1.
The Cell: The Basic Unit of Life
Overview:
● All living organisms are made of cells. Some organisms are unicellular (one cell), while
others, like humans, are multicellular.
Cell Types:
● Prokaryotic Cells: No nucleus or membrane-bound organelles (e.g., bacteria).
● Eukaryotic Cells: Contain a nucleus and organelles (e.g., plants, animals, fungi).
Key Organelles:
● Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA), controls cell activities.
● Mitochondria: Powerhouse of the cell, responsible for energy (ATP) production.
● Ribosomes: Site of protein synthesis.
● Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
○ Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis.
○ Smooth ER: Involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.
● Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion.
● Lysosomes: Contain enzymes for digestion and waste removal.
● Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable barrier that regulates what enters and exits the cell.
2. Genetics and Heredity
Overview:
● Genetics is the study of heredity and variation in organisms.
DNA Structure:
● DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is made of nucleotides: Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine
(C), and Guanine (G).
● DNA has a double-helix structure, with A pairing with T, and C pairing with G.
Genes and Alleles:
● Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a specific protein.
● Allele: Different forms of a gene.
● Dominant and Recessive Alleles: Dominant alleles express their trait when present,
while recessive alleles only express their trait when paired with another recessive allele.
Mendelian Genetics:
● Gregor Mendel's Laws:
1. Law of Segregation: Each organism has two alleles for each gene, and these
alleles segregate during gamete formation.
2. Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits are inherited
independently of one another.
Punnett Squares:
● A tool used to predict the genetic outcomes of crosses.
3. Evolution and Natural Selection
Overview:
● Evolution is the change in the inherited characteristics of biological populations over
successive generations.
Charles Darwin and Natural Selection:
● Natural selection is the process by which organisms with favorable traits are more likely
to survive and reproduce.
Key Concepts:
● Variation: Organisms within a population have differences.
● Overproduction: More offspring are produced than can survive.
● Struggle for Existence: Organisms compete for limited resources.
● Survival of the Fittest: Those with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and
reproduce.
● Adaptation: A trait that increases an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction.
Evidence for Evolution:
● Fossil records, comparative anatomy (homologous and analogous structures),
embryology, and molecular biology (DNA comparisons).
4. Ecology: Interactions in Nature
Overview:
● Ecology is the study of the interactions between organisms and their environment.
Levels of Organization:
● Individual → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biome → Biosphere
Abiotic and Biotic Factors:
● Abiotic: Non-living factors, such as temperature, water, and sunlight.
● Biotic: Living factors, such as plants, animals, and microorganisms.
Food Chains and Food Webs:
● Producers: Autotrophs (e.g., plants, algae) that create their own food.
● Consumers: Heterotrophs (e.g., herbivores, carnivores, omnivores) that consume other
organisms.
● Decomposers: Organisms like bacteria and fungi that break down dead material.
Energy Flow and Trophic Levels:
● Energy flows from producers to consumers in a food chain, with each trophic level losing
energy through heat.
Ecological Succession:
● The process of change in the species structure of an ecosystem over time.
○ Primary Succession: Occurs in an area where no soil exists (e.g., after a
volcanic eruption).
○ Secondary Succession: Occurs in an area where soil is present but has been
disturbed (e.g., after a forest fire).
5. Human Anatomy and Physiology
Overview:
● The study of the structure and function of the human body.
Major Organ Systems:
● Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Controls body functions and responds
to stimuli.
● Circulatory System: Heart, blood, and blood vessels. Transports nutrients, gases, and
waste.
● Respiratory System: Lungs and airways. Responsible for the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide.
● Digestive System: Mouth, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs. Breaks down
food and absorbs nutrients.
● Musculoskeletal System: Muscles and bones. Provides structure, movement, and
protection.
● Excretory System: Kidneys, bladder. Removes waste from the body.
● Endocrine System: Glands that secrete hormones, regulating body functions.
● Immune System: Defends the body against disease-causing organisms.
Homeostasis:
● The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.
6. Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis:
● Process by which plants, algae, and some bacteria convert light energy into chemical
energy (glucose).
Photosynthesis Equation: 6CO2+6H2O+light energy→C6H12O6+6O26CO_2 + 6H_2O + light
\, energy \rightarrow C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_26CO2+6H2O+lightenergy→C6H12O6+6O2
● Occurs in the chloroplasts of plant cells.
● Involves two stages:
1. Light-dependent reactions: Convert light energy into ATP and NADPH.
2. Calvin Cycle (light-independent reactions): Uses ATP and NADPH to fix
carbon into glucose.
Cellular Respiration:
● The process by which cells convert glucose into ATP, the energy currency of the cell.
Cellular Respiration Equation: C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATPC_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2
\rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + ATPC6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+6H2O+ATP
● Occurs in three stages:
1. Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose in the cytoplasm.
2. Krebs Cycle: Occurs in the mitochondria, producing electron carriers.
3. Electron Transport Chain: Uses electrons to create a proton gradient and
generate ATP.
Relationship Between Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration:
● The products of photosynthesis (glucose and oxygen) are the reactants in cellular
respiration, and vice versa. This forms a cycle of energy flow in ecosystems.
7. Biotechnology
Overview:
● Biotechnology involves the manipulation of organisms, cells, or molecules for specific
purposes.
Applications:
● Genetic Engineering: Inserting genes from one organism into another to produce
desired traits (e.g., genetically modified organisms, GMOs).
● Cloning: Creating genetically identical organisms or cells.
● Gene Therapy: Treating diseases by inserting functional genes into a patient's cells.
● Forensic Biology: Using DNA analysis for crime scene investigations.
● Pharmaceuticals: Producing drugs using microorganisms or recombinant DNA.
These are some of the key topics you might encounter in biology class. Let me know if you'd like
more detailed notes on a particular topic or section!
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