaign posters feature the 4 Asian big cats: Tiger, Leopard, Snow Leopard and
Clouded Leopard, all of them threatened by illegal trade in their body parts.

CONVENTION ON THE CONSERVATION OF MIGRATORY SPECIES (CMS) OF WILD

ANIMALS
• It is an international treaty, concluded under the aegis of UNEP, signed in 1979. Also known as
The Bonn Convention
• Objective: is to conserve terrestrial, marine & avian migratory species throughout their range.
• It is the only global convention specializing in the conservation of migratory species, their habitats
& migration routes.
• Appendix-I: Includes, the threatened migratory species
• Appendix-II: Includes, the migratory species requiring international cooperation.
CMS: 13th CoP Feb-2020
• Held in Gandhinagar, India + India will host presidency for next 3
• CoP-13 Theme: “Migratory species connect the planet & together we welcome them home”
• Logo: was inspired by the traditional ‘KOLAM’ from Southern India, which has a profound
significance in the context of living in harmony with nature.
• Mascot: The GIBI – Great Indian Bustard (IUCN-Critically Endangered).
• 13th CoP has adopted the Gandhinagar Declaration, which calls for migratory species & the
concept of ‘Ecological Connectivity’ to be integrated & prioritized in the new framework.
• Critically endangered species listed in Pink pages.
• Green pages are used for those species that were formerly endangered, but have now recovered to
a point where they are no longer threatened.
• IUCN has observer & consultative status at the United Nations.

GLOBAL TIGER FORUM (GTF)

• Founded in 1993, HQ: New Delhi, India.
• Objective: to address the international issues related to tiger conservation in tiger range countries
(TRC).
• The TRC countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malayasia,
Myanmar, Nepal, Russia, Thailand, Vietnam and North-Korea.
• GTF is the only intergovernmental organization related to tigers in the World.
• GTF general assembly meets on every three years.

STOCKHOLM CONVENTION
• It is an International treaty, signed in 2001 and effective from 2004.
• Objective: To eliminate or restrict the production & use of Persistent Organic Pollutants (PoPs).
• It is legally binding on member countries.
• India is a party to this treaty + USA is not a signatory.
• Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) & the International Programme on Chemical
Safety (IPCS) prepared a list, known as the Dirty Dozen:
• There is provision that developed countries provide new & additional financial resources &
measures to minimize / regulate POPs to developing nations.

Persistent Organic Pollutants

• These are organic compounds that are resistant to environmental degradation.
• These persist in the environment; bio accumulates and poses a risk to human health
& the environment.

BASEL CONVENTION
• Aims to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes.
• Signed in 1989 + entered into force on 5 May 1992 + Parties-187.
 • The USA & Haiti have signed the Convention but NOT ratified.
• Its objective was to stop dumping of hazardous waste from developed countries in developing
nations.
• It does not address the movement of radioactive waste.
• BASEL CoP-14 (Geneva, 2019) Theme: “Clean Planet, Healthy People: Sound Management of
Chemicals and Waste”.
• The technical guidelines on e-waste & inclusion of plastic waste in the Prior Informed Consent
(PIC) procedure were decided in CoP-14.
• The Conference kicked off “Super Year for Environment”, and culminates in the UN Biodiversity
Conference at the end of 2020.
• Ten new species were added to CMS Appendices at COP13
• Seven species were added to Appendix-I: Asian Elephant, Jaguar, Great Indian Bustard, Bengal
Florican, Little Bustard, Antipodean Albatross and the Oceanic White-tip Shark.
• Three species were added to Appendix-II: Urial, Smooth Hammerhead Shark & the Tope Shark.

BASEL BAN AMENDMENT

• It was adopted by the parties to the Basel Convention in 1995.
• This prohibits the export of Hazardous wastes from member states
of the European Union, OECD, & Liechtenstein to all other countries.
• Amendment became international law on the 5th of December 2019.
• Croatia became the 97th country to ratify the ban.

INTERNATIONAL TROPICAL TIMBER ORGANIZATION (ITTO)

• ITTO is an intergovernmental organization under the UN.
• Objective: To promote the sustainable management & conservation of tropical forests.
• India is also a member.

UNITED NATIONS FORUM ON FORESTS (UNFF)

• It is an Intergovernmental organization, established by the United Nations Economic & Social
Council (ECOSOC) in 2000 + HQ: New York, USA.
• Objective: to strengthen political commitment to the management, conservation & sustainable
development of all types of forests.
• UNFF is built on the “Forest Principles” together with the Agenda-21 of Rio Earth summit (1992).

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE (IUCN)

• IUCN is an international organization that works in the field of Conservation & Sustainable use of
Nature & Natural resources.
• Formed in: 1948 + Headquarters: Gland, Switzerland.
• Governments as well as private groups can be members of IUCN.
• It publishes (since 1964) the ‘IUCN Red List of Threatened Species’, which assesses the
conservation status of species worldwide.
ROTTERDAM CONVENTION
• It is a multilateral environmental treaty under the UN to promote shared responsibilities in relation
to importation of Hazardous Chemicals + effective from 2004.
• To achieve its objectives the Convention includes two key provisions:
• Prior Informed Consent (PIC) Procedure
• Information Exchange Mechanism.
• Creates legally binding obligations for the implementation of the Prior Informed Consent (PIC)

Prior Informed
Consent (PIC) PIC is a mechanism to formally obtain approval & disseminate information on
Procedure imports of those chemicals listed in Annex III of the Convention. It also,
ensures export compliance with guidelines.

Information The Convention requires each Party to notify the Secretariat when taking a
Exchange Mechanism domestic regulatory action to ban or severely restrict a Chemical.

INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION (IWC)

• International body set up under the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling
(ICWR)
• Objective: To conserve whale stocks + For orderly development of the whaling industry.
• Signed in Washington DC on 2nd December 1946 + India joined in 1981.
• It governs the commercial, scientific, & aboriginal subsistence whaling practices of 59 member
nations
• In 1982 the IWC adopted a moratorium on commercial whaling.
• In 2018: Japan pulled out of the IWC to resume commercial whaling.
The “Florianópolis Declaration” of 2018

The declaration insists that commercial whaling is no longer a necessary economic activity & would
allow the recovery of all whale population to pre-industrial whaling levels.

VIENNA CONVENTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE OZONE LAYER

• It is one of the most successful treaties of all time + ratified by 197 states.
• It is a multilateral environmental agreement that was agreed upon by 1985 & entered into force in
1988 + not legally binding
• It acts as a framework for the international efforts to protect the Ozone layer.
• These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal Protocol.

MONTREAL PROTOCOL
• It is a protocol to the Vienna Convention and it deals with the substances that deplete the Ozone
Layer. (ozone depleting substance-ODS)
• It was the first treaty to achieve universal ratification.
 • The protocol recognizes that all nations should not be treated equally.

KIGALI AGREEMENT (2016)

• On 1st January 2019, the Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol came into force.
• This amends 1987 Montreal Protocol to reduce the use of HFCs (a family of potent GHG) by
more than 80% by late 2040s.
• It is a legally binding international agreement.
• India recently achieved complete phase out of ozone depleting HydroChloroFluoroCarbons
(HCFC-141b). Also, India proactively phased out production & consumption of CFCs in 2008
before the timeline.
Note: Though HFCs are not ODS they are included in Montreal Protocol through
Kigali agreement due to their Global Warming potential.

HELSINKI PROTOCOL, 1985

• Protocol to the 1979 Convention on Long-Range Trans-boundary Air Pollution on the Reduction of
Sulphur Emissions.

MINAMATA CONVENTION ON MERCURY

• The Convention was signed at Minamata, Japan in 2013 & entered into force in 2017.
• It is an UNEP led international treaty designed to protect Human health and the Environment from
anthropogenic emissions & releases of Mercury and Mercury compounds.
• India ratified it in 2018.
• Mercury is recognized as a substance producing significant adverse neurological & other health
effects, with particular concerns expressed about its harmful effects on infants and unborn children.

GLOBALLY IMPORTANT AGRICULTURAL HERITAGE SYSTEMS (GIAHS)

• Purpose of GIAHS is to create public awareness, safeguard world agricultural heritage sites.
• It was started in 2002 by UN-FAO (Food & agricultural organization).
• GIAHS are outstanding landscapes of aesthetic beauty that combine agricultural biodiversity,
resilient ecosystems & a valuable cultural heritage.
• They sustainably provide multiple goods & services, food & livelihood security for millions of
small-scale farmers.
• GIAHS constitute the foundation for contemporary and future agricultural innovations and
technologies.
• Three regions of India which has been recognized as the GIAHS:
• Koraput Traditional Agriculture, Odisha State
• Saffron heritage of Kashmir Valley, Pampore region
• Kuttanad below the Sea level farming system.

GREEN AGRICULTURE PROJECT – India

• Joint project of the Ministry of Agriculture & the UN–Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO),
funded by the Global Environment Facility (GEF).
• Aims to integrate Biodiversity, Climate Change & Sustainable Land Management objectives and
practices into Indian Agriculture.
• Implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture, MoEF&CC & the FAO,
• Pilot phase of the project was conducted in Mizoram, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and
Uttarakhand.

GLOBAL ALLIANCE FOR CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE (GACSA)

• GACSA is an inclusive, voluntary & action-oriented multi-stakeholder platform on Climate-Smart
Agriculture (CSA).
• CSA was developed by ‘Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO).
• GACSA was launched in September 2014 in the margins of the UN Climate Summit.
• The GACSA alliance is made up of a diverse set of members that includes governments, NGOs,
intergovernmental organizations.

UN-CONVENTION ON BIODIVERSITY (UNCBD)

• A legally binding multilateral treaty. Adopted at the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, 1992.
• Came into force in 1993 | ratified by 196 nations | Secretariat at Montreal, Canada.
• The USA has signed but not ratified the convention
• It recognized for the first time that conservation of biological diversity is a common concern of
humankind.
• Objectives:
o Conservation of biological diversity;
o Sustainable use of biological resources ( or its components)
• Fair & equitable sharing of benefits arising from the use of genetic resources.
• The UN declared 2011 to 2020 as the ‘United Nations Decade on Biodiversity’ in December 2010.
• India enacted ‘Biological Diversity Act’ in 2002, to give effects to the provisions of the CBD.

The Clearing-House Mechanism (CHM)

• Under CBD, to ensure that all governments have access to the information & technologies they
need for their work on biodiversity.
• CHM serves to:
o Promote & facilitate technical and scientific cooperation within & between countries;
o Develop a global mechanism for exchange & integration of information on biodiversity;
o Develop a Human and Technological network.

Protocols Related to CBD:

1. The Cartagena Protocol on Bio-Safety, 2000
2. Nagoya Protocol, 2010
3. Aichi Biodiversity Targets (2011-2020)
4. Kuala Lumpur Supplementary Protocol on Liability & Redress
THE CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY
• Signed in 2000 at Montreal as supplementary agreement to CBD. It was originally scheduled
for 1999, at Cartagena.
• Effective since 2003 | as on 173 parties, India ratified it in 2003.
• Objective: To ensure safe handling, transport and use of Living Modified Organisms (LMO)
resulting from modern Biotechnology.
• Two major components of Cartagena Protocol:
o Advanced Informed Agreement (AIA): ensures that the countries are provided with the
information necessary to make informed decisions before importing LMOs.
o Procedure & Biosafety Clearing House: facilitates the exchange of information on LMOs & to
assist countries in the implementation of the Protocol.

Note: Protocol’s AIA procedure does not apply to:

1. LMOs in transit;
2. LMOs destined for contained use;

LMOs intended for direct use as food or feed or for processing.

NAGOYA PROTOCOL
• Also known as Biodiversity Accord
• It’s a Protocol on access to Genetic Resources and the Fair & Equitable Sharing of Benefits
arising from their utilization to CBD.
• It was adopted in 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Province, Japan, & entered into force in 2014.
• The protocol is legally binding & open to only CBD ratified countries (excludes USA,
Andorra).
• It does not apply to Human Genetic Material.
• Nagoya protocol’s strategic plan with 20 targets is called “Aichi Target”.
• ‘The Access & Benefit Sharing (ABS) Clearing House’ is a key tool which facilitates the
smooth implementation of the Nagoya Protocol.

AICHI BIODIVERSITY TARGETS

Strategic Address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming

Goal A biodiversity across government and society

Strategic
Reduce the direct pressures on biodiversity and promote sustainable use
Goal B
 Strategic To improve the status of biodiversity by safeguarding ecosystems,
Goal C species and genetic diversity

Strategic
Enhance the benefits to all from biodiversity and ecosystem services
Goal D

Strategic Enhance implementation through participatory planning,

Goal E knowledge management and capacity building

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a tool used to identify the environmental, social and
economic impacts of a project prior to decision-making.

• Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating the likely

environmental impacts of a proposed project or development, taking into account inter-
related socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both beneficial and adverse.

o Environment Impact Assessment in India is statutorily backed by the Environment

Protection Act, 1986 which contains various provisions on EIA methodology and
process.

o Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important management tool for

ensuring optimal use of natural resources for sustainable development.

o It covers developmental sectors such as industries, thermal power projects, mining

schemes etc.
Aim of EIA
It aims to predict environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and design, find
ways and means to reduce adverse impacts, shape projects to suit the local environment and present
the predictions and options to decision-makers.
EIA systematically examines both beneficial and adverse consequences of the project and ensures
that these effects are taken into account during project design.
It helps to identify possible environmental effects of the proposed project, proposes measures to
mitigate adverse effects and predicts whether there will be significant adverse environmental effects,
even after the mitigation is implemented.
By considering the environmental effects of the project and their mitigation early in the project
planning cycle, environmental assessment has many benefits, such as protection of environment,
optimum utilisation of resources and saving of time and cost of the project.
Properly conducted EIA also lessens conflicts by promoting community participation, informing
decision makers, and helping lay the base for environmentally sound projects. Benefits of integrating
EIA have been observed in all stages of a project, from exploration and planning, through
construction, operations, decommissioning, and beyond site closure.
Background

• The EIA process finds its origin from United States where due to huge public pressure;
the government enacted National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) in 1970s.

• The role of EIA process was formally recognized at the Earth Summit in Rio Conference
in 1992.

• The Rio declaration stated that EIA shall be taken as national instrument for proposed
projects which might adversely impact the environment.

• The Indian experience with Environmental Impact Assessment began over 20 years back.
It started in 1976-77 when the Planning Commission asked the Department of Science
and Technology to examine the river-valley projects from an environmental angle. This
was subsequently extended to cover those projects, which required the approval of the
Public Student Notes: Investment Board.

• Till 1994, environmental clearance from the Central Government was an administrative
decision and lacked legislative support.

• On 27 January 1994, the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF),

Government of India, under the Environmental (Protection) Act 1986, promulgated an
EIA notification making Environmental Clearance (EC) mandatory for expansion or
modernisation of any activity or for setting up new projects listed in Schedule 1 of the
notification. Since then there have been 12 amendments made in the EIA notification of
1994.
Applicability in India
EIA was first introduced in 1978 with regard to the various river valley projects all over the country
and later expanded to include various other developmental procedures in its scope. EIA is now
mandatory for over 30 classes of projects.
The Environmental Protection Rules, 1986 warrant for the imposition of certain restrictions on the
construction/ expansion/ modernization of specific projects without prior approval from the Central,
State, or Union Territory level Environmental Impact Assessment Authority (EIAA) constituted under
the Environment Protection Act, 1986.
Categorisation of projects

• The rules categorize the projects into two categories- A and B on the basis of the
magnitude of their scale and impact on the natural and artificial resources. The projects
belonging to Category A require approval from the Ministry of Environment and Forests
on behalf of the Central Government, on the advice of an Expert Appraisal Committee
(EAC), constituted by the Central Government for this specific purpose; eg. Construction
or Expansion of Ports, harbours, airports, nuclear power, and related projects, Primary
metallurgical industries (iron, steel, copper, etc), individual projects, etc.
 • Projects and Activities falling under Category B require the approval of a State EIAA,
based on the advice of a State Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC), constituted under
the said notification.
EIA Notification, 2006
Objectives: The objectives of EIA Notification, 2006 inter alia include:

• To formulate a transparent, decentralized and efficient regulatory mechanism to integrate

environmental concerns into the developmental process with a view to facilitating
sustainable development.

• To ensure incorporation of necessary environmental safeguards at planning stage in the

project cycle, so as to ensure minimal impact on different components of the
environment.

• To ensure involvement of stakeholders in the public consultation process through public

hearing and to ascertain the views of the public on the proposed project or activity.
Salient Features: The salient features of EIA Notification, 2006 inter alia include:

• The EIA Notification, 2006 has categorized the projects into two categories namely;
Category ‘A’ and Category ‘B’ based on their impact potential͘

• Category A projects require mandatory environmental clearance and thus they do not
undergo the screening process.

• Category B projects undergoes screening process and they are classified into two types.

o Category B1 projects (Mandatorily requires EIA).

o Category B2 projects (Do not require EIA).

• Thus, Category A projects and Category B, projects undergo the complete EIA process
whereas Category B2 projects are excluded from complete EIA process.

• The stage of scoping for prescribing terms of reference by the Regul atory Agency for the
EIA studies has been incorporated in accordance with the International practice. It is
expected to improve the quality of EIA thereby improving the quality of decision making
and minimizing the delays.

• The public consultation process has been made more structured. It has two components
i.e. comments through correspondence and by public hearing at site. Provision to
videograph the proceedings of the public hearing has been made.

• NOCs ( No-Objection Certificates) from other regulatory agencies such as SPCB etc. are
not a prerequisite for considering application for environmental clearance.
Stages of Environmental Clearance: The environmental clearance process comprises of four stages,
namely, Stage

• Screening Stage: Screening refers scrutiny of category ‘B’ projects seeking prior
environmental clearance made in Form-1 by the concerned State Level Expert Appraisal
Committee for determining whether or not the project requires further environmental
studies for preparation of EIA for its appraisal depending upon the nature and location
specificity of the project.

• Scoping Stage: What effects could this project have on the environment? Which of these
effects are likely to be significant and therefore need particular attention in the
environmental studies? Which alternatives and mitigation measures ought to be
considered in developing the proposal for the project

• Public Consultation stage: To ascertain views of local persons. Outcome of public

consultation, which is not a decision making process, to be included in EIA and
addressed.

• Appraisal stage: Appraisal means the detailed scrutiny by the Expert Appraisal
Committee or State Level Expert Appraisal Committee of the application and other
documents submitted by the applicant for grant of environmental clearance.
Stakeholders in the EIA Process

• Those who propose the project

• The environmental consultant who prepare EIA on behalf of project proponent

• Pollution Control Board (State or National)

• Public has the right to express their opinion

• The Impact Assessment Agency

• Regional centre of the MoEFCC

2006 Amendment to the EIA Notification

• Decentralisation of Project Clearances: It classified the developmental projects in two

categories:

o Category A (national level appraisal): projects are appraised by Impact Assessment

Agency (IAA) and the Expert Appraisal Committee (EAC)

o Category B (state level appraisal): State Level Environment Impact Assessment

Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC) provide
clearance to the Category B projects.
• Introduction of Different Stages: The Amendment introduced four stages into EIA Cycle;
Screening, Scoping, Public hearing and Appraisal.

o Category A projects require mandatory environmental clearance and thus they do not
have to undergo the screening process.

o Category B projects undergo a screening process and are further classified into B1
(Mandatorily requiring EIA) and B2 (Not requiring EIA).

• Projects with Mandatory Clearance: Projects such as mining, thermal power plants, river
valley, infrastructure (road, highway, ports, harbours and airports) and industries
including very small electroplating or foundry units are mandated to get environment
clearance.
Advantages of EIA
By using EIA both environmental and economic benefits can be achieved, such as:

• Reduced cost and time of project implementation and design,

• Avoided treatment/clean-up costs and impacts of laws and regulations.

• Lays base for environmentally sound projects;

• Greater awareness of environmental legislation;

• Protection of Environment

• Optimum utilization of resources(balance between development and Environmental

protection)

• Informs decision makers

• EIA reports are a critical component of India’s environmental decision-making process

• . It acts as a detailed study of the potential impacts of proposed projects.

• It helps in predicting environmental impacts at an early stage in project planning and

design.

• Based on these reports, the Environment Ministry or other relevant regulatory bodies may
or may not grant approval to a project.

• The EIA reports are also important to define measures that the project could take in order
to contain or offset project impacts.

• EIA-based approvals for most projects also involve the process of conducting public
hearings, so that who are likely to be affected can be taken on board before approving the
project.

• EIA links environment with development.

• The goal is to ensure environmentally safe and sustainable development.
Limitations of EIA

• Time-consuming

• Little public participation in actual implementation

• Sometimes too focused on the scientific analysis

• Compliance monitoring after EIA is seldom carried out

• Impact assessment processes are in place and applied in many countries, yet biodiversity
is often inadequately addressed.

• There is a growing recognition of the need to better reflect biodiversity considerations in

environmental impact assessments and strategic environmental assessments.
Draft EIA Notification 2020

• The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has published the
draft Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification 2020, with the intention of
replacing the existing EIA Notification, 2006 under the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986.

• The Key Proposals of the 2020 Draft include:

o Reduced Time for Public Hearings: One of the major steps of the EIA Mechanism is
the public participation. The 2020 draft proposes to reduce the notice period for public
hearings from 30 days to 20 days.

o However, the MoEFCC has claimed it to be “in tune with the times”, given the growth
of internet and mobile telephony.

o Exemption of Projects: Furthermore, by classifying a number of projects into A, B1

and B2, a host of projects are exempted from public scrutiny.

▪ Category B2 projects do not require mandatory Environment Clearance (EC), unlike the
Category A and B1 projects.

▪ Exempted Projects: The projects under this exempted category include:Offshore and
onshore oil, gas and shale exploration.

▪ Hydroelectric projects up to 25 MW.

▪ Irrigation projects between 2,000 and 10,000 hectares of command area.

▪ Small and medium cement plants.

▪ Acids other than phosphoric or ammonia, sulphuric acid.

▪ MSMEs in dye and dye intermediates, bulk drugs, synthetic rubbers, medium -sized paint
units.

▪ All inland waterway projects and expansion or widening of highways between 25 km and
100 km with defined parameters.

▪ These include roads that cut through forests and dredging of major rivers.

▪ Aerial ropeways in ecologically sensitive areas.

▪ Specified building construction and area development projects; built -up area up to
1,50,000 sq. m.

o Post-clearance compliance: It implies that once a project gets approved by the

concerned authority, the proponent projects are required to adhere to certain rules laid
down in the EIA report in order to ensure that no further environmental damages take
place.

o Annual Submission of Reports: The new draft EIA, proposes the submission of
compliance reports annually whereas as per the 2006 notification, the compliance
report was to be submitted every six months.Environmental experts are of the view that
allowing a longer period for filling the compliance report will give an opportunity to
project proponents to hide disastrous consequences, which could go unnoticed.

o Report Prepared Solely by Project Proponents: Meanwhile, submission of the

compliance report will be solely prepared by the project proponents itself, which,
without oversight and review, may lead to inaccurate information submitted on the
project.

o No Public Reporting for Non-Compliance: The EIA Notification 2020 excludes

reporting of violations and non-compliance by the public. Instead, the government will
take cognisance of reports only from the violator-promoter, government authority,
Appraisal Committee or Regulatory Authority.

o Post-facto Clearance: Another major proposal in the draft 2020 is granting ‘post-facto
clearance’ where a project that has been operating without environmental clearance,
can be regularised or allowed to apply for clearance.

▪ The judiciary has held, as in the case of Alembic Pharmaceutical vs. Rohit Prajapati in
April 2020 that “environment law cannot countenance the notion of an ex post facto
clearance.”

o Penalty for Firms: Firms found violating the terms of their establishment, if they have
to get the clearance, however, will have to pay a penalty.
Way Forward

Independent EIA Authority:

o Civil society groups have suggested the need for an independent Environmental Impact
Assessment authority headed by a judicial officer and composed of representatives
from communities, peoples groups, scientists, sociologists and environment alists. Such
a body would be independent of the ministry of environment and forests. The decision
of this authority would be binding on the MOEF.

Sector wide EIA is needed:

o There is a need to conduct policy-level and sector-wide EIAs in the form of strategic
impact assessments ( for various sectors including mining , power and so on). This is
critical to judge the impacts of macro- economic, developmental and other policies,
schemes and programmes.

Conduct options Assessment:

o EIA s should follow only after an options assessment and a least cost plan for a project
is done by the state or central government.

Creation of an information desk:

o An information dissemination desk may be assigned within the MOEF which anyone
can write to regarding the status of clearance of projects. This desk should be
mandated to respond within a maximum of ten days by post/ courier and a maximum of
two days by email, to the contact information that has been furnished by the person
seeking the information.

o Since all meetings and discussions are documented as electronic data, the officers
should furnish this information regarding the status of clearance, with a record of the
discussions in the Expert committee on the projects.

Environmental Risk Assessment:

o New approaches such as Environmental Risk Assessment which enable more flexible
and dynamic assessments of direct and indirect impacts must be explored.

o As part of this process, recognized Safety and Environmental Auditors must

compulsorily meet local populations and submit a detailed report of potential risks due
to the project.
Quality of EIA Reports:

o The checklist needs to include impacts on agricultural biodiversity, biodiversity

related traditional knowledge and livelihoods .Further, cumulative impacts of projects
that are technically linked or located in the same ecological region, and impacts of the
eventual closure of the project or components of the project should also be
incorporated into the checklist.

o Finally the list should contain details on a full exploration of alter natives , especially
decentralized alternatives, to mega projects .The checklist also needs to cover various
kinds of impacts resulting from a particular activity.

Public Hearings:

o The public hearing should be held for all projects which are likely to have
environmental and social impacts. This should be strictly implemented. The scope of
the public hearings needs to be widened to at least those projects which require forest
clearance under the forest conservation act,1980.

Composition of Expert Committees:

o The present executive committees should be replaced by experts from various

stakeholder groups , who are reputed in environmental and other relevant fields.

o The process of selection of those committees should be open and transparent , the
minutes of the committee meetings , decisions and advice by these committees should
be open to the public.

Capacity Building:

o NGO s, civil society groups and local communities need to build their capacities to use
the EIA notification towards better decision making on projects that can impact their
local environments and livelihoods.

o Capacities can be built to proactively and effectively use the notification rather than
respond in a manner that is seen as negative or unproductive.

Monitoring, Compliance and Institutional Arrangements:

o The EIA notification needs to build within it an automatic withdrawal of clearance if

the conditions of clearance are being violated, and introduce more stringent
punishment for noncompliance.
o At present the EIA notification limits itself to the stage when environmental clearance
is granted. The MOEF should set up more regional offices, each with smaller areas of
jurisdiction, to effectively monitor the compliance of clearance conditions.

o It would be useful to have advisory Expert committees at the MOEF regional offices,
comprising ecologists, sociologists, local community members, government officials
and representatives of local institutions to help with the clearance of projects at the
regional levels and monitoring of compliance of conditions.

o A robust monitoring mechanism should be established by the state department where

the central projects involving forest clearance are given out. Such a monitoring body
should be given powers to address compliance of both sets of clearance conditions
together and to take punitive action against the project proponent in case of non
compliance of any of the conditions.

o Local communities should be brought into the formal monitoring and reporting process
of the compliance of conditions presently done by the regional offices of the MOEF.
This would help the regional office as well since the geographical areas and number of
projects that come under each office is vast which affects the efficiency and regularity
Student Notes: of the monitoring process.