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AS/A LEVEL

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 REVISE PEARSON EDEXCEL
AS/A LEVEL

Series Consultant: Harry Smith

Authors: Lindsay Frost and Rob Bircher
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 Contents
fa

Tectonic processes and 44 Managing climate warming Regenerating places

45 Exam skills
95 Classifying economic activity
hazards AT Exam practice
96 Economic inequalities |
1 Distribution of tectonic
hazards
Coastal landscapes and 97 Changing places
Intra-plate processes change 96 Measuring change
Plate tectonic theory rehe) Past and present connections
AQ Classifying coasts
Tectonic processes 100 Successful regions
50 Geological structure
Earthquake waves 101 Declining regions
51 Coastal erosion factors
Volcanic hazards 102 Regeneration priorities
52 Marine erosion processes
Causes of tsunamis 103 Lived experience
53 Landforms of coastal erosion
Disaster and vulnerability 104 Conflict
54 = Sediment transportation
AWNSocial and economic impacts
DONO
105 Evaluating regeneration
55 ‘Transport process landforms
Measuring tectonic hazards 106 UK government policy
56 Weathering and mass
Tectonic hazard profiles 107 Local government policy
movement
Vulnerability and resilience 106 London Olympics 2012
57 Mass movement landforms
Physical factors and context 109 Regeneration in Fowys
56 _ Sea level change
Tectonic disaster trends 110 Rebranding strategies
52 Rapid coastal recession
Significance of mega- 111 Rebranding examples
60 Coastal flooding
disasters 112 Measuring success
61 Coastal flooding examples
Multiple-hazard zones 113 Urban regeneration
62 Consequences
Prediction and forecasting 114 Rural regeneration
63 Hard engineering
Hazard management stages 115 Exam skills
64 = Soft engineering
Strategies to modify events AtiZ, Exam practice
65 — Managing future threats
Mitigation and adaptation 66 ICZM strategies Diverse places
strategies
67 Coastal policy conflicts 119 Population distribution
Exam skills
68 Exam skills 120 The rural-urban continuum
23 Exam practice
70 Exam practice 121 Population structure
Glaciated landscapes Globalisation 122 Population characteristics
and change 72 Global connections
23 Connections shaping places
124 Change in UK urban areas
25 Causes of climate change 73 Governments and
organisations 125 Change in UK rural areas
26 Distribution of ice cover
74 Economic globalisation 126 Perception of places
Qi Feriglacial processes
75. Global indices and 127 Perceptions of urban places
26 Feriglacial landforms
TNC role 126 Perceptions of rural places
20 Glacial mass balance system
76 Degree of globalisation 129 Evaluating people’s views
30 Glacial movement
77 Benefits and costs 130 UK diversity
31 The glacier landform system
768 Global shift: issues 131 UK diversity examples
32 Glacial erosion and cirques
33 72 Rural-urban migration IZ Levels of segregation
Valley glacier landforms
60 International migration 133 Change, tension, conflict
34 Ice sheet scouring
35 61 Cultural globalisation 134 Measuring management
Ice contact depositional
features 62 Cultural impacts 135 Managing urban change
36 Lowland depositional features 63 Measuring development 136 Urban change example
Sif Reconstructing past 64 Inequality and trends IS/ Managing rural change
glaciation 65 Mixed cultures and tensions 136 Rural change example
38 Glacial meltwater processes 66 Controls on globalisation 139 Exam skills
39 Fluvio-glacial landforms 67 Attitudes to globalisation 141 Exam practice
40 Value of glaciated 68 Localism The water cycle and
landscapes 69 Fair and ethical processes
Al Direct threats 90 Role of recycling
water insecurity
42 Indirect threats 91 Exam skills 143 Hydrological cycle
43 Managing glaciated 93 Exam practice 144 Water stores, fluxes and —
landscapes budget

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145 Hydrological cycle: 191 Uni-polar power Migration, identity and
processes 192 Bi- and multi-polar power
146 Hydrological cycle: factors 193 Emerging powers
sovereignty
147 Water budgets 194 Development Theory 239 Globalisation
146 River regimes and storm 195 Global economy 240 Different migration policies
hydrographs 196 TNCs: global influencers 241 Changing migration patterns
149 Natural causes of drought 197 Decision-making 242 Causes of migration
150 Drought impacts 196 Resource demands 243 Migration and economic
151 Natural causes of flooding 199 Willingness to act theory
152 Flooding impacts 200 Resources and rights 244 Consequences of international
153 Climate change effects migration
201 Spheres of influence
154 Water security and climate 245 Migration and tensions
202 Changing relationships
change 246 Variations in opportunities
203 Changes in influence
155 Water supply and demand 247 Nation states and their
204 Middle East tensions
156 Causes of water insecurity origins
205 Economic challenges
157 Water scarcity issues 246 12th-century nationalism
206 Global military power
156 Water conflicts 249 New nation states since 1945
207 Future power structures
152 Hard engineering and 250 New state forms
208 Exam skills
sustainable water schemes 251 Growing global inequalities
210 Exam practice
160 Drainage basin management 22 The United Nations
161 Exam skills Health, human rights 253 IGOs and world trade
163 Exam practice and intervention 254 IGOs: the environment
255
The carbon cycle and 211 Measuring human
The Antarctic Treaty
256 National identity
development
energy security 207 Challenges to national
212 Contrasting views
165 Carbon cycle identity
213 Health and life expectancy
166 Carbon stores and processes 258 Disunity within nations
214 Ethnicity and poverty
167 Biological and oceanic 202 Exam skills
variations
processes 215 Socio-economic development
261 Exam practice
166 Terrestrial and biological 216 UN MDGs and SDGs Geographical skills
processes
2NZ Human rights laws 262 Statistical tests
169 Natural greenhouse effect
2168 Differing priorities 263 Mass balance and GIS
170 Natural carbon pathways
219 Freedom and corruption 264 Map analysis: connectivity
171 Energy consumption
220 Differences in rights 265 Lorenz curve and datasets
172 Access and consumption
221 Equality 266 Synoptic chart interpretation
173 Fossil fuel reserves
2e2 Geopolitical interventions 267 Satellite image interpretation
174 Unconventional fossil fuels
223 Interventions and sovereignty 268 Analysing climate model maps
175 Renewable and recyclable
224 Development aid 269 Divided bar graphs
energy
2295 Impacts of development aid 270 Use of proportional circles
176 Alternative energy
226 Economic development
177 Environmental health
impacts Paper 3 exam skills
178 Ocean acidification
179 Threats to human wellbeing
227 Military interventions and practice
and aid
160 Impacts of climate change 271 Preparing for Paper 3
226 Military intervention
181 Uncertain future Zi A: The Nile River Basin
229 Measuring success
162 Adaptation strategies 276 B: Change in the Nile
230 Economic growth as success
River Basin
163 Mitigation strategies 231 Success and failure of aid 276 C: Global connections
184 Exam skills 2B Aid and superpowers
262 D: Future challenges
166 Exam practice 233 Military interventions: mixed
264 Paper 3: Exam skills
Superpowers success
269 Paper 3: Exam practice
234 No action: impacts
165 Superpowers 271 Answers
Zao Exam skills
169 Hard and soft power
237 Exam practice
190 Geo-strategy

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Acknowledgements
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Neale Clarke/robertharding 128, Jeff Morgan 03 128, Ben Welsh Premium 129, FocusTechnology 138, White House Photo 129, Historic Collection 190, Michael Brochstein 197, Mark Bourdillon 200, Mikhail
Metzel/\TAR-TASS News Agency 201, Frangois-Olivier Dommergues 234, NetPhotos 246, Guillern Lopez 258, Universal Images Group North America LLC 267. Getty Images: Graham Mitchell/Barcroft
Media 56, Brian J. Skerry/National Geographic Image Collection 60, Ann £. Yow-Dyson/Archive Photos 87, Sam Mellish/In Pictures 104, Peter Macdiarrnid/Getty Images News 106, Geography Photos/
Education |Images/Universal Images Group 107, David Levenson 109, Print Collector/Hulton Archive 129, Matthew Chattle/Barcroft Media 133, John Carey/Photolibrary 136, George Osodi/Bloomberg 226,
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Shutterstock: Jakub Cejpek11, Ansharphoto 41, Clive Chilvers 85, FotoAndalucia 95, Daisy Daisy 95, Mataliya Hora 111, Peter Jeffreys 111, Rich Carey 226R United States National Archives and Records
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indicator/SPURB.GROW © The World Bank#. 274 The World Bank: Data derived from: Renewable internal freshwater resources per capita (cubic meters) Food and Agriculture Organization, AQUASTAT
data . https://data worldbank.org/indicator/er.h2o.intr.pc Accessed: 15 June 2019 © The World Bank#; 274 United Nations Development Programme: Data from Human Development Index (HDI),
United Nations Development Programme - Human Development Reports, © 2019, United Nations Development Programme#; 274 Freedom House: Data from ‘Freedom in the World 2018 Table of
Country Scores’ © Freedom House, 2018; 275 Informa UK Limited: Data from Jemmali, Hatem. (2016). Mapping water poverty in Africa using the improved Multidimensional Index of Water Poverty.
International Journal of Water Resources Development, © 2016, Informa UK Limited; 275 WHO UNICEF JMP: Fig from WHO/UNICEF
JMP.WHO/UNICEF
JMP for Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene,
https://washdata.org. WDI (SH.H20.SMDW.ZS;SH.BASW.ZS), Available online via World Bank site: http://datatopics.worldbank.org/sdgatlas/SDG-06-clean-water-and-sanitation.html. Accessed: 15 June
2019; 278 The World Bank Group; Data from GDP growth (annual %) World Bank national accounts data, and OECD National Accounts data files, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny,gdp.mktp.kd.zg,
Accessed; 15 June 2019 and Net official development assistance and official aid received (current USS) - https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/dt.oda.alld.cd Accessed: 15 June 2019 © The World Banki#;
279 European Union: Data from Janssens-Maenhout, G., Crippa, M., Guizzardi, D., Muntean, M., Schaaf, E., Olivier, J.G.J., Peters, J.A.H.W., Schure, K.M., Fossil CO2 and GHG emissions of all world countries,
EUR 28766 EN, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2017, ISBN 9789279732072, doi:10.2760/709792, JRC107877, © 2017, European Union; 279 University of Notre Dame Notre
Dame Global Adaptation Initiative: Data from The ND-GAIN Matrix, Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative. Retrieved from: https://gain.nd.edu/our-work/country-index/matrix/. Accessed: 15 June
2019. © 2019, University of Notre Dame; 280 AidData: Fig 2: Financial Size of Chinese Government-Financed Projects (in constant 2014 US$), 2000-2014 in Connective Financing: Chinese Infrastructure
Projects and the Diffusion of Economic Activity in Developing Countries, Working Paper #64. AidData at William & Mary, 2018, aiddataorg, p49; 282 InfoRM: Adapted from Fig 16 in Peace, Justice and
Strong Institution, Global Risk Index Results 2018, p24. © InfoRM/European Union, 2019; 282 InfoRM: Data from GLOBAL RISK INDEX RESULTS 2018, p24 © InfoRM/European Union, 2019; 283 World
Resources Institute: Data from Water Stress by Country, Aqueduct Country and River Basin Rankings, December 2013. Andrew Maddocks. https://www.wri.org/resources/charts-graphs/water-stress-
country Accessed: 15June 2019 © World Resource Institute, 2003#; 296 United Nations Development Programme: Data from Human Development Indices and Indicators, 2018 Statistical Update,
© 2018, United Nations Development Programme. Licensed under Creative Commons CC-BY 3.0 IGO,; 305 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Data from ESRL Data, NOAA. Accessed.
10 June 2019. tp://aftp.cmdl.noaa.gov/products/trends/co2/co2_annmean_mlo.txt; 313 The World Bank: Data from Life expectancy at birth, total (years), © 2019, The World Bank Group#,; 313 The World
Bank: Data from: ‘All The Ginis Dataset’, https://datacatalog. worldbank.org/dataset/all-ginis-dataset . Accessed: 10 June 2019. © 2017 The World Bank Group; 316 United Nations Statistics Division:
Data from ‘Population by national and/or ethnic group, sex and urban/rural residence’, residencehttp://data.un.org/Data.aspx?d=POP&f=tableCode:26 . Accessed 10 June 2019. © 2019, United Nations
Statistics Division.

Notes from the publisher y

1. While the publishers have made every attempt to ensure that advice on the qualification and its assessment is accurate, the official specification and associated assessment guidance materials are the only
authoritative source of information and should always be referred to for definitive guidance
Pearson examiners have not contributed to any sections in this resource relevant to examination papers for which they have responsibility.
2. Pearson has robust editorial processes, including answer and fact checks, to ensure the accuracy ofthe content in this publication, and every effort is made to ensure this publication is free of errors,
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 Had a look | Nearly there ial Nailed it! a

Distribution of tectonic hazaré

The global distribution of earthquakes, tsunamis and volcanoes is linked to plate boundaries. You need to
understand the causes of tectonic hazards and be able to analyse distribution patterns.

; Geographical Tectonic hazard

Plate boundaries

sbi distribution patterns Distribution

oe ie Destructive Where an oceanic and
_ [AP = Altiplano é ‘ é continental plate converge.
Example: along the west
coast of South America

rh
NA = North Andes Constructive Where two plates (usually
PA = Panama
oceanic) diverge.
RI = Rivera
Example: between the Nazca
and Pacific plates
Transform Where two plates move
alongside each other, so

>=
(conservative)
conserving their size.
Example: between the Pacific
and North American plates
Collision When two continental
.> SOUTH
; AMERICAN
plates converge.
Example: between Altiplano
and South American plates
Where several types are found
along a relatively short distance.
Example: north-east of
Caribbean plate

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Causes of tectonic hazards

| ° Volcanoes, often explosive, are found in the Andes fold mountains because unstable
| mantle material and melted oceanic plate force their way to the surface.
Gentle volcanic activity is found at constructive plate boundaries as mantle material
moves upwards to fill the gaps left by diverging plates, for example, between the Nazca
and Pacific plates.
2|* Constructive plate boundaries only have small earthquakes, as there is not much friction
or strain as plates diverge.
| * Transform plate boundaries (conservative) have a large amount of friction, and when
strain is released the shockwaves can be strong.
oe ; * Converging plates create the largest amount of friction and strain, with earthquake
focal points following the Benioff zone to considerable depths.
} © An upward or downward movement of the crust must disturb a mass of seawater.
This movement will be associated with an undersea earthquake, and so is usually linked
to a destructive (convergent) plate boundary.

Now try this

1. (a) Name the oceanic and continental plates that converge along the west coast of South America.
(b) Use the diagram of distribution patterns to describe the location of an area with complex plate boundaries.
2. Describe where on the diagram of distribution patterns tsunamis may be created.
 Had alook | | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! | |

Intra-plate processes
Earthquakes and volcanoes are also found towards the middle of a plate, away from the boundaries.

Intra-plate earthquakes Intra-plate volcanoes

* Earthquakes can happen anywhere the crust Volcanic activity can be found in both the middle of |
is cracked, usually ancient faults created by oceanic and continental plates. |
previous plate movements. * Oceanic plates are 7km thick and magma
¢ Small movements along these old faults rising through the mantle from the edge of -
build up friction and strain over time, the outer core is able to melt its way through,
which is then suddenly released causing low forcing molten material to the surface,
magnitude earthquakes. creating volcanoes that-grow from the seabed.
° Isostatic readjustment (weight of ice removed * Continental plates are much thicker but get
after Ice Age) can cause earthquakes as the stretched enough in places for the magma
crust moves up or down. from a hot spot, linked to a mantle plume,
° Human activities can also trigger tremors, such as to break through.
the weight of water in a reservoir, fracking of gas,
or large explosions.
= * <a a a oe oo a a a a i om ae MG Ge en Me em) Gee eee = <= iow = —

Oa Intra-plate earthquakes: UK 9) case|Intra-plate volcanoes:

. i
The UK experiences minor earthquakes despite Hawaii j
being OO Sn nonugie pentest plate woundaty The Hawaiian islands have 15 volcanoes, which }
under the centre of the Atlantic Ocean. There are i
: are the youngest of 130 found along a GOOOkm
about 25 earthquakes in the UK each year that : ; :
: line to their north-west. Kilauea and Mauna Loa
are felt by peorles te largest Cacti ia are the most active volcanoes on the planet t
under the North Sea at Dogger Bank (6.1 on the FE ; ;
Richt le) The sub-marine volcano Lo’ihi is youngest in the }
idiecaasas Hawaiian chain, being created as the Pacific Plate |
moves north-westwards over the hotere f
Mantle plumes and hot spots
Structurd of the Earth
° There are two massive mantle plumes in the Earth’s °
mantle layer, one centred under the Pacific plate and with mantle P lumes
Hawaii
the other under the African plate. and hot spots hot spot

* Molten viscous silicate material rises from the

outer core/mantle boundary to about 7OOkm
beneath the lithosphere (crust). Pacific ,
mantle plume y 4
° From these mantle plumes small hot spots Society Islands
; hot t /
are created where magma rises through the a
asthenosphere and sometimes breaks through
the crust. Isolated hot spots occur where there
is an upwelling of molten material directly from
the outer core/mantle boundary to the surface
(for example, the Hawaiian islands).

Now try this

1. (a) Identify two natural causes of intra-plate earthquakes. | |
(b) Identify two human causes of intra-plate earthquakes. 7 |
2. Explain why volcanic activity can be found thousands of kilometres from a plate boundary.
\
 Had a look a Nearly there || Nailed it! Pe

Pilate tectonic theory

Plate movements may be explained by the use of plate tectonic theory. A range of evidence supports
the theory. Crust:
400°C at base;
Characteristics of the Less dense;
Granite/basalt;
Earth's structure Mantle: 870°C;
Solid
Mixed density layers (less to medium);
The Earth’s structure has been established Peridotite; Solid and liquid layers
by studying the movement of seismic waves
through the planet. Seismic waves travel at Outer core:
different speeds through material of different 4400°C to 6100°C;
Dense; 68% iron; Liquid
densities, and some types (for example,
S waves) do not travel through liquids.
Inner Core:
7 to 70km 2690 5150 7000 °C;
km km Very dense;
80% iron; Solid

2) Mantle convection Palaeomagnetism and

* Heat radiating from the inner core through the sea floor spreading
mantle material causes it to convect, as it behaves
* The outer core is mostly liquid iron and it
like a viscous liquid (it has phases of liquid and
convects. This movement creates a magnetic field
solid consistency under pressure). Convection may
for the Earth; the direction of this magnetic field
be in several layers or just one.
has changed every 100000 years.
° The convection cells make contact with the base
¢ When new igneous rocks, including lavas, cool to
of the crust (at the Moho), causing friction,
form solid rock, they trap in the magnetic field
and so drag the crust along in the general
direction of the time.
direction of the convection.
* Geological records of magnetic directions are
symmetrical either side of constructive plate
boundaries, proving that the oceanic crust has
been diverging (moving apart) in places for a very
long time.

Q subduction and siab pull Other processes

_ © At destructive plate boundaries, denser oceanic Ww Ridge push at a constructive plate boundary
| plate is subducted under less dense continental — may help to move the plates away from
plate, e.g. at deep ocean trenches, volcanic _ the point of divergence.
activity 100km from the plate boundary on the CO Mantle super-plumes — may be responsible
continental side, and earthquake focal points as for pushing up the crust, causing it to move
deep as 700km along the Benioff zone. or split (perhaps splitting Africa and Europe
¢ As a Slab of oceanic plate descends, it pulls from the Americas).
__ (perhaps with some suction) the rest of the Ww Continents have moved and rotated over
plate with it. time — this is shown by the magnetic field
directions locked into rocks.

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1. Explain the process of convection and how it moves the tectonic plates.
2. How does knowledge of the Earth’s structure and composition help to prove plate tectonic theory?
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! |_|

Tectonic processes
Tectonic processes vary according to the type of plate boundary. These processesalso atfect the type
and magnitude of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes.

° ;
Geographical
Use of block diagrams

Destructive (convergent) plate boundary

«y Features: Trench, accretion wedge, fold mountains, continental j
volcanoes (rare but explosive), cantnauencs along Benioff zone, 1 |
and batholiths. ie
Processes: Subduction with slab pull, friction along Benioff g
zone, melting of crustal material, and unstable mantle material
melting and forcing its way to the surface.
Destructive (convergent) plate boundary with island arc
Features: Trench, accretion wedge, island arc volcanoes,
basins, and earthquakes along Benioff zone.
Benioff zone
Processes: Same as Destructive type above.
« Constructive (divergent) plate boundary
Features: Rifting, fissures, faults, undersea ridges, sub-marine |
volcanic activity (frequent but gentle), volcanic islands.
Processes: Decompression with magma rising, and ridge push.
Collision (convergent) plate boundary
AN Features: Fold mountains, faulting, and shallow earthquakes.
Processes: Uplift and subduction with slab pull.

Transform (conservative) plate boundary

Features: Major and minor fault lines, and frequent earthquakes.
Processes: Friction between two plates.

Bit

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mecianie processes and magnitude of tectonic events

° The strongest seismic (earthquake) waves are created where there is most friction and build-up of
strain between two plates. This is greatest at destructive plate margins.
° The five recorded earthquakes of 9 or higher on the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS) have been on
this type of plate boundary (for example, Tohoku, Japan 2011). Tsunamis are also more intense with this
earthquake location.
* Transform faults also have earthquakes with a strong magnitude (for example, 7 on the MMS) as plates
are trying to slide past each other (for example, the San Andreas Fault) leading to friction and strain.
° Volcanoes are more explosive where the magma is viscous with a high silica and gas content; these
are found at destructive plate margins with subduction, where the subducted plate is melted, usually
under a continental plate.
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Using diagrams, explain why volcanic eruptions are more violent in South America than in Hawaii.
i
| Had a look P| Nearly there & Nailed it! ae|

Earthquake waves
Earthquake (seismic) waves cause a range of hazards such as crustal fracturing and ground shaking.

Types of earthquake shockwave

Body waves travel through the Earth: Surface waves travel through the top of the crust:
Primary wave (P) and Secondary wave (S) Love wave (L)
- Compression
Undisturbed
terial

ee A a a

Direction of wave movement

Wen

Shockwaves move the ground in different ways,

with S waves being the most damaging of the
body waves due to high amplitude (up and down)
and slow speed. Love waves are the most
Wavelength damaging of the surface waves, arriving after
SERRE P and S waves have weakened buildings.

Hazards caused by earthquake waves

Description
Shockwaves travel fast through solid rock Causes faults, which can rupture the
and can increase stress in it, especially if surface, causing subsidence or uplift.
rock types are different (as waves travel Anything on these faults can get moved
at different speeds through them). Stress and damaged.
causes strain until the rock fractures.
Shockwave ground movements include Buildings that are not aseismic
(in order of occurrence) pushing and (earthquake-proof) may only survive some
pulling (P wave), up and down (S wave), types of shaking, and will be damaged.
and side to side (L wave). This all If buildings have the same resonance as the
happens in less than GO seconds. seismic energy, the impact is intensified.
Occurs when shockwaves travel through Causes buildings to tilt over or
| loose unconsolidated material, shaking it collapse and the ground to crack.
| So that it acts like a fluid, for example, Underground infrastructure such as
Christchurch, 2011. cables and pipes may be ruptured.
Occur when there are steep slopes. Landslides may hit settlements directly
Shockwaves loosen rock and cause it to or destroy or block transport and
| move downslope under the influence of communication infrastructure.
_ | gravity, for example, Kashmir, 2005.

1. Suggest why L waves can be the most damaging.

2. Explain how ground shaking during an earthquake can be very hazardous in an urban environment.
| _- -o--. Oth nt te nits A. 4
AS/B leve* Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |
Topic 1

Volcanic hazards
Volcanic eruptions may cause local and more widespread hazards.

Ash falls — The smallest fragments erupted Pyroclastic flows — These are considered to be the
from a volcano are called ash. These are most dangerous volcanic hazard. Flows consist of a
forced to a high altitude and are so light dense mixture of superheated solid particles (tephra)
that they can be carried around the and poisonous gases erupted from a crater, moving
planet in the atmosphere. A lot of ash can down the sides of volcanoes and into the surrounding
fall locally and its weight can cause roofs area at great speed (up to 700 km/h). Any buildings
to collapse. It also gets into machinery or people in the way are destroyed through impact,
and electronics, causing them to fail. Ash burying, incineration or poisoning.
clouds disrupt flight paths of aeroplanes The deposition of material may also block river i;
as it damages engines and fuselages. channels and cause flooding.

€ Gas eruptions — A common Lava flows — Molten

volcanic gas is water magma that is erupted
vapour, which may from volcanoes flows
condense locally and mix down the sides until it
with other erupted material cools. Basaltic lavas flow
(see lahars below). Other SS Crate!
fastest, but people can
gases include sulphur Plug or dome of lava Pyroclastic flow
usually still get out of
dioxide (SObz), which is the way, so there are
Parasitic cone Alternating
poisonous in high layers of not many deaths unless
concentrations, and can iced people are asleep or
cause ‘acid rain’ when Lava flow new eruption locations
combined with water vapour, open up on the flank of
damaging buildings and the volcano. However,
plants. SO2 may also cool constructions in
the Earth when it is carried settlements often
high into the atmosphere by cannot be moved in time
blocking the Sun’s heat and the hot lava sets
energy: Historical eruptions fire to them and/or
have caused crop failures buries them.
and famine in this way.

5) Lahars — These are a mixture of water and 6) Jokulhlaups — Where a volcano erupts
erupted volcanic material of various sizes, underneath an ice cap, the heat will melt
which flow very fast (GO km/h) down river some of the ice. The meltwater builds up
valleys. The water may come from rainfall, a around the top of the volcano, trapped by _
crater lake or the melting of a snow cap on the the surrounding ice. Eventually the warm
top of a volcano. These are a major hazard meltwater will melt and lift the ice away
along valleys as this is usually where settle- from the ground, and then the water
ments and people are located, and those living bursts out from under the ice and flows
some distance from an erupting volcano may rapidly to lower ground. When this
feel that they are safe, but lahars move so happens anything in its path is washed
quickly over long distances that they can be away or covered by volcanic and glacial
difficult to escape. deposits carried in the jokulhlaup.

———

Now try this

1. Suggest why pyroclastic flows can be considered the most serious of the volcanic hazards.
2. Explain why eruptions of ash may have a global impact.
 Had a look | Nearly there ma Nailed it! |_|

Causes of tsunamis
Sub-marine earthquakes at subduction zones may displace a column of seawater, causing a tsunami.

Features of tsunamis Causes of tsunamis

° A sequence of large waves of varying heights. An undersea earthquake at a subduction zone may
The largest wave is not the first. For example, in cause a rapid movement of the seabed, If this
the 1960 Chile tsunami at Hawaii, it was the third movement is up or down then a column of seawater
wave that did the damage. above the epicentre is displaced, creating a
* Long wavelength in open ocean but short in powerful wave motion.
shallow water. Other less frequent causes of tsunamis are:
° Very fast speed in deep water but much slower * violent explosive eruptions of volcanic islands
(35 km/h) in shallow water. * major landslides or voleanic cone collapse into
¢ Low height in open ocean (about 3m), the sea
but significant height in shallow water * underwater landslides at the edge of
(up to 20 times higher than in deep water). continental shelves.
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Analysis of tsunami time-travel maps

You should be able to interpret maps (or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) images) showing the
movement of tsunamis. Past events can be used to predict future arrival times and give warnings.
eeeSS j VALDIVIA, CHILE, 1960
My 9.5 (highest ever
recorded), 25.33 km deep
on subduction zone
o® USA CHILE: 25 m wave,
CHINA oN 2000 killed
HAWAII oS \ *, HAWAII: 10.5 m wave,
VY Bx | Gt killed
JAPAN: 6 m wave, 139 killed
PHILIPPINES: 1.5m wave,
21 killed

oy

WO oe NEWHY O 1880 3760)

N/ZEALAND 940 2820

S) cass|Great East Japan earthquake and tsunami (Tohoku) 2011

¢ Undersea earthquake at junction of plates (e.g. Pacific and Okhotsk), multiple ruptures along
Benioff zone at shallow depth (24km), measured M, 9.0.
¢ 35m vertical uplift and 50m horizontal movement displaced water column,
¢ Lowland east coast of Japan only 130km away from epicentre facing the tsunami. Some estuaries
funnelled the waves.
* 18500 people killed and $220 billion of damage, including failure of nuclear power plants and
release of radioactivity at Fukushima.
* Category VI (highest) on the Tsunami Intensity scale.
¢ Tsunami reached Hawaii about 8.5 hours later.

1. (a) How long did it take the tsunami wave from Chile (1960) to reach Japan?
(b) Calculate the speed (in km/h) of this tsunami travelling from the epicentre in Chile to Hawaii,
2. Describe three main features of a tsunami.
 Had a look | | Nearly there e Nailed it! EB

Disaster and vulnerability

The Pressure and Release model summarises the links between hazards, disaster, vulnerability, resilience
and risk.
z
Key terms The hazard risk equation
A natural hazard is a natural event that Cf Hazard risk involves potential loss of life
causes a disruption to daily lives or death and injury, and destruction and damage to
and destruction. buildings and infrastructure in an area.
A disaster occurs when the scale of impact Cs The equation involves consideration of the
of a natural hazard are great. It is measured by hazard (e.g. type and magnitude), degree
the number of deaths (UN suggests 500+) or and frequency of exposure to the hazard,
the cost of damage (millions of $). vulnerability of people and systems, and
A mega-disaster has over 2000 deaths and the capacity to recover.
a GDP reduction of 5% or more. Risk (R) = Hazard (H) < Vulnerability (V)
* Adaptation is changes to ways of doing | CG The perception of risk varies from place to
things so future hazards have less impact. place, so the term ‘acceptable risk’ can
° Recovery is ways of returning to normal be used to define the toleration limits of a
| after the impacts of a hazard. society to possible harm and damage.
_

Resilience Vulnerability
Resilience is the ability or capacity of a community Vulnerability is the extent to which a community could
or society to withstand the effects of a natural be damaged or disrupted by a hazard. It is based on
hazard through methods of adaptation and recovery. the human geography of a community or area.
Factors include:
Adaptations, e.g. : the location of settlements
° identifying the risks of a | * stockpiling
* people’s knowledge and understanding
potential hazard essentials (food,
water, medicines) * people’s ability to prepare, react to and
* PIS geese withstand the effects of a hazard
before a hazard occurs ° resources ;
°. implemen ceneleteste for repairing
hie e the presence of advance warningi systems
reduce impact and rebuilding ° the involvement of local people in planning
and preparation.

The Pressure and Release (PAR) model so

The PAR model is a way of summarising the links between natural hazards, risk and vulnerability. /|

‘at 1 |
_ Pressures \
Lack of education Livi diti \ |
and skills, iving conditions i
_‘ ethical problems,
Poor siting of ¥
Causes aaa: settlements, %
_ Poor government cor’ SOM ATIONE: ( weak buildings \
cultural, political Z ss population and infrastructure,
_ and economic
gro, wth,d high ;
| systems migration and : cy.
| urbanisation
“lack rates, |insecure
MCAvallty,
ack of of fifinances, Bae incomes }|
degradation of ne t
natural systems
q
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0

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©

Now try this

Describe a situation where the vulnerability of a community to a tectonic hazard would be greatest.
 Had a look a Nearly there a Nailed it! ja |

social and economic impacts

Social and economic impacts of volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis vary according to the level
of development of a country.

Measuring development
Ww Economic development is often measured by GDP per capita (or sometimes GNI per capita).
In 2016 Montserrat GDP per capita was $11224 and in the USA it was $57 467.
Cf Social development is often measured by considering levels of education and health care.
Ww Social and economic development is combined in the Human Development Index (HDI).
In 2016 Haiti was ranked 163rd (0.493) and New Zealand was ranked 13th (0.915).
Ww Political development indicates the involvement of people in decision-making.
Ww Environmental development indicates a respect for and maintenance of natural systems.

Trends in deaths (social impact) Trends in costs (economic impact)

° When characteristics of tectonic hazards are ¢ When the characteristics of a tectonic hazard are
comparable (for example, same magnitude), it is comparable (for example, same spatial extent), it
clear that developing and emerging countries is clear that developed countries have greater
have higher losses of life than developed costs of damage than emerging or developing
countries. For example, the Haiti 2010 countries.
earthquake killed 300000, while in the ° This is because the ‘richer’ countries have
New Zealand 2011 earthquake 151 died. more expensive buildings, infrastructure and
* Feople in developing and emerging countries are technology to be damaged and high insurance
more vulnerable due to: costs after a disaster.
° lower understanding linked to levels of education * Developing countries may only have significant
°. lower levels of technology, because there is construction in urban areas, and if rural areas are
less money to spend on aseismic buildings, affected by a hazard, costs will tend to be low.
warning systems or emergency rescue and For example, the volcanic eruption in Montserrat
health care. (1995) caused about $120 million damage while
Mt St Helens, USA (1980); caused $970 million.
° Emerging countries (for example, India and China)
_ have rapidly growing cities, which increases risk * Costs to emerging countries are increasing
due to denser populations and uncertainties because they have increased construction and
over building codes and land use zoning. have rapid urban growth (for example, India and
Corruption in government departments may also China). However, even low damage costs can be
reduce the effectiveness of mitigation measures. expensive to poor people who have to buy new
construction materials, or find a new job because
their place of work has been destroyed.

Damage to natural environments:

The deforestation of coastal or mountain areas, for example, may increase risks from tsunamis and
‘landslides respectively.
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1. Which aspects of development are important to consider when analysing the impacts of a tectonic hazard?
2. Give three reasons why developing countries have higher social costs than developed countries.
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Measuring tectonic hazards

Scales measure magnitude (energy released) or intensity (amount of damage) of different tectonic hazards,

Moment magnitude (M_,) scale Mercalli intensity scale

for earthquakes for earthquakes
This is a logarithmic scale where each level has
Bene Description
10 times the energy of the level below it.
Shock waves felt indoors.
Windows rattle. People woken at night.
4 Description
i eee
VII | Slight to moderate damage of well-
3.0 | Minor: Many a year, all around the world.
constructed buildings. Aseismic designs
|Rarelycause damage.
may be slightly damaged. Walls crack.
5.0 | Moderate: Between 1000 and 1500 a People are alarmed.
year. Damage caused over a small region.
X Wooden structures and masonry and
7.0 Major: Between 10 and 20 a year. frame buildings destroyed. Train rails bent.
| Serious damage over a large area.
Ground may crack, Landslides caused on
9.0 | Great: One every decade (or longer). steep slopes.
Serious damage over a large region.
XI | Total destruction. Lines of sight and level
distorted. Objects thrown into the air.
Topography and river courses changed.
— = ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee Le ee ae me ee le le

Volcanic explosivity index Tsunami intensity scale

(magnitude) The tsunami intensity scale is a logarithmic scale
where each level has twice the energy of the
The VEI scale is a logarithmic scale where each level
level below it.
has 100 times the energy of the level below it.

|
Scale Description Description
1 Small, gentle eruption. Less than 10° Run-up height: 2m. Floods owee land,
metres of ejected material. Often small Small boats carried away. Some damage
fissure eruptions. Hawaiian type. to weak buildings. River flows reversed.
3 Moderate to large eruption. Can be Run-up height: 4m. Shore flooded
severe. Up to 10° metres of ejected to some depth and land scoured.
material. Eruption column of ash up to Structures damaged. Larger ships |
10.5km high. Eruption phases last up to moved inland or out to sea, |
half a day. Strombolian type. Run-up height: 6m. Widespread flooding.
5 | Very large eruption. 10'° metres of ejected Major structures damaged. Soil washed
material. Eruption column up to 26km high. away. All boats and ships moved inland or
Can be cataclysmic. Composite volcano out to sea. Harbours damaged. Loss of life.
type (Plinian or Peléean). Run-up height: 16+ m. Complete destruction |
Very large, colossal eruption. 10'* metres of some buildings, including some distance
of ejected material. Eruption column height from coast. Coastal lowland and valleys
over 47km. Eruption phases last over half flooded to great depth. Large ships |
a day. Composite cone type (ultra-Plinian). moved and damaged, Considerable loss
of life. |
= a a

Suggest which levels on the Mercalli and Tsunami

scales may be reached following an earthquake with a
magnitude over 9.0.

10 EE
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 Had a look a | Nearly there ie Nailed it! |_|

Tectonic hazard profiles

Hazard profiles can be used to compare the characteristics and impacts of tectonic hazards,

Characteristics and impacts of tectonic hazards

Spatial predictability: An area that Magnitude: The greater the
has never had an event will experience “i, oa amount of energy released by an
greater impacts as people and places , oe event, the greater the impacts
will be unprepared. Mm, are likely to be.

Areal extent: The larger the area Speed of onset: The faster the
affected by an event, the greater event occurs, the shorter the
the impacts will be, as more people warning time and the greater the
and places are affected. impacts as places are unprepared.

Frequency: An event that occurs ee | Duration: The longer an event

often is more likely to create lasts, the more likely that there
cumulative impacts (although rare will be greater impacts.
events have more energy).
ee ee ee

Impacts
Impacts of tectonic hazards are measured Tsunami profiles 9
by damage costs (economic) and deaths High magnitude x
and injuries (social). Fast speed of onset

In hazards with similar characteristics: Long duration

Ww developed countries: incur higher Large spatial area

damage costs because there are more Very frequent

expensive buildings and infrastructure to High damage costs

be damaged (insurance and repair costs High deaths

are also high). Even small costs create Slow recovery rate —
problems for poorer people. Random spatial
prediction
Cf developing countries: incur higher death »--x Indian Ocean
2004 Apron Increasing severity
: rates because people are vulnerable; they © = Tohoku 2011

lack awareness of hazards, live in buildings The main difference between these tsunamis
that have not been proofed, and do not was the areal extent covered. The 2004 event
have access to communications, affected many developing countries around the
decision-making or emergency services. Indian Ocean, causing a higher death toll.

Comparing hazard profiles

¢ Volcanoes have specific locations and usually cero Correlations
skills
give signs that they are about to erupt, but
earthquakes are found in broad zones and To find a statistical correlation between magnitude
are unpredictable. Also, not all undersea of an earthquake or volcanic eruption and deaths
earthquakes produce tsunamis. or damage costs you can use Spearman’s rank
* Hazard profiles show differences in social and correlation analysis (see page 264),
economic impacts between countries at different Using this technique with the top 20 magnitude
stages of development. The profiles for Haiti earthquakes and deaths produces a significant
(2010) and Christchurch (2011) earthquakes are correlation of +O0.589.
similar, except for death toll. However, there was no correlation between scale
of volcanic eruptions (VEl) and damage costs for
16 modern eruptions; this shows the exact location
is the most important factor (e.g. near a city).

Explain how the severity of social and economic impacts of tectonic hazards varies between countries at
different stages of development.
11
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Vulnerability and resilience

Inequalities, governance and geographical factors can influence vulnerability and resilience.

Summary diagram of influences on vulnerability and resilience

Unequal access to education Unequal access to housing Unequal access to health care
Some people lack formal Some people are poor and lack Poorer people, especially in developing
education, so do not know resources, so they do not live in countries, may lack access to
about tectonic processes and strong buildings that can withstand doctors and medicines. During a
hazards or what actions to take. hazards (for example, Bam, Iran hazard people need medical care for
These people are also unable to (2003): 31000 killed when unbaked injuries, and afterwards to stop
participate in decision-making clay houses collapsed). But also diseases spreading. Medical aid
and planning. Traditional better housing of richer people may is not always fairly distributed
knowledge may also get lost be exposed on a coast (tsunami) (for example, in Gujarat, India (2001)
(for example, Turkey: decline in or steep slopes (landslides) ethnic minority groups did not get
aseismic building methods due (for example, California). their fair share after an earthquake).
to rural-urban migration).

Urbanisation Unequal access to income

Around the world, urban areas Ne opportunities
are growing; this increases risk Those formally employed have a
where buildings are not regular wage but those in informal
aseismic, and considerable sector (common in emerging and
destruction is possible developing countries) or
(for example, cities in unemployed do not. This affects their
developing countries like Haiti ability to save for safety improvements,
(Port-au-Prince) are more at insurance, stockpile emergency
risk than developed countries resources or get essentials after a
like Japan (Tokyo). Even in hazard. Poorer people may have to
prepared cities insurance live in risky areas (for example,
costs may be high, for example, farmers around Mount Merapi (2010)
Taipei has an estimated $181 returned to their livestock within the
billion of risk (2015-25). volcanic eruption evacuation zone).

Governance (a synoptic theme)

Corruption in local or national
Population density government prevents investment in Accessibility
The denser the population, the hazard mitigation and adaptation such Some countries or regions are
larger the number of people as stronger housing, or disaster isolated, by distance or physical
that can be affected by a preparedness such as warning systems, barriers such as mountains or sea.
tectonic hazard (for example, education and health care. Help and This can cause problems after a
Japan and Indonesia). More information agencies may not get set hazard (for example, Kashmir, India,
people are being affected by up and investment in, and use of, 2005) as aid is difficult to deliver.
hazards over time; this is due technology may not happen. Developing Vanuatu is a high-risk country
to population growth and and emerging countries may rely on because it is a nation of many
rural-urban migration, international links to get aid. In these islands (with no mobile phone
especially in emerging and countries weak government regulations service) spread over a large area
developing countries. or enforcement may mean preparations of the Pacific Ocean — so people
for hazards are low (for example, have no option of moving to safer
building codes). locations.

——_—_|;

Now | try this

1. Explain how poverty creates inequality in the capacity to reduce vulnerability.

2. State the reasons why cities in developing countries (such as Port-au-Prince, Haiti) are rated as ‘very weak’
in terms of socio-economic resilience.

12
 Had a look b | Nearly there E-| Nailed it! hie

Physical factors and context

Scales of disasters are the result of the physical factors and the human context in countries at different
stages of development.
Fi

) Witiewee: Statistical analysis of contrasting events

Data for comparable magnitude earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
Earthquake and country type
Alaska, USA (1964) high income 2

[Sumatra, Indonesia (2004) low-niddle ncone ——~=«dt~SCiA |:228900 | $16.5bn|

Tohoku, Japan(20M)highincome —=*=C=“*‘“‘*~*sdSC‘C*dYCes | S189mm |
ee cae
[Eviaalajul,(eeland (2010) tighcone —=SC~=‘“SCiSC |
| Puyehue-Cordon Caulle, Chile (2011) upper-middle income

Factors affecting the scale of Factors affecting the scale of

earthquake disasters volcanic disasters
All four earthquakes occurred at a shallow depth (25 to All four volcanic eruptions were very powertul,
30 km) on subduction zones not far from the coast, with huge columns of ash. Contexts differed:
lasted 4—6 minutes, involved large-scale movement of * Indonesia has a dense population and
the seabed and created a tsunami. Contexts differed: evacuated about 300000 people.

Anchorage only had 46000 people. evacuated people.

° Coastal areas affected by the Indonesian and Japanese * In Indonesia the health-care system
tsunamis were densely populated compared with Alaska. struggled to cope.
° The Alaskan tsunami did not affect a large area; the ° Major aircraft disruption was caused by
others affected many countries. Iceland’s volcanic ash carried towards
* Tohoku was the only event with a national and Europe, so airlines lost money.
international tsunami warning system and tsunami * Buildings and farms (especially livestock)
defences, and Japan was the only country to have were covered in ash, so compensation
aseismic construction as standard. and clean-up operations were needed in
* People in countries around the Indian Ocean in 2004 all hazard locations.
were unaware of a tsunami and stayed near the coast.
¢ Japan had over 1 million buildings and expensive
infrastructure were affected in Japan in 2011, including
the nuclear meltdown of the Fukushima reactors.

Suggest the importance of physical factors in relation to the context factors in the earthquake and volcano
examples featured.
13
 Hadalook| | Nearly there| | Nailed it!| |
vo pic I

Tectonic disaster trends

Disaster trends are complex and need an understanding of available data in order to make links to impacts,

Disaster trends and influences on trends since 1960

Mostly slower
onset hazards,
including elimate,
Highest annual
weather, river and
deaths 430000
600 bialagieal,
JE (2010),
~~ Highest annual
nN econamie
Pie. es lesses
AOO \ (400 bn
~ (201),
’
p
oe ae ——
i 300 7)
o 2OV7) 316 natural
8
disasters, including ~
Pd r 3 hurrieanes, Weather-
R& abel related hazards, especially
5 floods, caused mast
Zz y deaths arid costs,
100 dd 122 eountries affected,
All patural disasters 9500 deaths and $314 bn
; in damage, 50
Geophysical disasters - PO AG =~ — a o
fy plea nave as acccensesarwes. eas ae ee — —s oa a ———— Teel ; a
1960 ( 1970 1980 * 1970 "2000 \ 2010 2020
In 2Oth eentury, Little ehange CRED start Worldwide ~UNISDR Rapid-enset hazarda;
earthquakes orily in number ana = their EM-DAT — Web (internet) set up in earthquakes, voleanoes,
responsible tor 2.2% of frequeney of database on started in 1988, teaunamis and
all deaths fram natural geophysical fatural hazards 1990, landalides,
hazards, ard veleanees events ever in 1966,
otly 0.1%, feeent decades,
aS eS eS = a eh ee a

> Dsus
y Geographical
skills Large data sets: accuracy and reliability
You should consider the following when identifying Multiple databases: Separate national and
and interpreting complex trends: international organisations produce databases
* Data collection methodology: Who has without coordination, €.q, WHO, UNISDR, CRED
collected the data and how? For example, Recording of deaths: May be less accurate
government department, aid ageney, or in developing countries that lack administrative
university research, Even seientifie sourees systems; indirect deaths (6.4, disease) may or
have different data for the same hazards, may not be ineluded; remote isolated locations
* Recording of costs: May be less accurate in are diffleult to observe and record; political bias
developing countries; seme costs, especially in reporting (6.4, minarity groups excluded),
for poor people, may not get included; damage Change to database content: For example,
costs in remote areas may not be assessed or the EM-DAT database recently added
reported; currency values change over time, landslides to its geophysical category,
for example, inflation means that damage costs Geological timescale: Nazard trends follow
are inereasing over time, long timeseales,

Now try this

Fxplain three reasons why if 18 necessary to be cautious when using data to interpret trends,
\

14
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significance of mega-disasters
Tectonic mega-disasters cause economic and human impacts on a regional and global scale.

Mega-disaster Tectonic mega-disasters

CO Over 2000 deaths or Vv Haiti earthquake of 2010 killed up to
Ww Over 200000 people made homeless or 300000 people, needed aid for over
one year and cost 100% of GDP.
vw Losses of 5% of national GDP or higher or
W Kashmir (India/Pakistan) earthquake of 2005
Ww Dependence on external aid for one year
left over 3 million people homeless.
or longer.

TD eeee ee ee ee eee

Wider economic and human impacts of tectonic mega-disasters

Global energy policies Global and regional economic activities Global pollution
Nuclear power stations can be damaged Voleanic ash may disrupt aircraft movements Damaged and destroyed
by seismic waves or tsunamis, releasing over a large area, This costs airlines money in buildings, factories and power
radioactivity. People and governments lost trade and compensation, strands tourists, stations emit chemicals into
have become greatly concerned about prevents fresh vegetables and fish reaching the atmosphere, increasing
this and changed their attitudes their markets, and disrupts supplies of goods ozone depletion and global
towards their energy mix. and parts to factories, warming, Tsunamis may earry
Example: T6hoku tsunami (2011) caused Examples: EyjafjallajOkull, lceland (2010) caused debris and contamination into
major radioactivity release at Fukushima, economic losses estimated at over $3 bn, oceans where currents
so Japan shut down all its reactors and Tédhoku (2011) reduced the supply of electronic distribute it widely,

w.
introduced stricter safety codes, components to the rest of the world, Example: Tohoku tsunami
Germany, Belgium and France have (2011) swept debris and
committed themselves to phasing out radioactivity Into the Pacifle
nuclear energy. > ae Cia.
Reg edlil
, "pies "¥ ‘ 5
moareee
Ocean where it was carried
Sak 7 % . 7 + to mainland USA,
ai outa ‘al a beby eS ry i i dh,
oe Ce iebn a aM Mas 7 | ahs f
ae ® met thy fact XY
iee | EURASIAN 14
fy)! /
ts ae nica.
24 108 Global temperatures and
S90 Nh we PACIFIC regional food supplies
Multi-national loss aeHIP PIN A
Large voleanic eruptions send
ash and SO» particles high
of life \ Re ise) wkd) ae ‘> {
Due to international \ be Kite | pun, into the atmosphere, These
tourism and SAS 01petty Ae hf ( : particulates are carried
busi
vsiness, forel
foreigners Lon
KE BAY.
ol Su
uhdcn | sour f ica)= SAUSTRALIAN around the world, especially
can find themselves _ , aie oa / “AMERICAN if the voleano |s near the
in disaster events. cal t Sn rt equator, They block and
Deaths, and the ~ Sore ay M eif orl reflect the Sun's heat energy,
upset and grief, may causing global dimming.
@ a
be global, or a Examples: Mt Pinatubo (1991)
hazard may directly cooled the Earth by 0,6 °C
impact on more than one country. for two years, Tambora
Example: Indian Ocean tsunami (2004) directly (1815) lowered temperatures
affected many countries in SE Asia, S Asia and by 1,7 °C, causing starvation
Africa, but indirectly affected European countries, and disease in SE Asia
especially Sweden, by killing tourists. and Europe,

1. What is the difference between a tectonic mega-disaster and a tectonic disaster?

2. Suggest why some large-scale tectonic hazards are able to have a global impact.
Pets

15
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Multiple-hazard zones
Areas with tectonic hazards may also have other types of hazard. Sometimes these combine to make
situations worse.

Multiple-hazard zones Some deadly combinations

Hazards can be grouped into several categories: * Volcanic eruptions may coincide with a rainy
* meteorological (such as strong winds in a storm) season or a tropical cyclone; the heavy rain
mixes with tephra to produce lahars. Loose ash
* hydrological (such as river floods)
and rocks from a volcano’s side are picked up by
* geophysical (such as tectonic and mass flowing water. (See page 6).
movements) f '
* Earthquakes in remote areas of developing
° climatological (such as long-term drought) countries where there are no health services may
* biological (such as disease such as cholera). lead to outbreaks of disease, when there is no
Some countries, or regions within them, may clean water to drink and no medicine.
experience several or all of these in a short
space of time.
ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee hme hme. hme. hme Ue ee ee ee ee Oe Oe ee Ue ee ee Ue ee ae a

Philippines hazard Ae Philippines human

~ Fs Contexts 4
experience | geography
The tropical ocean location and a destructive A developing country with a dense population
plate boundary create multiple hazards. (332 per km?) scattered across 1000 islands in
Between 1960 and 2015 over half of the western Pacific. |
the natural hazard disasters were caused In the 2017 World Risk Report it was placed
by tropical cyclones. River floods were third (behind Vanuatu and Tonga) because it has
the second most frequent (17%). Earthquakes many poor people in a dense population, most
and volcanoes were only fifth and sixth, with living by the coast or on fertile slopes
about 4% of all disasters each. In this time of volcanoes, with exposure to many |
period only one tsunami caused a disaster. natural hazards, f

6.0 magnitude earthquake (Gulf of Moro) created a tsunami that killed over 5000 people.
1990 7.8 magnitude earthquake 100 km from Mt Pinatubo caused a landslide on the volcano
flank; eight months later eruptions started with heavy rainfall causing lahars.
1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption was followed by Typhoon Yunya (tropical cyclone), the rain from
which created lahars which killed about 650 people.
2006 (Feb.) | Heavy rainfall over four days (50 cm) was followed a few days later by a 4.3 magnitude
earthquake on a fault line. One minute later a massive landslide took place 2 km away at
Guinsaugon; travelling at over 100 km/h, it killed over 1200 people.
2006 (Nov.) |Small eruption of the Mayon volcano three months before the arrival of Typhoon Reming;
47 cm of rainfall in 24 hours then caused lahars which killed over 1200 people.

Now try this

1, Identify two more, possibly deadly, natural hazard combinations where a tectonic hazard may be
made worse.
2. Explain why the Philippines needs a holistic approach to managing tectonic natural hazards.

16
 Had a look | Nearly there a Nailed it! it
AS/A leve)
Topie j

Prediction and forecasting

Accuracy of predicting and forecasting depends on the type and location of the tectonic hazard.

Method of prediction and forecasting

* Predicting the timing of earthquakes has so far proven impossible.
* There is some evidence that animals and birds sense danger before humans,
but only just before the seismic waves reach a location.
* Modern seismic monitoring and communications allow for warnings to be
given up to a minute before the shockwaves arrive (for example, Japan),
* Foreshocks can be an indication of a larger event but the pattern is not certain
until afterwards.
° The absence of earthquakes along a known fault is cause for concern as it
shows that stress and strain are building up (for example, San Andreas fault),
instead of being released by smaller earthquakes.
° Earthquakes may travel along a fault line over time (for example, Anatolian fault)
and so it is possible to say which part of the fault will move next (but not when)
* Some faults are unknown (for example, Christchurch) and earthquakes catch
people by surprise.
* Volcanoes have a fixed location and this allows constant monitoring, However,
constant monitoring requires technology and is expensive; so many voleanoes in
developing countries are not monitored.
* Geological evidence of past eruptions provides clues about the type and
extent of future eruptions.
° Measurements include gas emissions (for example, 5O,,), harmonic tremors,
bulging of the volcano flanks, and composition of magma. There are Usually
changes in these readings before an eruption, which allows relatively accurate
prediction and warnings to be given, although the exact magnitude is more
difficult to forecast.
Any sub-marine earthquake may create a tsunami, especially if it is large
magnitude on subduction zones with megathrusts.
* Warning systems exist in the Pacific and now also the Indian Ocean (after
2004), based on seismograph readings locating epicentres and buoys
monitoring movement of the sea.
* Computer modelling (for example, SIFT) has been used to predict arrival times
and wave height, but it does not always accurately account for ocean depth or
shape of seafloor.

_ : The role of scientists

ere are several groups of people (players) involved with prediction and forecasting, At the forefront

ring using the latest technology. Prediction and forecasting is hugely important to reducing
risk, although some believe that it will never be possible to predict earthquakes precisely so
ainty will remain.
oe

‘Now try this

1. Place the tectonic hazards into rank order according to their predictability. Justify your order.
2. Explain why forecasting is more accurate in developed countries than in developing countries.

17
AS/K level Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |
Topic 1

Hazard management stages

Hazard management involves stages such as recovery; these vary by country type. You need to know the
actions within each stage.

Hazard management cycle

Stages
(9 Media focus Risk assessment
ig Emergency or disaster Mitigation/prevention VY Mitigation: Actions and interventions to
Preparedness reduce vulnerability before a natural hazard.

Risk assessment :
Of Preparedness: Ways in which communities
mitigation/ Warning/ can adapt to live with a natural hazard.
prevention evacuation
WY Resilience: Ability to resist, cope with,
Ongoing— adapt to and recover.from a natural hazard.
development See = ra 5
See Response: Actions taken during and after
ie a natural hazard (disruption stage) to
Immediate . ’
Economic and be sepa se reduce impacts, such as evacuation, rescue,
social recovery
y, medical care and damage assessment.
Reconstruction
(resettlement/ 5 Ww Recovery: Rehabilitation and reconstruction
| Ongoing assistance - .
relocation) Reetorsbiontct through restoring infrastructure, temporary
infrastructural services freee
housing, relocation and new risk assessment.- |}

mrs = | (6G = Um )«(6oe wes = § oT wat wee, — et a im! ee ae eS Se ee ee ee ee

Synoptic Theme: P

The role of emergency planners

The key players in the management of hazards are those involved wiEh plannine for emergencies; ’this
may be government departments, rescue teams, NGOs and the communities themselves. es a
involvement willyey seein to theSes ofenebah in
5 52 n

Modified Park’s model showing different responses to hazard events

Improvement :
Hazardous geophysical event Recovery mslife
quality to better
ie = = = om =

eke Regen to nomads

Quality of life Normality Relief and fatale ua = es “rm

Level of
economic
activity

Social stability

Communications
and service levels

Pre-disaster Relief ===> Rehabilitation Reconstruction

hours — days — days — weeks weeks — years
Time ————>

‘Now {try this

Explain why the response to and recovery from a hazard varies between countries at different stages
of development.

18
 Had a look |_| Nearly there i Nailed it! |_|

strategies to modify events

Changing the nature of a hazard event through land-use zoning and engineering defences can reduce impacts.

<3 7 = 2
Hazard zones on Mt Etna, Italy
ig) Cocgraphical
» V/ skills Geographic Information = Hazard zoning maps, such as the one of
Systems (GIS) | Mt Etna below, can forecast where the biggest
dangers are. Feople can be prevented from
living in these areas through land-use zoning.
SZ
NEW ZEALAND |

Be |
Christchurch |

|
|
j
4 fags 05/03/2008 - 11/09/2010

Sea

ae *Acireale
————— ‘ Source: COMET+

The Darfield earthquake (7.1 M_,) in September 2010

damaged older buildings and injured 100 people.
A 6.3 M, aftershock in February 2011 under the city of
Christchurch, killed 161 people and devastated the city.
This GIS image shows where movement was greatest,
and reveals where land-use zoning could be imposed,
ie eS ‘Saw Desaashe hazard resistant eae alaie: '
REYNE ses

a a ee ee ee ee eee a

Modifying the tectonic hazard event

* Modifying earthquakes is difficult because of their power and unpredictability. They can be avoided
by not living near plate boundaries or faults (the hazard zones) or designing buildings to withstand
powerful seismic waves (aseismic design).
* Modifying some volcanic hazards is possible: hazard zoning maps forecast where the biggest dangers are
and land-use zoning stops people living there; draining crater lakes reduces the formation of lahars; lava
flows can be diverted by barriers or diversion channels, or sprayed with water to cool and slow movement.
° Tsunamis can be modified at the coast to prevent development near the shore (building offshore
barriers, higher and stronger walls, using natural defences like mangrove forests).

a eee a

Now try this dasiataitninas siaenininamts

Suggest which tectonic hazard is easiest to modify. Explain your choice.

19
 Had alock | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Mitigation and adaptation

strategies
Tectonic hazards can be managed by a variety of mitigation and adaptation strategies.
: rs
e
—

Theme
42 wa

Synoptic
-

Mitigation and adaptation

Ww Mitigation involves actions and Models forecasting and
interventions by a community that will reduce pos
the severity of a hazard, such as reducing modifying loss
vulnerability and increasing resilience. |) Models can be developed to consider the — |
Ww Adaptations are changes or responses to a future and forecast the impacts ofa ;:
hazard situation designed to help a community tectonic hazard. Models make it possible — t
cope with a hazard, such as taking precautions. | to predict the benefits of putting mitigation
These are key ideas within the global Sendai and adaptation measures in place. Dec
framework for reducing the risk of disasters
Modifying loss involves some ke
(2015 to 2030). ifying
players, such as aid agencies (NGOs)
Ms
and insurance companies who can help
during the recovery stage.
el ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

Modifying vulnerability and Modifying loss

resilience * Rescue teams — fully equipped with latest.
° Hazard risk mapping — modelling of hazard technology (internal and external)
zones within an area, for example liquefaction * Emergency relief aid — involving food, water,
areas or lahar routes sanitation and shelter as well as medical care
’ ; : ; and medicines (internal and external sources)
e Land-use zoning -— strict planning regulations to
stop building in risky areas * Community volunteers — local people
specifically trained for emergency events to
° Food supplies — increasing food production with Aeicteraneehele elneahcesis
better storage methods
¢ Insurance — large- or micro-scale scale insurance
° Monitoring and warning systems — to give
to reduce financial losses for individuals and
people enough time to evacuate
families, especially where livelihoods have
e Hazard resistant design — any construction been lost
to be built to a specification strong enough to
¢ Evacuation — move away from areas that may be
withstand impacts (using technology appropriate
to the community)
hit again (e.g. weakened buildings collapsing with |
aftershocks), including permanent resettlement
* Investment in services — health-care systems toiantenteeetione:
can be better prepared, and education can raise
the level of a community’s understanding of ° Development aid — long-term assistance from
hazards and actions to take other countries to help rebuild what has been lost.

° Improved evacuation routes — to enable people

to escape in time

Now try this

1. Explain how hi-tech monitoring is important to modifying vulnerability and loss.

2. Compare how external groups and communities can modify losses.

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 Had a look a Nearly there a Nailed it! a |
AS/E level

skilis l
These exam-style questions will help you to prepare for Topic 1 Tectonic Processes and Hazards in Paper 1.

‘Suggest’ questions
1. Study Figure 1: Plates and plate boundaries AS) ‘Suggest’ questions do not require you
for the Americas. (Numbers show mm of to know about a specific situation but
movement per year.) you should be able to show your general
AP = Altiplano understanding by applying ideas that you
EA = Easter have learned.

The clearest one to name is Nazca in

the centre of the map with no land mass
on it. You could also choose Cocos,
Caribbean or Scotia. Even some of the
microplates are oceanic, e.g. Easter
Pacific could be chosen from your
.. Knowledge, but is incomplete on the map.

Many plate boundary types are shown in

Figure 1. In the exam, look at any figure
carefully and use the key to work out
what different numbers and symbols
mean. In this case you need to note
that the arrows show the direction in
which plates are moving and that the
(a) Name an oceanic plate shown on Figure 1. (1 mark) numbers next to them represent mm per
Nazca year. There is some calculation involved:
(b) Compare the direction and speed of movement Nazca and South American speeds need
between the Nazca and South American plates us combining (destructive/subduction zone)
with that between-the Pacific and North (and as two speeds for South American
American plates. (2 marks) are shown, calculate a mean), while Pacitic
and North American neéd subtracting
Nazca and South American plates are moving
(transtorm/conservative boundary).
towards each other at a rate of about 64mma
year, but the Pacific and North American plates are
moving in approximately the same direction, with
One way of structuring 3-mark questions
the Pacific plate being faster by GGmm a year.
is to make three linked points. You should
2. Suggest one reason why developed countries a) make sure that these points are linked
have higher economic costs than developing directly to the question, in this case
countries from tectonic hazards. (3 marks) the level of development. This question
Developed countries have invested in improved and
requires one relevant reason that shows
expensive infrastructure, so they have a lot more understanding and two pieces of applied
valuable infrastructure that can be damaged, such as knowledge and understanding that you
roads, railways, bridges, electricity transmission lines have recalled from your studies.
and modern communications. These are expensive to Make sure that when one reason is
replace or repair, and the costs fall on the government asked for you do not give more than one,
and taxes. Developing countries do not have as much as you will not get marks for separate
expensive infrastructure and so their total costs are points. Fully develop one reason with
much lower, though proportionally still a big cost for three good explanations.
these poorer countries.

2l
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Exam skills 2
These exam-style questions will help you to prepare for Paper 1 Section A.

Worked example You should be familiar with diagrams that

go with each topic, but also be prepared |
3. Study the hazard management cycle diagram on (As) to take your time to understand ones
page 18 (Figure 2). Explain two reasons that you may not have seen. Dor’t panic —
why the media concentrate on a specific part the answers or clues to answers will be in
of the hazard management cycle. (4 marks) the Bae pS in an exam. ez
wosonieneecineee
1. Media is a business and assumes that its customers
are interested in the dramatic. Therefore its focus is Ina 4-mark question asking for two L
on the event itself and the immediate responses, with separate things, there will be 2 marks for
interest tailing off after the damage assessment. each. There will be 1 mark for identifying
2. This focus may be partly because of pressure from a correct reason and a’second mark for
NGOs, who are trying to raise emergency aid for saving geographical expansion. Make sure you
people and providing immediate assistance.
don't just give the same reason written
4. Assess the significance of tectonic hazard type &) in a different way.
comers hee|
and location to the accuracy of predicting and
forecasting them. (12 marks)
‘Explain’ and ‘assess’ questions.
Prediction and forecasting of tectonic hazards
is difficult, but varies according to the primary ‘Explain’ questions expect you to: i
hazard type (earthquake or volcanic eruption) and provide reasons for why or how
secondary hazard type (tsunami or landslide). show understanding
Historically, earthquakes have caused the greatest
WY provide justification and evidence.
loss of life (655000 in Tangshan, 1972) and most
damage costs (Tohoku, 2011 = $210 million), ‘Assess’ questions expect you to:
so their prediction and forecast is of great show the relative significance of
importance but not easy. Location is also important something in comparison to other factors
because events only become a hazard when they
Ww spend equal time considering each
affect people. The accuracy of predicting tectonic main factor
hazards in sparsely populated areas (e.g Alaskan
Ww consider all the factors and identify the —
coast) is therefore less important than in densely
most important one or ones.
populated areas such as the lowlands of Japan or
coastal areas of Indonesia.
Predicting the exact location of a seismic event You should remember that several factors |
and forecasting its intensity is currently impossible, may be useful (or not) to predicting
even with the latest technology (such as LIDAR). tectonic hazards. Perhaps make a small 7
It is known that earthquakes mostly take place near plan before starting your answer to this |
plate boundaries but the exact stress points are type of question. —|
not known (for example, Christchurch 2011), so
accuracy of prediction and forecast is weak.
Next, this answer would need to
Tsunamis need undersea activity, and warnings
consider predicting volcanoes and
are possible when this type of seismic event is
move on to other factors that affect
detected (such as in Tohoku 2011). However,
forecasting the exact intensity of the waves for predictability, such as the level of
places on a coastline is difficult because of unknown technology available to a country, the |
variables such as depth and shape of the offshore level of local understanding of data and
area, and the funneling effects of estuaries... the effectiveness of communications to
people likely to be affected.
SII TEL IED IE III CGO ma

Finally, you need to make a reasoned |

judgement as to which factor you think
is the most significant, with at least one
reason mie
22
 AS/E leve]
Had a look |_| Nearly there & Nailed it! jer|

Exam practice |
The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 1 Section A of your AS or A level
exam. Suggested answers are on page 293. You need to answer all questions in Section A.

1. (a) State one way in which the VEI scale judges

the magnitude of an eruption. (1 mark) You must be careful here not to just repeat
what is already in the question — such as ‘VE
(b) Study Figure 3, a map showing the WAU shows magnitude’. Recall the descriptors
location of major volcanic eruptions within the VEI scale. (See page 10.)
around the Pacific Ocean.

Fuji (1707)

Pinatubo (1991) Kilauea

(2018)

Pacific
Ocean
Merapi .
(2010)

6 6
5 5 Puyehue-
4 4 VEI Cordon
3 3 Scale Caulle
2000 km 2 2
(2011)
Volcano name —~ Fuji 1
1000 miles Eruption year -+ (1707) ~~ Volcano location
Six marks is the first longer question
(i) Explain two reasons for the location As] you will face in your AS exam; so plan a
of the volcanoes shown in structure — in this case: where people lack
Figure 3. (4 marks) access to health care and what it means
they are missing, then. cover the impacts
(ii) Suggest one way in which damage &) of earthquakes or volcanoes on people's
costs could be added accurately to
health, and then how the lack of care
Figure 3. (3 marks)
means that they are at greater risk.
2. Explain how the lack of access to health care &) (See page 12.)
increases the vulnerability of people to a
tectonic hazard. (6 marks)
When revising, you should think about which
3. Assess the significance of mantle convection &)
parts of the specification could include an
to the theory of plate tectonics.
‘Assess the significance ...’ question, for
(12 marks)

t
example the significance of vulnerability in a
disaster. Think about how you would answer
such a question.
Assess questions can ‘suck you in’ to | In question 3 you need to think about
writing a lot, but this takes up too much | how mantle convection was proven, and
time. You should spend a maximum of 15 then how it helps to explain the tectonic
minutes on this type of question, so be processes within the theory that can be
measured and observed. (See page 3.)
concise and to the point.
RT TN OT ef

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Topic 1

EX practice 2
The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 1 Section A of your AS exam or
A level exam. Suggested answers are on page 294. You need to answer all questions in Section A.

1. Suggest one reason why the response stage in The command word ‘suggest’ means that L
the hazard management cycle is important to @ there is not one expected correct answer
reducing vulnerability. (3 marks) You should identify a reason and then make
Cay two linked points to develop your answer
(See page 16.)

2. Explain two ways in which community

Four-mark ‘explain’-questions are point
resilience to a tectonic hazard could e marked. So in this question you must
be improved. (4 marks) identity two separate ways and, for each,
expand with an explanation; two marks will .
be allocated for each way. (See page 12.) .

In this question you nééd to think about

all the causes of tsunamis so that you are
3. Explain why sub-marine earthquakes at
able to compare them with what happens at
subduction zones are the most common cause
subduction plate boundaries. (See page 7.)
oe math) A top ‘level 3° answer will be clear, have
locational detail and a detailed explanation.
Your knowledge could be place-specific
detail or conceptual detail.

4. Evaluate the importance of tectonic, glacial Synoptic question: The specification

and weather processes in creating AS) has several synoptic elements. In AS
volcanic hazards. (16 marks) Paper 1 there is a 16-mark question that
\< combines parts of several physical topics.
Make sure that during your studies you
think about the links between different
physical processes, so that you are better
5. Assess the importance of the processes cae rac, tied: .
‘ ; ; : Within your answer always recognise the . |
responsible for moving tectonic plates. ; : : :
(12 marks) complexity of the situation or context given
(perhaps even include a flow diagram). .
You may need to think about different
scales (local to global) or different time
periods (short to geological time). t

After covering all ideas, be sure to make

6. Assess the effectiveness of warning systems a judgement in the conclusion, perhaps |
in modifying vulnerability. (12 marks) starting ‘Overall ...’ or ‘Usually...’ i|
or ‘Generally...’. |

There is not one correct theme to

answer ‘assess questions. After ‘explain’
questions, this is the most common type il
of exam question, so make sure that you |
have practised how to structure answers
to ‘assess’ questions. If you haven't — start
now with these.

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Causes of climate change

The Earth’s climate has fluctuated between greenhouse Earth and ice age Earth.

Longer-term climate change Causes of longer climate change

The Quaternary period began 2.6 million years * Tectonic causes: The start of the Quaternary
ago. It is divided into two epochs. period is linked to tectonic changes that re-routed
° We live in the Holocene epoch, which began ocean currents to create the Gulf Stream.
around 11000 years ago. The Gulf Stream meant higher snowfall in the Arctic,
so ice sheets spread, setting off climate feedback
_ © Before then was the Pleistocene epoch,
mechanisms: increased albedo (reflectivity of the
when ice covered huge areas.
land surface), lowering temperatures, meaning
The Pleistocene epoch further ice sheet spreading.
¢ Milankovitch cycles: The Pleistocene’s
@ The Pleistocene is divided into over 50 longer-term cycles of glacials and interglacials
_ glacials (cooler) and interglacials (warmer). result from variations in the amount of solar
radiation reaching the Earth.
} Glaciers reached their maximum extent during ia
Eccentricity cycle: changes to the
glacials. Earth’s orbit over a 100 O0O-year cycle.
When the Earth’s orbit takes it
(3) po suse there Welle many, glacials and Ritian tom the Sunckneceies
interglacials, glaciated landscapes have often less solar energy.
been worked and reworked by glaciers. yi Bex co 2
Obliquity cycle: changes to the tilt of
(4) The last maximum glacial extent of the the Earth’s axis over a 41 000-year cycle.
Pleistocene is called the Devensian: This changes how much solar
115 OOO-10 000 BP (before present). energy is received at the
Earth’s poles.
© The last time glaciers advanced in the UK was
~ at the end of the Pleistocene: 12000-10000 Precession cycle: ‘wobbles’ in the
Earth’s axis over a 21000-year cycle
BP — the Loch Lomond Stadial. This affects how cold or warm
Shorter-term climate change seasons are. E.g. currently northern
hemisphere winters are in perihelion:
* The Pleistocene ended as the global climate when the Earth is closer to the Sun.
became warmer: the Holocene. This makes them milder.

* So far, climate in the Holocene has been quite Gaceeuhieal :

stable. However, there have been cooler Graphical analysis
periods, such as the Little Ice Age (around
1300-1870), when some glaciers advanced in Warm |Interglacial period
the northern and southern hemispheres. |
| ? There have also been even shorter-term cooler Au) I)iH ry h AM i
periods; for example, following the eruption of y" "Wf y \ \"\¥ \" /
Mount Tambora in 1815. Vv |
; Cold Glacial period |
Causes
O 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
* Variations in solar output: Low sunspot Number of years in the past (million years)
activity is linked with cooler temperatures.
There was very little sunspot activity during the
Maunder Minimum, 1650-1750.
* Volcanic emissions: Volcanoes inject large
volumes of sulphur dioxide gas into the You should be able to analyse past climates by
comparing evidence from reconstructed climate
atmosphere, which remains for up to three
years. Sulphate aerosols reflect the Sun’s
graphs and physical landforms. For example,
evidence for the last Ice Age (which ended
radiation, cooling the lower atmosphere.
10000 years ago) (see pages 32 to 39).

53 try th is
How do Milankovitch cycles help explain the Pleistocene’s cycle of glacials and interglacials?
25
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Distribution of ice cover

The current distribution of ice cover is in high latitudes and altitudes. You can compare past and present
distribution of glaciated landscapes using global and regional maps.

Cold environments — the cryosphere

Periglacial environments often surround glacial Alpine environments are high altitude mountain areas in
environments. They do not have glaciers but temperate environments. They are characterised by
feature permanently frozen ground: permafrost. high levels of precipitation and a wide temperature range.

The cryosphere has an

important regulatory role
ie" ae global climates, reducing
global temperatures by
reflecting the Suh’s heat
Tropic of from its white surfaces
| Cancer eS and storing 69% of all the
ice SL world’s freshwater.
Equator i ts Antarctica’s ice sheets
make up 65% of today’s
Tropic of Capricorn 0. enyonynenc:
ws Polar environments
Polar ice sheet & 2 IM Alpine glacial (high altitude) are in the Arctic
and Antarctic.
Global extent of the last jy High iatitaae buneye ( eri way
glaciation 18000 "" 2 i os Temperatures and
years ago ab precipitation are
both very low.

The cold environme:

Classifying ice masses Relict landscapes

Ice masses — by scale Relict glacial environments are landscapes that
are not currently glaciated but feature fossil
Ice sheets | Largest masses of ice (>5O0000km?),
landforms shaped by glaciations in the past.
which bury the landscape.
While only around 10% of the Earth is covered by
Ice caps Dome-shaped masses that cover ice masses today, evidence suggests that 30%
mountain peaks and plateau areas. was covered during Pleistocene glacial maximums.
Average size <50000km?.
—— ¢ The Scandinavian lce Sheet covered much of
Ice fields Cover upland areas but ice isn’t thick northern Europe: over 6.6 million km? and up
enough to bury topography, ae as to 3km thick. Evidence includes erratics of
hills. Average size 10-10000km*. Scandinavian geology in north-west Russia.
Valley glacier |Glacier contined toa Naeys ° The Laurentide Ice Sheet covered much of North |
Average size 3-1000km*. America: maximum of over 13 million km? and
Cirque glacier |Forms in hollow on mountainside. 3km deep. Evidence includes Great Lakes in
Average size O.5-3km?. North America. |
Ice masses — by location ° The ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland were |
Warm-based | Temperate glaciers occur in only slightly larger during the Pleistocene than
glaciers high-altitude temperate areas where they are today.
it is warm enough to melt the base The cycle of glacials and interglacials in the Pleistocene
of a glacier. meant these ice sheets expanded and retreated many ©
Cold-based Polar glaciers occur in high latitudes. times, making the relict landscapes complicated. _ |
glaciers Low temperatures mean the glacier
is permanently frozen to the bed.

Now try this |

Explain the present-day distribution of high-altitude glaciated upland landscapes shown in the map above.
\ i \

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Perigilacial processes
_ Periglacial landscapes (tundra) are non-glacial cold environments. Most periglacial areas have
permatrost — soil and rock that remains frozen during the summer for at least two years.

Permafrost
The distribution of permafrost gives a good indication of the main periglacial regions: northern
__ hemisphere especially northern Russia and Canada. There are different types of permafrost:

The seasonally active layer is the upper part of

the ground that thaws during the summer.

| Ww Around 20% of the Earth’s surface currently has periglacial conditions: almost all in the high
latitude northern hemisphere.
be Ww An additional 20-25% was periglacial in the Pleistocene, at much lower latitudes than currently:
for example, the southern half of England.

| Periglacial processes shape the landscape

a eee
Freeze-thaw Repeated freezing and thawing causes water within cracks in rock to freeze, melt and
weathering _| freeze again.
_ | Frost heave | As the ground freezes, large stones become chilled more rapidly than the soil. The top
r | of the stone freezes to overlying material, pulling it up.
The downslope movement of the saturated active layer under the influence of gravity.
A combination of processes (freeze-thaw weathering, solifluction and meltwater erosion)
weakens and erodes the ground beneath a snow patch.
Due to limited vegetation cover (low temperatures, low precipitation, short growing
§3 _ |season),
the wind is able to pick up and transport sediment.
__|Meltwater — Summer thawing creates meltwater, which erodes stream and river channels.
erosion — Deposition happens when winter freezing reduces discharge.
ee ee

ry this

What factors might explain the distribution of sporadic permafrost?

Use your geographical understanding to suggest possible local factors.
Seid tytecteh. Menthetl tee cm Vee Aecatttn Tle hatin ) i ge red PaaS Pp Ee ae
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To pic

Periglacial landforms
The processes operating in periglacial environments produce often-unique periglacial landforms.

® Ice wedges 12) Patterned ground

As the active layer freezes in winter, the dry * lce wedge polygons form when dry ground .
area of ground contracts and cracks, Summer freezes and the active layer cracks, forming .
meltwater enters the cracks, widening them, natural polygon shapes.
The meltwater freezes in winter to form ice wedges. « Stone polygons and stripes form as frost heave —
* As the cracks get wider, ice wedges grow pushes larger stones upwards, creating a dome.
bigger and deeper, Over 100 years, they can * On the surface, stones roll away from the
grow to 10 metres deep, dome, leaving finer sediment in the middle of a
* Ice wedges are sometimes exposed as polygon shape.
riverbanks are eroded, * On slopes, the stones roll further: stripes. |
Active Layer / Repeated lee wedge polygons |
over many Ground raised
years by ice wedges
Active layer

Permalrost

3) Loess
The fine silt picked up and transported by
the wind can form extensive deposits of
loess — wind-blown deposits, Crack Permafrost tow weelaes |

Pingos

Where water ean filter down into the upper layers of the
ground and then freeze, the expansion of the lee causes the —-
overlying sediments to heave upwards into a dome: a pingo.

When the ice core of the pingo becomes exposed at the

surface of the mound, it melts to create a crater,

Pingos ean grow to '7Om high and 500m wide, They are
distinctive lanelforms in flat periglacial landscapes such as
Canacla’s Northwest Territories, pletured here.

Cake Relict periglacial landforms

Periglacial landscap sia @ Relict periglacial landforms survive in the UK:
Present-day periglacial environments * loess in Peqwell Bay, Kent and in East Anglia
include the tundra environments of northern
Russia or northern Canada, which have extreme | * circular depressions formed by melted pinggaay
cold and dry conditions, with permafrost and | in-the.Markhtare-Moars ‘
||
freeze-thaw cycles, Vegetation consists of low * ice wedge polygons, with the cracks now filled —
plants as trees cannot survive these conditions with sediment, in Whalebone Lane, Romford
with wind chill and the short growing season; * stone polygons and stripes in the Cairngorm
in Summer much of the land is covered with . mountains (Carn Ban Mor).
surface water, .

Explain the formation of a pingo,

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Topic 24

Glacial mass balance system

Glaciers are systems with inputs, processes, stores and outputs.

The glacier system

feThe glacier
, store and processes Outputs ©
|e Meltwater
The moving glacier erodes, > * Icebergs
transports and deposits rock debris * Water vapour
* Rock debris
roea ae

Glacier moving down slope

Glacier
snout

Cx PN Geographical one G hical °

» W skills Mass balance Glacier health
* Glacier mass balance is calculated by ° Glacier health is usually assessed using
_ subtracting the total ablation for the year | 10 years of data. Nearly three-quarters of
_ from the total accumulation. the world’s ice masses are currently trending

~ accumulation, there is a negative mass * Glacier mass budgets (total accumulation —

balance and glaciers will retreat. total ablation) vary annually, so cumulative
* When total annual accumulation is greater mass balance shows trends over time.
than ablation, there is a positive mass . * You can compare satellite images over time
_ balance and the glacier advances. for changes in glacier extent.
* The glacier snout is stationary when | ° See page 265 for more,
accumulation and ablation are equal: this is

© See page 265 for more. —

i

OF Greenland Ice Sheet

N egative anc positive feedback ° The average rate of ice loss from the Sp
Negative feedback minimises the effect of new Greenland Ice Sheet has increased from
inputs to re-establish stability. For example: 34 Gt (gigatons) a year in 1992-2001 to
increased snow causes glaciers to advance, 215 Gt a year between 2002 and 2011.
increasing volume in the ablation zone. * The loss of ice cover in Greenland is making
Melting increases, returning the system to the surface darker, accelerating melting: a
the same equilibrium line. | negative feedback loop.
Positive feedback intensifies the original | ° Melting of the ice sheet has contributed
change and may lead to a new equilibrium. approximately O.33mm a year to global sea
For example: an increase of glacier surface area level rise between 2002 and 2011.
increases ice albedo, reducing air temperature, — * If the whole Greenland Ice Sheet melted,
increasing accumulation. global sea levels would rise by up to 7m,

Explain the link between mass balance and glacier ‘health’.

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Topic 26

Glacial movement
Different factors are important in explaining the different rates of glacial movement: a key factor is the
temperature of the ice and whether the pressure melting point is reached.

Polar and temperate glaciers Processes involved in movement

The melting point of ice at the surface of a glacier is of glaciers
O°C, but the melting point is slightly less at the base
of a glacier because of the pressure of the overlying Internal deformation
ice: the pressure melting point. The weight of glacier ice and gravity
causes ice crystals to deform, so the
glacier very slowly moves downslope.
¢ The low mean annual temperatures of polar
glaciers mean that they do not reach the Basal slip
Meltwater is present at the base of
pressure melting point at their base. They are the glacier, enabling the glacier to
frozen to their bedrock. slide over the bedrock.

* Polar glaciers only move through a process

Regelation creep Surges Extending flow
called internal deformation. As a glacier moves over Enhanced basal Steep slopes increase
° Most temperate glaciers do reach the pressure an obstruction, the sliding, e.g. due to the rate of basal slip and
pressure increases, meltwater build-up. the ice accelerates.
melting point at their base. This means the base melting ice and enabling Surges can produce Shallower slopes slow the
of the glacier is lubricated by meltwater, which movement. The pressure relatively rapid ice down. (When shallower
reduces after the movement. slopes slow the ice down,
significantly increases their rate of movement. obstacle, and the this is known as
meltwater refreezes. compressing flow.)
° As well as internal deformation, temperate
glaciers also move through a collection of
processes called basal slip.

Factors controlling the rate of movement

Ice thickness
When ice is 50 m thick, plastic flow
begins, so greater thicknesses
create more pressure in the ice,
which causes faster movement.

Slope Ice temperature

The steeper the angle of the Colder ice moves more slowly, as
slope, the faster the it does not deform as easily, and
movement due to gravity. it stays stuck to bedrock.

Altitude Variations in mass balance

The amount of snowfall increases Factors controlling rate The higher the rate of ablation,
with altitude, so mountain of glacier movement the more meltwater and the
glaciers can have faster faster the movement as basal
movement due to higher rates of slippage. Higher rates of
accumulation. Temperature also accumulation (for example, from
falls as altitude increases. As Lithology increased precipitation)
mountain glaciers reach lower If bedrock is permeable then increases ice thickness and ice
altitudes, warmer temperatures meltwater may be able to soak gradient, increasing movement
mean more meltwater, increasing away (percolate), slowing the speed.
basal slippage. movement of a glacier. Movements
may be more rapid over
deformable rocks such as clay.

€) Geographical Comparing rates of Now (try th

skills
|
glacier movement
You need to be able to compare rates of { 1. Explain why polar glaciers move more slowly
glacier movement using measures of central than temperate glaciers.
tendency (mean, median and mode) and 2. Suggest three reasons why one temperate
standard deviation.
. glacier may move more rapidly than another
temperate glacier.
pe oak eee gers Ley ttil ear
elVeer He

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The glacier landform syst

Glaciers alter landscapes by a number of processes, creating glacial landforms at different scales and in a
range of different environments.

Landforms created by glacial processes

Glaciers alter landscapes by a number of processes:

Erosion Entrainment Transport Deposition

The removal of weathered Small rock fragments are Rock debris is Till is sediment deposition
(weakened) material by trapped (entrained) by transported on the ice directly by glacier ice.
glacial ice includes basal ice freezing around surface (supraglacial), Fluvio-glacial debris is
plucking, abrasion, them and applying within the ice (englacial) deposited by glacial
crushing and basal sufficient drag to pull and at the base of the meltwater.
melting. them along. ice (Ssub-glacial).

Glacial landforms develop at different scales:

Micro-seale landforms = = = Meso-scale landforms Macro-scale landforms

Small-scale landforms up §— | Medium-scale landforms, Large-scale landforms,
[te 1m long, e.g. striations. ae e.g. roches moutonnées, e.g. glacial troughs,
_ ribbon lakes and drumlins. cirques and pyramidal peaks.

ico a va Cpypbe ie nl

Glacial landscapes have distinctive

morphologies in process environments:

Sub-glacial — Ice marginal Proglacial Periglacial

The environment beneath Environments at the Environments located Environments near
| the glacier ice, subject to edge of the glacial ice at the front of a glacier, glaciers and dominated
immense pressure from the where a combination of ice cap or ice sheet and by freeze-thaw
overlying weight of ice; glacial and fluvio-glacial dominated by fluvio- processes, but not
beneath temperate glaciers processes occur. glacial processes. characterised by
there may be large volumes moving ice.
of meltwater.

These landforms create different upland and

_ lowland areas that can be useful.in the study
of extent of ice cover:

Upland glacial Lowland glacial Active glacial Relict glacial

landscapes landscapes landscapes landscapes
| are those at higher are those at lower altitudes currently experience are not currently
_ altitudes in hills and on valley floors and coastal glaciation, active glacial characterised by glaciers
mountains. plains. processes and landform but feature fossilised
development. glacial landforms due
to past glaciation.

1. Explain how the processes operating in the glacial landform system differ between (a) sub-glacial and ice
marginal environments and (b) proglacial and periglacial environments.
_ 2. Explain why periglacial environments are characterised by macro-scale landforms.
3. How does the concept of a glacier landform system help geographers work out the extent and nature of ice
cover in the past?
ye — hk A : { ’ 3]
eg eT gy Wee eeera
AS /B leve* Had a look [|_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! [_|

Glacial erosion and cirques

There are several processes of glacial erosion: abrasion, quarrying, plucking, crushing and basal melting.
Abrasion and plucking dominate in the formation of cirque (or corrie) landforms.

Glacial erosion processes

° Weathering by the process of
freeze-thaw weakens the rock,
allowing the glacier to erode and
remove more rock debris, which
may be transported over long
Weathering processes
distances by the glacier.
* A glacier’s debris load also | Glacial erosion |
comes from mass movement ieSE ese
processes such as rockfalls:
material falling onto the glacier
from weathered rock above it.

Landforms of glacial erosion: cirques

A cirque or corrie is an armchair-shaped hollow on a mountainside with a steep back wall and a rock lip at
the front of the hollow. A small lake (tarn) may be present post-glaciation.

Snow accumulates in Nivation (see page 27) A cirque glacier develops.

a sheltered location enlarges the hollow. Plucking forms the back wall.
on a mountainside. More snow accumulates. Abrasion ‘scoops’ out the
cirque hollow.

Spina
/ skills
Analysis of cirqu
iyi:
Bergschrund — a crevasse within the cirque
glacier formed by rotational ice movement. You need to be able to analyse cirques fro!
Ordnance Survey maps by working out th
ee : orientation in relation to compass di
measuring their size and noting their ale
ude
Rotational movement This data can then be compared veld
Sreaars S rank ees Pade: Pens

Now try this wernt rere --

1. What factors would increase the rate of glacial abrasion? Suggest three factors and explain why each would
increase the abrasion rate.
2. Using your knowledge of glaciers as systems, explain why accumulation and ablation in a cirque glacier
create rotational movement of the glacier, over-deepening the cirque hollow.
\ r r

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Valley glacier landforms

Valley glacier landforms include cirques, arétes, pyramidal peaks,
glacial troughs, truncated spurs, hanging valleys and ribbon lakes.

Landforms
of glacial erosion: valley glaciers
fhe | Des cr iption |Process of formation
A narrow, knife-edged Plucking and abrasion on the back wall of two cirques on a
ridge between two cirques | mountainside mean they erode backwards towards each other,
creating a narrow ridge. Freeze-thaw action is also important.
Pyramidal | A pointed mountain peak The erosional processes within nearby cirques mean they
peak _| with three or more cirques | erode backwards towards each other, creating a sharp,
pointed mountain summit. Plucking is important.
Glacial A U-shaped valley with A V-shaped river valley is widened and deepened as a result of
| trough steep sides and a wide, powerful plucking and abrasion by a valley glacier, which goes
HR, | flat floor through the landscape rather than around it.
Truncated A steep rocky valley side Valley glaciers are less flexible than rivers and remove the
spur where spurs of a river ends of interlocking spurs by plucking and abrasion as they
valley used to interlock move down the river valley.
Hanging A small tributary valley Powerful, thicker glacial ice in the main glacial trough eroded
valley high above the main glacial vertically downwards more rapidly than thinner ice or rivers
_| trough, often with in tributary valleys. The floors of the tributary valleys are left
a waterfall higher, with waterfalls as the tributaries flow over the edge
into the main valley.
Ribbon A long, narrow lake along Areas of increased plucking and abrasion by the valley glacier
lake the floor of a glacial trough deepen part of the valley floor, as a result of either the
confluence of glaciers or weaker rocks.

Valley glacier landforms

Pyramidal peak Tarn Aréte
Hanging valley
u Paternoster lakes
| (series of glacial lakes)

Cirque,
corrie or cwm

Ribbon lake

Using the concept of the glacial landscape system (see page 31), identify the glacial processes, scale, glacial
environment and glacial landscape categories for cirques, glacial troughs and ribbon lakes.

33
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e AB
Tor 4¢ BES
a

Ice sheet scouring

Ice sheet scouring is glacial erosion over extensive areas beneath ice sheets. Landforms of ice sheet scouring
include roches moutonnées, knock and lochan, crag and tail.
Crevasses
Roches moutonnées
¢ A roche moutonnée (French for a rock that
looks like a sheep) is a meso-scale landform.
It is a mass of bare rock on the valley floor with
a smooth stoss (up-valley side) and a jagged
lee (down-valley side).
* Roches moutonnées form when a more resistant
rock outcrop causes ice movement by creep
and regelation around it. As the ice slides over
the rock, it scours and smooths the stoss,
while refreezing on the lee causes plucking
resulting in jagged rock.

Knock and lochan

¢ Knock and lochan describes a lowland area with
alternating small rock hills (knock) and hollows
that often contain small lakes (lochan).
¢ Knock and lochan landscapes are formed by
scouring by the ice sheet or glacier, which
excavates areas of weaker rock, forming
hollows that fill with meltwater and precipitation
following ice retreat.
¢ The scale and orientation of these landforms
is less to do with ice processes, therefore,
and more to do with differential geology: the \—- faa nn
pattern of resistant (knock) and less resistant i spt
(lochan) rocks. cenaaneemmereinesaniesces cs SERN

Crag and tail

° Avery large mass of hard rock forms a steep
stoss with a gently sloping tail of deposited
material. Crag and tail are typically larger than
roches moutonnées.
° Differential geology is again important.
The large mass of rock is resistant to
icé scouring, creating a steep stoss.
Reduced glacier velocity on the lee protects Tail limestone)
softer rock and allows deposition, but the
sheltering effect lessens with distance, creating Castle Rock
a sloping tail.
Crag (volcanic rock)

Explain the importance of differential geology in the formation of a landform of glacial erosion.
= : ee we \ 4 See o ot age ee

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Ice contact
depositional features
Ice contact deposition is by the glacier ice rather than by glacial meltwater. Ice contact depositional
features include medial, lateral, recessional and terminal moraines and drumlins.
Moraines
‘Moraine’ is the collective term for material carried by a valley glacier and deposited as till to form a
range of landforms.
Medial moraine
A ridge of till deposited in the
Lateral moraine middle of the valley (parallel to
A ridge of till deposited along the valley sides). At the confluence
Tributary glacier
the valley sides. Debris from of two tributary glaciers, the lateral
meeting main glacier
freeze-thaw weathering of the moraines join to form a medial
valley sides falls onto a glacier’s moraine, deposited during ice melt
edges; it is then transported and retreat.
and deposited at the edge Path of
of the glacier when it melts. main glacier

A
Terminal moraine f
A high ridge of till extending / at
across a valley at right angles te le
to the valley sides. Debris is
deposited at the maximum Glactensnout
extent (limit) of a glacier,
especially if the glacier is in
equilibrium and the snout is
stationary, and will be
continuously supplied to the
same place. Recessional moraine
A lower ridge of till across the
valley, parallel to the terminal
moraine. Debris is deposited
during interruptions in the
retreat of the glacier ice, when
the glacier remained stationary
long enough for a ridge of
material to build up.
meltwater
streams

pes of
moring

Drumilins Direction of ice movement

* Drumlins are smooth, elongated mounds of till, with a

long axis parallel to the direction of ice movement and Gentle lee
: with a steep stoss and gentle lee, often found in large
numbers in an area called drumlin swarms, and forming
‘basket of eggs’ topography.
Drumlin side view
* One theory for drumlin formation is that they are formed
| by deposition when glacier ice becomes overloaded with
, Max. : : ; long axis
debris when exiting an upland area. The deposits are width (w) Drumlin elongation ratio = ae,
I
streamlined and shaped by the moving ice.

Now try this

Drumlin plan view
|
_ 1. Identify (and explain) the ice contact depositional feature
associated with: (a) the furthest point the glacier reached
i | (b) fast-flowing ice (c) a stand-still during ice retreat.
| 2. Explain one theory of drumlin formation.
:
vagrants er 2 ee |

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Lowland depositional features

Glaciers transport rock debris from upland landscapes and deposit it on lowland plains or valley floors.
Lowland depositional features include: till plains, lodgement and ablation till.

Features and formation of lowland depositional features

landform _| Description Process of formation

Till plain A large, relatively flat plain When ice retreats, large amounts of material are
or undulating landscape of till | deposited over a sizeable area due to melting.
in a lowland area (also called Till plains occur when a large ice sheet becomes
ground moraine) detached from a glacier and melts.
Lodgement till | Deposits of angular rock Lodgement occurs beneath-the ice when debris that
fragments (clasts) in a was being transported gets lodged or pressed into
fine matrix (rock flour) — the glacier bed. It is associated with slow-moving
unstratified (not layered), glaciers that are carrying a lot of debris.
Ablation till unsorted (mixture of clast Ablation is the melting of the ice and ablation till is.
sizes) and containing erratics | deposited as the glacier melts. While lodgement
(mixed geology) till is made of sub-glacial material (carried under
the ice), ablation till includes supraglacial and
| englacial material.

Till fabric analysis using

rose diagrams
° As a glacier moves, it turns the larger till rock fragments
(clasts) to point in the direction of the ice movement.
° Therefore it is possible to study the orientation of the
clasts to understand the former ice movement.
° A compass can be used to measure the orientation
of a large sample of clasts using an appropriate
sampling technique.
° A rose diagram can be used to plot the orientation of
the clasts.

Study the photograph opposite of glacial till deposits from the Langdale
Valley in the Lake District.
(a) What term is used for the angular rock fragments in this till?
(b) What term is used for the fine sediment matrix that the rock fragments
are embedded in?
(c) The till is not layered or sorted. What term is used to describe this?
(d) How could information about the direction of ice movement be gained
from analysing this till?

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Reconstructing past glaciation

Landforms can be used to reconstruct past ice extent, ice flow direction and provenance — where the ice
was coming from.

Landform features and reconstructing past glaciation

a they tell us

Erratics Deposition | Micro These are boulders dumped by glacial erosion in an area with
a different rock type. Their own rock type can tell us where
they were transported from (provenance) and analysing the
distribution of erratics provides data about patterns of ice flow.
Moraines Deposition | Macro Terminal moraines show the furthest extent of the glacier
snout. The up-valley side of a terminal moraine often has a
steeper slope than the down-valley side (pushed steeper by
the snout), demarcating the glacial area from the pro-glacial.
Deposition |Meso The stoss end points up-glacier, the lee end is down-glacier.
The elongation index of drumlins indicates speed of ice
movement — the more elongated, the faster the ice was moving.

Deposition | Micro Till analysis of clast orientation can indicate the direction of
ice movement (clasts orientate to point in the direction of
ice movement). Analysis of till geology can also help
indicate provenance.
Crag and tail Macro The stoss end points up-glacier, the lee end points down-glacier.
Roches Erosion Micro and Abrasion at the up-glacier end, plucking (jagged rock) at the
moutonnées. meso down-glacier end.
These scratches made by glacial abrasion form parallel to the
direction of ice movement.

- Skills for reconstructing |

es \ Geographical
y) skills
_———sépast glaciation
1. Describe how you could use an OS map or
ieee sure you aree familiar with how the following could satellite image featuring a drumlin field to
bet used to reconstruct past ice extent and ice reconstruct (a) direction of ice movement
flow direction: and (b) relative speed of ice flow.
2. Describe how you could use the British
Geological Society (BGS) glacial drift
maps to reconstruct past ice extent in
the UK.
3. Describe how you would collect
fieldwork data about clast orientation
from an analysis of glacial till.
4. Explain what statistical measures
you would use to identify any trend
in clast orientation and the amount
of dispersion.

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Glacial meltwater processes

Meltwater within the glacial system
Supraglacial meltwater
Supraglacial
streams Supraglacial streams are fed by
surface meltwater. They cut deep
channels in the ice and are often
fast-flowing. They are the only source
of meltwater for polar glaciers.
Englacial
stream Englacial meltwater
Rock bed
This is meltwater within the glacier.
It is often fed by supraglacial streams
that drop down into the glacier
Sub-glacial stream
through a crevasse or moulin.

Sub-glacial meltwater
Basal melting produces sub-glacial
meltwater (temperate glaciers).
This flows under pressure, eroding
bedrock, exiting the glacial streams
through tunnels at the glacier snout.

Characteristics of till and fluvio-glacial debris

Fluvio-glacial deposits have very different characteristics from glacial till, due to their different processes
of erosion, transport and deposition.

Classification Glacial till Fluvio-glacial deposits es

Clast shape Clasts freeze into ice, limiting their movement The process of attrition in meltwater
and maintaining their angular shape. makes clasts more rounded.
Imbrication Clasts are aligned in the direction of ice Clasts are aligned in the direction of
movement but often horizontal rather than flow and often dip upstream.
dipping, unless part of a push moraine.
Stratification | Unstratified — clasts are dumped chaotically A layer of fine grains is deposited in
and grading by the glacier. spring and summer when meltwater
discharge is high; a layer of coarse
grains is deposited when discharge
falls in autumn and winter.
Sorting Unsorted — ice has enough energy to The seasonal variation in stream
transport a wide range of grain sizes, from discharge sorts the grains into layers
fine rock flour to large boulders. of consistent size.

Geographical ° 2° e
Analysing sediment size and shape
Use measures of central tendency to analyse glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits, and use the Student’s
t-test to analyse changes in sediments from an ice sheet edge or glacial snout (see page 264).
7 + ; — = wend. — eee eee ee
mw 8 ———
ee eee eee eee ee ll ee lo
eS

Now try this

1. A Cailleux Index value of 1 is a perfectly rounded sphere.

Which would have higher Cailleux Index values and why:
glacial till deposits or fluvio-glacial deposits?
2. Explain why fluvio-glacial deposits diminish with
distance from the glacier’s snout.
Cailleux Index = ea
, 2c
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Fluvio-glacial landform
Supraglacial
streams

Proglacial lake

Sandur
Kame
_ Englacial erminal moraine
stream

~ Rock bed

-Sub-glacial stream Kettle holes

Fi Esker
Ground moraine
Drumlin

Braided streams

Formation

_| Process of formation
As meltwater streams emerge onto the outwash plain or
of fluvio-glacial sand proglacial lake at the glacial snout, their velocity suddenly
and gravel falls and sediment is deposited.
A-flat, linear deposit of During the summer, the valley sides radiate heat, melting
terrace fluvio-glacial sand and the edge of the glacier and forming meltwater streams,
gravel deposited along the which deposit sediment. When the glacier retreats, this
valley sides sediment forms a kame terrace.
Proglacial A long, narrow, sinuous Sub-glacial streams can carry large amounts of rock
(winding or meandering) debris due to their high hydrostatic pressure inside
ridge of fluvio-glacial sand tunnels. The streams often meander beneath the glacier.
and gravel When the glacier retreats, the debris load is deposited
at a consistent rate and forms a ridge.
Sandur A flat expanse of As meltwater streams emerge from the glacier and
fluvio-glacial debris in front enter lowland areas, they gradually lose their energy
of the glacier snout and deposit their debris load. The coarse sands are
deposited first, nearest the glacier, then the sands,
then clay, farthest from the glacier.
Kettle hole A circular depression, As the glacier retreats, detached blocks of ice remain
often forming a lake in an on the outwash plain. Meltwater streams cover them in
outwash plain deposits. When the ice melts, the debris subsides.
The resulting depression often fills with water to form a
kettle-hole lake.
Proglacial
Ice-contact
features A lake formed in front of A proglacial lake is often formed by the damming
lake the glacier snout action of a terminal or recessional moraine during the
retreat of a melting glacier, or because hills block the
escape of meltwater.
-Meltwater A narrow-channel cut into -Meltwater can erode deep channels because of high
channel bedrock or deposits, hydrostatic pressure within the glacier (meltwater can
either underneath or along flow uphill) and a high debris load. Meltwater stream
a. a _| the front of an ice margin channels are often larger than post-glacial streams.
T
a ee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee

Explain the difference between ice-contact and proglacial fluvio-glacial landforms.

ee ee — = as » ~

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Value of glaciated landscapes

Glaciated and periglacial landscapes, both active and relict, have economic and cultural value. They have
unique biodiversity and make key environmental contributions to natural systems.

Cultural value Economic value Tundra ecosystem

* Scientific research * Farming and fishing
Low rainfall
(e.g. ice core analysis) ® Mining
° Indigenous cultures tS ls
°« Wilderness recreation * Tourism
Slow uptake
* Spiritual/religious inspiration ° Forestry of nutrients
by biomass

Value of glacial and Surface runoff is low:

periglacial landscapes boggy conditions Low rates of leaching
The tundra ecosystem is low energy and fragile.
Environmental value Very short summers, low rainfall and cold winters
* Unique ecosystems and endemic species mean very little biomass, with low nutrient
° Carbon and water cycling cycling due to decomposition halting in winter.
* Role in climate regulation
° The few plants and animals that survive in
the tundra all year are often endemic due
to specialist adaptation to the climate, for
Economic value example the Arctic poppy, a tiny plant with
° Farming: Glaciated uplands are difficult to farm. flowers that follow the sun.
Andes: indigenous, poorer people usually farm * The tundra environment is very fragile: low
the uplands. UK: hill farms in glaciated uplands surface runoff and low decomposition rates
often have to diversify into tourism. mean pollutants stay in the environment for a
* HEP: Glaciers provide meltwater for HEP, and very long time.
relict U-shaped valleys/ribbon lakes are easy
to dam. HEP is the main source of energy Maintenance of natural systems
for some countries with extensive glaciated
Cf Water: 75% of global freshwater is
landscapes (for example Norway). In other
currently in store as ice.
countries the potential is not yet fully
developed: for example, Greenland. CG Glacial meltwater is the source of river
water in many areas and vital to irrigation.
* Tourism: Alpine environments such as the
The UN estimates 40% of the global
Swiss Alps have a fully developed tourism
population could be affected by changes to
infrastructure. In polar regions tourism is
meltwater regimes in Asia.
still developing.
Cf Carbon: Permafrost may currently hold 1500
° Mining and energy resources: Glacial outwash
billion tonnes of carbon. As permafrost
plains provide valuable sand and gravel in many
melts, this store will start to be released.
countries, such as the UK. Russia and Canada’s
tundra environment is increasingly exploited for
gas and oil.

Attitudes to glacial landscapes

Feople view relict and present glacial and
periglacial areas in different ways. For example,
indigenous groups view the landscape in
a spiritual way, respecting nature and how
it supports their way of life. Environmental
groups see that areas are under threat from
human activities (including climate change) and
campaign for preservation and protection.
Identify two reasons why glacial and periglacial
Some governments and businesses believe in
environments should be preserved from exploitation.
exploiting the resources and support this (such
as extracting fossil fuels, gold, diamonds and
timber resources from Siberia).
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Direct threats
Glaciated landscapes face varying degrees of threat from both natural threats and human activities, which
can reduce the resilience of these landscapes to further threats.

Human activity
* Trampling by tourists
Natural hazards
° Soil erosion
¢ Avalanches and mass
(e.g. following deforestation) Threats to active
movement
¢ Disturbance of wildlife and relict * Glacial outburst floods
° Water and air pollution
(e.g. oil spills)
glaciated landscapes ¢ Lahars
° Fragile ecosystems
* Reservoir construction
* Resource exploitation
(e.g. mining, deforestation)
¢ Urbanisation

Natural hazards
¢ Avalanches: Masses of snow, ice and rock 9) case|Alpine valleys Place |
Contexts |
that fall rapidly down steep mountain slopes, at Two million people visit the Alpine town of
speeds of 130km/yh. Slab avalanches are most Zermatt each year (resident population GOOO):
dangerous: they happen when very heavy snow
quickly adds extra weight to a weakly bonded
layer, so a large slab breaks away and slides
downslope. Avalanches kill around 150 people
per year, but the majority follow predictable
routes and by monitoring snow conditions they
can be predicted.
* Glacial outburst floods: The sudden release
of large volumes of meltwater following the
overflow or melting of an ice dam or moraine
dam, They can be devastating and affect areas
a long way downstream. Ice dams may refreeze
after a glacial outburst and flood and glacial
lakes build up behind them, so glacial outburst
floods can be repeated many times.
° Lahars: Fast-flowing mudslides, landslides * Tourism creates high demand for energy and
and debris flows, produced when volcanic water resources.
activity causes glacial melting. They can have ¢ Preparation of pistes and footpath trampling
devastating results: in the ‘Armero tragedy’ damages the Alpine ecosystem.
(1965), the melting of glaciers on the Nevado
* Snow cannons add artificial snow to slopes,
del Ruiz volcano in Colombia produced four
but are energy intensive and apply large
lahars, killing 23000.
amounts of chemical and biological additives
to the soil.
¢ Construction of ski resorts, chalets and
helicopter landing sites reduce the resilience
of Alpine valleys by deforestation, which
threatens slope stability and can increase the
Explain how human activity could reduce the risk of avalanches.
resilience to natural hazards of a glaciated
upland landscape.

You should be able to link your understanding of the

threat from human activities to a place context, for
example Alpine valleys (or a polar environment such
as Greenland).

4)
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Indirect threats
The most significant indirect threat to glaciated landscapes is global warming and its impact on glacial
mass balances, which in turn risks significant disruption of the hydrological cycle.

Glacial retreat
¢ While some of the world’s glaciers are advancing
(positive mass balance), the vast majority
are retreating.
* This trend coincides with the O.8°C global
temperature increase over the last century:
global warming.
* The mean rates of glacial recession in different
parts of the world can be compared numerically,
enabling the implications for the hydrological
cycle to be understood (see page 265).

tic Theme: A&A Asian high mts

=———= NW USA # SW Canada
wwe Alaska € coast mts
[109
m®]
specific
Cumulative
balance
kg
mean
mass Patagonia
Effect on natural systems
People and businesses alter natural systems through 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
their lifestyles and use of resources, including Year

pollution and overuse. Some people are aware of the

consequences of their actions and some are not.
Only in recent decades have attitudes begun to
change in parts of the world, leading to some people
modifying their actions to reduce impacts.

Impacts on the hydrological cycle

° Changes in meltwater volumes will affect river discharges, impacting the amount and quality water, and
the amount of sediment it carries. Increased meltwater volumes will also increase river volumes in the
medium term, increasing flood risk, but reduce river flows in the long term as glaciers disappear.
* Global sea level rise is due to both thermal expansion of water and glacial melt. Melting glaciers may
have contributed 30%.

Himalayan glaciers: . Or Himalayan glaciers:

Cc © ° . ° e.

bes Contexts ~ Contexts {

recession impacts
* The Himalayas have the largest number of ¢ The Ganga, Indus, Brahmaputra, Mekong,
glaciers outside polar regions: 5500. Yangtze and Yellow Rivers are all fed by
* 70% of Himalayan glaciers are retreating glacial meltwater from Himalayan glaciers.
rapidly (lower glaciers are melting fastest). One billion people depend on these rivers.
* Individual glaciers show very rapid retreats: * Glacial lake outbursts are becoming more
the Rongbuk Glacier, Tibet (20m per year); —
common as glacial retreat creates more
the Gangotri Glacier, India (30m per year). lakes, increasing the risk of hazards.

The graph on this page suggests that Patagonia’s glaciers are receding at a faster rate than anywhere else on
Earth. Suggest reasons why that might be the case.
Ye

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Managing glaciated landscapes

Theme: R&

Attitudes towards glaciated landscapes lead to a range of actions by groups of people including
tourism, farming and protection through national parks. Different stakeholders are involved in managing
glaciated landscapes, using a range of strategies (from protection to multiple economic use). Legal
protection is also involved.

Management approaches
Preservation
Glaciated landscape stakeholders
Ww Conservationists campaign to protect
fragile glaciated landscapes from
resource exploitation.
NGOs campaign for conservation and to
raise awareness of conservation issues.
Local and regional government often aim
to balance management strategies to meet
needs and manage conflict. Governments
with a resource exploitation or conservation
agenda may be elected.
Global organisations may broker
international treaties to protect glaciated
landscapes or manage conflict between
countries in territorial disputes.

Exploitation

OF Legislation: international OF Legislation: sustainable

protection management
The Antarctic Treaty is an international The Alpine Convention is an international treaty
agreement to preserve Antarctica. | for sustainable development of the Alps.
¢ Fifty-three nations are signed up to the Eight Alpine countries and the EU are
Antarctic Treaty, which began in 1961. signatories to the Convention.
¢ Antarctica is preserved as a scientific It aims to balance the needs of 14 million
preserve; military activity there is banned. residents and 120 million tourists per year
¢ The Madrid Protocol (1998) to the Treaty with protection of the environment.
prohibits any exploitation of Antarctic mineral The Convention promotes mitigation (for
resources for 50 years. example, renewable power, recycling) and
* Tourism is permitted but is regulated by the adaptation strategies (for example, creation
Treaty, €.g. permits are required. of forest reserves, ecotourism).

* Scientific research in Antarctica has been Alpine countries encourage businesses to

very important in understanding the impacts adopt these through government funding, tax
of CFCs and of climate change. breaks and action plans. &

_ Suggest ways in which unsustainable heating, transport and slope damage in a ski resort could be mitigated
by sustainable management strategies.
we -voros- ee
- Pyne we.
we. _\ 4 » . \

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Managing climate warming

Climate warming is a context risk — the level of risk is affected by many different factors and will change
from one set of circumstances (contexts) to the next. successful management of glaciated landscapes is
complex and challenging and requires coordinated approaches at global, national and local scales.
Climate and weather — Feedback — loss of
changes to global atmospheric albedo from ice sheet
circulation could mean more and glacial melting is
Warming oceans — likely to trigger positive
extreme weather. Precipitation
changes to ocean feedback and increase
patterns could change, which
currents could lead to melting. Changes to
could change glacial budgets.
more warming in some
ocean currents intensify
regions than in others. warming and melting.

Vulnerabilities — there —
Impact on habitats — unique are many different types
glacial and periglacial of glacial and periglacial
ecosystems are already Climate warming: landscapes: each will
being seriously impacted by change in a different way
climate change. This impacts
an uncertain future
and some will be more
on traditional ways of life in vulnerable than others
these habitats. (e.g. active versus
Impact on water cycles — relict).
the impacts of ice melting
Impact on carbon cycles — Sea level rises — ice
on farming, power
melting of permafrost will melt may make a
generation, water stress.
make a very significant significant but unknown
Conflict migration will
contribution to the amount of contribution to sea level
doubtless increase.
carbon dioxide and methane rise.
in the atmosphere.

Uncertain futures
Fragile landscapes are under threat from a warming global climate, especially as ice and permafrost melts.
But there is uncertainty about the rate of change and the effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation.

Mitigation strategies Adaptation strategies

Mitigation strategies aim to reduce or prevent the Adaptation strategies are ways to cope with
greenhouse emissions that are causing impacts of climate warming. For glaciated
climate warming. landscapes these could include:
¢ The Paris Agreement (2015) is intended to be a dS growing new types of crops that require less
global commitment to limit global temperature water in areas with decreased availability of water
rises to below 1.5°C. One hundred and eighty- improving warning systems for natural hazards, _
four countries plus the EU have agreed to for example GLOFs (glacial lake outburst floods),
develop and stick to national plans to reduce avalanches and rock falls
emissions by a target amount.
organising new regional agreements about how
* Key strategies are to switch economies (national water will be used between countries
scale) to low-carbon sources of energy and make
Ss changing land-use planning to prevent
economies more efficient in how they use energy
development in high-hazard-risk areas
(for example, insulating homes — local scale).
& relocating settlements.

Give examples of global-, national- and local-scale approaches to managing the risk of climate change.

44
 Had a look 3 Nearly there hea Nailed it! m

skills 1
__These AS and A Level exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for the Glaciated Landscapes
and Change topic in Paper 1. Look back at pages 25 to 44 to remind yourself of content.

d example
This landform is called a stone polygon
or rock polygon. It is part of a wider
landform grouping called patterned
ground, “Patterned ground would not be
a specific enough term for a landform to
receive the mark, however. ‘Ice wedge
polygon’ would also not receive the mark
because of the presence of stones.

‘Explain’ means: provide a reasoned

explanation of how or why something
occurs. An explanation requires
understanding to be demonstrated
through developing the points you
make and/or providing examples to
Figure a: A periglacial landform
back the points up.
Stone polygon

2. Study Figure 1: For 6 marks this answer needs to make

(a) Explain the formation of the periglacial

landform shown in Figure 1.
@
(6 marks)
and justify/exemplity three points.
lye Three of the marks in the question are
for AO1, which is about demonstrating
Stone polygons are a type of patterned ground knowledge and understanding.
that form in the active layer as a result of frost ¢ Three of the marks are for AO2, which
heave. Larger stones in the soil get colder than is about applying knowledge and
the surrounding soil, which means ice forms understanding. In this case the applying
underneath them, pushing them up and pushing up knowledge involves interpreting the
finer material above them. This creates a dome in features in the photograph (AO 2).
the middle of the stone polygon, which is evident ° The student has made an AO! point
in Figure 1. When the larger stones are heaved out and followed it up with some AO2
onto the surface, they roll down the dome under interpretation, linking their knowledge
the influence of gravity. This explains the ring
to details in the photo. This is a
of larger stones surrounding each dome of finer
good approach.
material in Figure 1.

(b) Suggest one factor that makes it likely this ‘Suggest’ means: you do not need to
is not a relict periglacial landform. (3 marks)
know a specific situation but you need
Stone polygons are found in relict periglacial to show your general understanding by
landscapes, but the absence of any vegetation applying ideas that you have learned.
in Figure 1 strongly suggests this is an active
periglacial landscape where very low temperatures
and probably many months without sufficient One way of structuring 3-mark questions
light make the conditions too harsh for plants to is to make three linked points that are
establish themselves. linked directly to the question. The main
point here is the lack of vegetation;
the student then makes two connected
points about active periglacial landscapes
to justify the point.

45
 Had a look | Nearly there hal Nailed it! [| |

Exam skills 2
All the marks in &-mark questions
are for demonstrating relevant and
accurate geographical knowledge and
3, Explain how physical and human factors ry) understanding,
| and developing a broad
influence the degree of threat to glaciated range of ideas, A broad range would
upland landscapes. (Smarks) | usually mean at least three ideas or
Gout themes, each fully developed,
Threats te glaciated landscapes include avalanches Sane
arid glacial outburst floods (physical) and human
activities such as soil erasion, trampling, landslides This 6-mark ‘explain’ question is not an
and deforestation, The degree of risk of these evaluation or assessment question, so
threats depends on both local and global factors, there are no marks available for discussing
For example, in the Alpine valleys, some places are whether human factors or physical factors
very popular in winter for skiing, Zermatt in the Swiss =* are more significant.
Alps has a resident population of GOOO but in winter ee
cee eee ee
this increases to 35000, This huge population : :
increase means construction of infrastructure in this Vey You need to be able to think at different
glaciated upland landscape, resulting in deforestation scales or link different processes or
anid soil compaction, including the construction and cycles. Notice how this answer extract
maintenance of pistes, which involves damage to the considers local and regional scales.
fragile eeasystem and sail. Threats from physical Jo complete the answer you should
factars vary locally and regionally: for example, the consider global scale factors increasing
threat of avalanche is increased by precipitation and by the threat to glaciated upland landscapes:
factars such as earthquakes, For example, in January the link between global warming (human)
2017, an avalanche killed 29 people in the Italian Alps and increased threat from GLOFs (physical).
that was triggered by record levels of snowfall and a To re ae eee

series of magnitude 5 earthquakes...

Look for key words in the question in
4, Evaluate the extent to which climate change 6 eam edaition to the command, This question
is the main challenge for the successful does not want a description of climate
management of glaciated landscapes, (20 marks) change threats or a list of management

Different glaciated landscapes have different levels approaches, Instead, it wants to know
arid complexities of stakeholder involvement, and about the relative importance of climate
management strategies also vary from economic change compared to other challenges
exploitation te tetal protection, This means that to successful management of glaciated
challenges for successful management will vary. ; landscapes. |n the exam, circle or
Climate change represents a major challenge for underline key words to help you.
management strategies based on conserving or ee
protecting glaciated landscapes, but it represents %,
an oppertunity for those managing the exploitation Use geographical information to make
af seme glaciated landscapes. connections in your answer and organise
these points in a logical orden try to cover
ln Greenland, for example, there have been many I everything that is relevant to the question
attempts over the past decades to increase the and use evidence (examples, data), and
exploitation of the glaciated landscape through
reach a logical supported conclusion
mining, ail extraction and tourism because
consisting of a balanced argument.
Greenland’s economy is weak and undiversitied and 8 a rg en ee
there are not enough jobs for its inhabitants,
Until recently these attempts have been F The answer could be completed by
unsuecesstul — unemployment is still at 10 per cent, describing examples in which climate
Hewever, the rapid melting of Greenland’s ice sheet change \s a major challenge to successful
as a result of climate change has caused a huge
management (e.g, Antarctica) and
inerease in the output of sediment carried by the
examples where management faces many
meltwater to Greenland’s coastal areas, The sands
and gravel making up this meltwater are commercially complex challenges that are exacerbated
very valuable and exporting them could increase by climate change (e.g. management
Greenland’s GDP by $1 billion a year... ‘ of Alpine valleys), before reaching an
evidenced and balanced conclusion.
“ a. @ , «# > . -

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1. Study Figure 2, a diagram illustrating

Milankovitch cycles.

You may not be sure which of the three

cycles is shown in image C. If so, don’t be
tempted to look back in this book to find
the answer just yet. Try answering part (b)
first, as working through that question may
sS hele you to remember the three types.
This will make it more likely that you'll
remember them next time.

Use the diagram to assist your answer

Figure 2: Milankovitch cycles
to 1 (b): although it does not have text
(a) Name the Milankovitch cycle As] to explain each cycle, it should jog your
labelled C. (1 mark) memory about the ways in which the three
: cycles cause cooling and warming.

(b) Explain two ways in which Milankovitch

cycles are responsible for longer-term Six marks is the first longer question
oe te change. Ce marks) you will face in your AS exam; so plan a
structure — in this case:
* where the Little Ice Age fits into
2. Suggest one source of evidence that e the chronology of glacial and
could be used to reconstruct Pleistocene interglacial periods
4 ice sheet extent. (3 marks) * what the characteristics of the Little Ice
| "4 Age were
¢ what causes are ascribed to the Little
= 3. Explain the characteristics and causes Ice Age.
of the Little Ice Age. (6 marks) scemeeseenasinn

When revising, think about which parts of

4. Assess the significance of mass balance &) the specification could include an ‘Assess
4 for understanding the rate of movement the significance MG question. Think about
of glaciers. : (12 marks) how you would answer such a question.
| In question 4 you need to think about the
factors that influence the rate of movement
of glaciers, and consider to what extent
mass balance is significant in understanding
rate of movement. (See page 30.)
‘Assess’ questions can ‘suck you in’ to
I ; writing a lot, but this takes up too much
- Seana ; time. Spend a maximum of 15 minutes on
this type of question, so be concise and
to the point.

47
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Exam practice 2
Practise for Paper 1 of your AS exam or A level exam. Afterwards see suggested answers on page 295.

1. Suggest one reason why glaciated landscapes Remember that the command word
have environmental value. (3 marks) & ‘suggest’ means that there is not one
expected correct answer You should
identify a reason and then make two linked
points to develop your answer
2. Explain how periglacial landscapes play an
important role in the maintenance of
natural systems, (8 marks) Ca The &-mark ‘explain’ questions are looking
for a wider-range of geographical ideas:
at least two ideas or themes. Each of
Annual Annual Annual the ideas or themes that you use in
average average average your answer should be detailed and fully
flow flow flow developed. One good way of doing this is
1922-61 1985-95 2001-02 by using relevant examples.
69.7
ete 29.6 14.2 Synoptic question: The specification
Chenab has several synoptic elements. In AS
Paper 1 there is a 16-mark question that
Figure 3: Annual flow rates of major rivers,
measured in Pakistan 1922-61, 1965-95, 2001-02 combines parts of several physical topics.
(in Mean Annual Flows) During your studies, make sure that you
think about the links between different
physical processes, so that you are better
AS] prepared for this type of question.
3. Study Figure 3. Evaluate the importance Within your answer always recognise the
of glacial, climate and human processes in complexity of the situation or context given
decreasing flow rates in Asia’s glacier-fed rivers.
(perhaps even include a flow diagram).
SiG eaEks? eu You may need to think about different scales
(local to global) or different time periods
(short to geological time). After covering all
4. Evaluate the importance of geology for ideas, be sure to make a judgement in the
understanding the development of glaciated conclusion, perhaps starting ‘Overall ...’ or
landscapes. (20 marks) ‘Usually...’ or “Generally...’.

5. Evaluate the extent to which human activities ‘Evaluate’: the A Level 2O-mark question
are more of a threat to glaciated landscapes than is an ‘evaluate’ question, with three-
natural hazards. (20 marks) quarters of the marks coming from AO2
(application of understanding to interpret
and evaluate). Your answer must conclude
with a judgement: you will need to make
a balanced evaluation of the different
viewpoints your answer has considered.

as ‘Evaluate’: there are 40 marks on offer

for Section B of the exam paper, so make
sure you leave enough time to write your
answer to the 2O-mark question at the
end: you should be planning to spend half
your Section B time on this question.

48
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Topic 2B
Classifying coasts
Sections of coast can be classified into different types using a range of criteria, such as geology,
changes of sea level (longer term) and inputs from rivers, waves and tides (shorter term).

The littoral zone

The littoral zone is a zone of
dynamic equilibrium with many
inputs, processes and outputs
causing rapid change. It consists of
backshore, foreshore nearshore
and offshore zones.
. Wave-cut|
Notch |
Storm
Ridge
Lower beach Upper beach
Nearshore bar

Advancing and retreating coasts

High-energy and low-energy coasts
Classifying coasts into advancing and retreating
combines shorter-term erosion and deposition with The amount of energy in the coastal environment
longer-term changes in sea level and land level. determines the coastal landscape.
Resistant geology can also reduce erosion, slowing Characteristics of high-energy coasts
ee id) coasts retreat. Ww Waves: More powerful (destructive) waves,
calmer conditions, long fetches.
Ww Processes: Erosion and transport;
sediments from eroded land, mass
movement and weathering, supplied by
offshore currents.
Of Landforms: Cliffs, wave-cut platforms,
arches, sea caves, stacks.
VW General location: Exposed to largest
waves, highland and lowland coasts,
godin
COase
y&
rocky landscape.
i Characteristics of low-energy coasts
7 ZZ, = line of ;
batancelbetwecn Ww Waves: Less powerful (constructive) waves,
advance and retreat storm conditions, long fetches.
CO Processes: Deposition and transport;
sediments from rivers, longshore drift and
nearshore currents. |
Ww Landforms: Beaches, spits, bars, sand
| dunes, mudflats, salt marshes.
Of General location: Sheltered from large waves;
lowland coasts, coastal plain landscapes.

}
|

1. Where in the littoral zone is wave action normally confined, and what events might see that zone extended
towards the coast/land?
2. How might the concept of high-energy and low-energy coasts be included in the advancing and retreating
coasts classification? What might be a problem with this combination?
\ 49
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pe Peers Ay a eae,
 van OH (ED
q P me /]/ , gxe7O47 eS L
«1 fs - Had a look L—| Nearly there a Nailed it! [|
gepie o”

Geological structure
Geological structure determines whether coasts are concordant or discordant, influences Dalmatian and
Hatt coastline types (concordant) and headlands and bays (discordant coasts), and the formation of cliff
profiles (the cliff cross-section) and micro-scale features (e.g, caves),

Concordant coasts Discordant coasts

(WY) Coricordant coasts occur where the folding or Ww Discordant coasts occur where the folding
arrangement of alternating hard and soft rocks is or arrangement of alternating hard and soft
parallel to the coast (Dalmatian coastline type), rocks is at right angles to the coast (Atlantic
(¥) This teans more resistant rocks form elongated coastline type).
islands, while less resistant rocks form long VW This means more resistant rocks form headlands,
inlets or coves, while less resistant rocks form bays or inlets.
(V) Fxatiples: the eastern coast of the Adriatic; the CO Examples: south-west Ireland; the east-facing
south-facing coast of Dorset. coast of Dorset.

Haff coastlines Headlands and bays

These are a type of concordant coast found on Wave refraction explains why headlands are
the southern Baltic coastline. Long ridges of eroded more than bays: wave energy is focused
tid atid sarid form parallel to the shoreline, with on headlands and reduced in bays. Over time
lagoons (Haffs) behind them. | the coastline ‘smooths’.

40 Uriifori horizorital strata produce Rocks dip gently seawards with

3) Steep seaward dip
steep cliffs near-vertieal joints

Bedeltiq
“Ja cpaned
by weathering
plates ard pressure
release

Rocks dip Inlatid producing a stable, © Rocks dip inland but with well-developed
© Siope-over-wal cliffs
steep cliff profile joints at right angles to bedding planes

a | eat

"A
Joints act as
slide planes

Effect on coastal eee Se:

landscape :

You eed to know a place example for the _ Explain the connection between wave refraction and
influence of geological structure on coastal — the formation of caves, arches and stacks through
landscapes; for example, the Glamorgan headland erosion.
Heritage Coast. kas
Adebh deta bb dete bd Wer Wane
|ree eM ey: Pray
VY ae rae @

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Coastal erosion factors

Rates of coastal recession and stability depend on bedrock lithology, differential erosion and — on sandy
coasts — the role of vegetation.

Lithology and coastal recession Differential erosion

Lithology refers to rock types and Cliffs can have alternating strata (layers) of different
their characteristics. rock types, with differing resistance to weathering and
* Igneous rocks (e.g. granite) are more resistant erosion. This makes for a complex cliff profile arid
to erosion and weathering than less resistant influences recession rates because erosion happens
sedimentary rocks (e.g. limestone). at different rates (differential erosion), For example:

* A typical annual recession rate for granite is * A cliff with a permeable rock strata above an
1mm, compared to 2.5cm for a thinly impermeable, weakly consolidated rock strata
bedded limestone. is vulnerable to mass movement, This is because
rainwater percolating into the upper strata
* Metamorphic rocks are formed from sedimentary
creates instability.
and igneous rocks subjected to intense heat and
pressure (e.g. marble), making them more resistant. * Some types of rock contain soluble minerals
that are vulnerable to chemical weathering (e.q,.
* Superficial deposits made by rivers, wind
carbonation, hydrolysis).
and glaciers can overlay bedrock. These are
unconsolidated and usually easily eroded (less * Strata of such rocks may erode faster than other
resistant). Glacial till at the coast can have strata, as chemical weathering gradually weakens
recession rates of over 1m. the rock.

The stabilising role of vegetation

Plant succession
Vegetation is important in stabilising
sandy coastlines: Succession refers to the way the vegetation
on a sandy coastline changes over time, from
& Plant roots bind the sediment together so they
pioneer species, which initially colonise the bare
are less likely to be eroded.
sand or mud, to the climax seral stage.
Ss Plant leaves slow down wind speeds at ground
Ww Plants are specially adapted to the salty
level, reducing erosion and increasing deposition.
conditions (they are halophytes) and to
ey)As plants lose leaves and as they die, they add the dry conditions on rapidly draining sand
organic material to the sand, which eventually dunes (they are xerophytes).
forms soil.
WY Sand dunes and salt marshes both have
plant successions that stabilise the soil,
ee ee ae ee ee ee

Stages of sand dune succession

Pine woodland
‘Ne Mature
Yellow dunes
danse ( Grass,
Sah heather
yes) and sedge

below
level)
sea
(above
Metres
and

O 100 200 300 400 500 600

Metres inland
ee ee ee a

_ Describe the stages of sand dune succession.

|
—__ eo. +. Ctl tte

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Ve fe \

yopic 22

Marine erosion processes

The effectiveness of marine erosion is determined by wave type, wave size, tide level and the shape of
the coastline and lithology (characteristics) of the rock. The mineral composition, angle of bedding and
jointing of a rock affect the rate at which it is eroded.
Waves touch Surf zone
Waveo ee constant were th (waves begin
W. e| shortens) breaking
aves length
' sequence)
1

* Waves result from friction between the '

wind and the sea surface.

* The potential energy of a wave is
proportional to its height.

Destructive waves Constructive waves

Water directed

ae
Water directed
downwards Beach forwards

Ones
Circular Deeper
Elliptical
movement

movement i arch

* Nearshore depths are shallow and there are

gently sloping sandy beaches.
* Nearshore depths are deep and waves are
* Wave frequency is 6 to & per minute.
approaching steep shingle beaches.
* The swash is not interrupted by the backwash of
* Wave frequency is 13 to 15 per minute.
the previous wave.
* The backwash of one wave interrupts the swash
* The motion of the water in the wave is elliptical,
of the next, making it weaker.
giving it a strong forward motion.
* The deeper nearshore means the water motion in
* Swash is stronger than backwash, depositing
the wave remains circular.
sediment on the beach.
* Backwash is stronger than swash, removing
sediment from the beach.

Wave erosion processes

es) Geographical
y VW skills Measuring wave
* Attrition: Waves continually move rocks, pebbles
and sand, especially in the surf zone. As the
sediments move, projecting angular corners are seconds) between the arrival of each wave «
knocked away. Use a fixed point on the beach as a reference
point. This would give you the data for a me:
Abrasion: Destructive waves pick up sand and
of central tendency. The mean frequency of e
pebbles (or larger rocks) and scrape or throw
waves would tell you if they were constructive ©
them against the rock, abrading it.
or destructive. Aa i
Corrosion: Water from waves may react with
rock minerals and dissolve them. The minerals are
carried away in the seawater.
Now try this
Hydraulic action: A large destructive wave
breaking on a cliff exerts considerable pressure:
50 ka/cm*. Air may be compressed into cracks Explain how you would use measures of central
or joints in the rock. The sudden release of tendency to classify waves into destructive and
pressure can shatter the rock. constructive wave types.

52
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Landforms of coastal erosion

Erosion creates distinctive coastal landforms: wave-cut notches, wave-cut platforms, cliffs and
the cave-arch-stack-stump sequence.

Wave-cut notches
* At high tide, destructive waves may reach the
base of a cliff. Cliff
* The processes of abrasion and hydraulic action
erode the rock at the cliff base. ea NU hee | Water level
* A curved, wave-cut notch forms along the length
of the cliff.
* Sea caves may form at weaker points along the
F Wave-cut notch
wave-cut notch line.

Wave-cut platform and cliff retreat

* Above the wave-cut notch, an overhang of ay:
unsupported rock is formed. PETES 0 a
a eS
a
* As this overhang is undercut, mass movement
of the unsupported rock occurs and the cliff Original ie o=-5
retreats (recession). Lithology affects this mass
movement (see page 51).
* As the cliff retreats, it leaves behind a flat
or slightly sloping area of rock between the
high- and low-tide levels: a wave-cut platform.
* Weathering also contributes to the formation of Rocky wave-cut Wave-cut notch
some wave-cut platforms. platform

The cave-arch-stack-stump sequence

Hydraulic action and abrasion form caves that eventually meet in the middle to form)a tunnel, above which
is an arch. Erosion and weathering make the arch more prominent. The arch collapses and only a stack is
left. Further wave erosion leaves a stump.

1.5 Ae a] ee
=: z

Geo __Blowhole

aa

| Explain why the cave-arch—stack-stump sequence is most commonly associated with sedimentary rocks with
_ well-defined joints and bedding planes (the surface between strata/layers of sedimentary rock).
|
ee eee ———a

53
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e Gs
Yopi

sediment transportation
Various transport processes move sediments along coastlines. Along a section of coastline, erosion,
transport and deposition processes operate in a linked system: a sediment cell.

Longshore drift
* The strongest longshore drift occurs when waves
approach the beach at an angle of 30°.
Students test
The Student’s t-test is used to test the - An ke
* The swash carries beach sediment up the beach difference between two samples, e.g. two
at the same angle as the waves approach. samples of pebble size or shape along a beach.
* The backwash carries the sediments back down The null hypothesis is always that there is no
the beach at right angles to the shore, under the difference between samples. f
influence of gravity. This moves sediment along
the coastline until it meets an obstacle.
* The predominant wind direction determines the
direction of longshore drift.

The sediment cell concept

© Case
eA sediment cell has sources, transfers and sinks: R study Sediment cell Place
Contexts
in theory it is a closed system, One example of a sediment cell is the
Erosion in one place in the system (the source) coastline from Portland Bill to Selsey Bill,
is balanced by deposition in another (a sink), on the UK’s southern coastline.
with transfers of sediment within the cell by
processes such as longshore drift and currents.
The amount of sediment gained from sources and
lost to sinks can be calculated: a sediment budget.
It is a useful concept for assessing the extent
of coastal change and for evaluating coastal
management strategy.

Sediment cell sources, transfers

and sinks
* Sources include: erosion of cliffs, land sediments
transported by rivers, wind-blown sediment from the
land, onshore currents bringing sediment to shore.
* Transfers include: longshore drift, waves, tides,
currents and wind.
* Sinks are depositional features on the backshore
(dunes), foreshore (beaches), nearshore (bars)
and offshore,

Dynamic equilibrium
* Negative feedback tends to maintain equilibrium, for example where wave erosion causes rock falls,
which then protect the base of the cliff from further erosion.
* Positive feedback tends to increase change in the system until a new equilibrium is reached, for example
a ‘blow out’ in a sand dune allows more sand to be eroded by the wind, reducing vegetation cover further.

Now try this

}
Negative feedback tends to help maintain equilibrium in a sediment cell. Give an example of negative feedback. .
\ 4 .“

54
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Topic 28
Transport process landforms
Transportation and deposition processes produce a range of distinctive coastal landforms, which can be
stabilised by plant succession.

me Processes
Beach sediment is deposited mainly by constructive waves, and the breaking action of
these waves may form beach cusps and berms.
Longshore drift also brings beach material from erosional sources, which is deposited by
waves as they move material along the beach.
Destructive waves shape a beach by creating storm ridges at the backshore during high
tide. Backwash also scours sediment away from the beach.
Offshore A long ridge of sand or pebbles formed a short distance out to sea, in shallow water
bar where destructive waves break before reaching the beach. These waves scour the seabed
and throw materials forward into a heap. Currents in the sea also supply sediments.
Barrier This is a beach (sand or shingle) that connects two areas of land, with a lagoon forming
beach behind. They form with a plentiful supply of sand or shingle, shallow nearshore and offshore
areas, waves with enough energy to move the sand/shingle, and a rising sea level to push
the sediment towards the shore.
Nearshore_ | These are similar to barrier beaches, but smaller. They commonly form in the surf zone
bar where storm waves break, scooping up sediment and adding them to onshore transport to
pile them up in a long ridge, parallel to the coast. Bars may be sinuous and attached to
the shore in some places.
Tombolo A tombolo forms after longshore drift carries sediment across a gap between the mainland
and an island, forming a narrow low ridge of sand and pebbles.
Spit * Spits form when there is a dominant main longshore
drift direction, plenty of sediments from mass
movement and erosion, and a gap in the coastline,
such as an estuary or bay. Direction of LSD Fite
f : A os : Sediment deposited
* Sediments are transported by sediment along the J ss Sea _ where coastline
~S . .
coast. When they reach the gap in the coastline, they “<“s re eae
are carried for a short way in the same direction until
they are deposited on the seabed. End of spit
curves round
Over time, so much sediment is deposited that a ya

narrow strip of land (a spit) forms across part of the

bay or estuary. b& ;
: : ‘ a> > Sea Secondary wind
* The shelter provided by the spit means that sediment (GS direction
is deposited behind it to form mudflats, on which a
It h a | Salt marsh forms
Balt Are May AeVvelIop. in sheltered area
of deposition
As the spit grows longer, the tides, river currents and behind the spit
other wave directions turn the end of the spit into a
hook — a recurved spit. Sometimes the remains of
old hooks are visible. 24
Double spit |Double spits may form where there are local variations in longshore drift and strong river
currents. Spits form on either side of a large bay, but do not join because river currents
pass out into the sea between the spits.
Cuspate This is a low-lying, roughly triangular headland that probably develops when longshore drift
foreland from two opposite directions forms two spits across a bay. These meet and shelter the
bay behind them, which fills with sediments. Mudflats and saltmarsh form and deposition
forms a new lowland area

_ Draw a cross-section of a beach and label its features.

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Topic 22

Weathering and mass movement

Subaerial processes are a combination of weathering and mass movement processes that alter the
shape of a coastline, as distinct from marine erosion, transport and deposition processes.

Weathering
Weathering processes can be mechanical, chemical or biological, and they operate between the
low-tide level and the cliffs or land of the backshore. Climate is an important influence on weathering,
as it determines temperatures and moisture levels. Weathering is important in sediment production and
influences rates of recession.

Type of
weathering Processes Pee tes ee ee Effects Sees
Salt When waves break or splash cliffs on coastal rocks, Angular rock fragments are
crystallisation the water evaporates, leaving behind sodium and loosened and fall to create
(mechanical type) |magnesium salt compounds in joints and cracks. scree slopes at the base
These salt crystals grow and exert pressure and force of the cliff; rock
the rocks apart. Seawater may also enter porous rock faces crumble.
and the crystals grow inside the rock itself.
Frost-shattering | Only found on coasts in a climate where the temperature |Angular rock fragments
(freeze-thaw) changes daily from above zero to below zero. and a jagged cliff face are
(mechanical type) |Water seeps into joints and cracks in the rock and created, with scree slopes
when it freezes it expands, exerting pressure and at the base.
forcing the rock apart.
Oxidation Oxygen combines with iron-based minerals in a rock, | The rock minerals will no
(chemical type) causing a chemical breakdown of the minerals, as longer be bonded together
shown by a red-orange rusty colour on a rock face. and so the rock will crumble.
Seaweed acids Some seaweed (for example, kelp) cells contain pockets |Rock minerals will no longer
(biological type) of sulphuric acid, so when these cells break in contact | be bonded together, so
with rock, the acid will dissolve some rock minerals. parts of the rock will crumble
Boring molluscs Many marine molluscs live on coastal rocks, scraping | Holes provide weak points
(biological type) away at the rock surface to get food or boring a hole | for other weathering
in the rock to make a home. processes to act.

Mass movement at the coast

° Mass movement is the movement downslope of
rocks, sand, clay, till or soil.
It is caused by gravity once a slope has become
unstable: after waves have undercut resistant
rocks or when rainwater enters unconsolidated
rocks and forces particles apart (pore pressure).
* Water content determines the type of mass
movement (see page 57).
Slope angle and vegetation cover is also
important in determining slope stability.

1. Describe the weathering processes that would operate on a chalk cliff, such as the White Cliffs at Dover, in Kent.
2. Explain how weathering may influence rates of cliff recession.

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Mass movement landforms

Mass movement creates distinctive landforms at the coast: talus scree slopes, rotational scars and
terraced cliff profiles. Different types of mass movement create distinctive landforms.

Talus scree slopes

* Rock fragments fall to the base of the slope and
form talus scree slopes. Rock falls occur on steep slopes as
a cliff face is weathered. When
* Talus scree slopes are steep, fan-shaped mounds wave erosion has created a wave-cut
of angular material. notch, the section of the cliff is
=\ no longer supported.
° Talus scree slopes have larger boulders at their
core and smaller material on top. Talus or
¢ The slope of the talus scree is usually between ~ ihe
34 and 40 degrees, depending on the size of
the fragments.
° The larger the fragments making up the scree,
the steeper the slope.
° Wave processes work on the talus scree, gradually
reducing it in size until it can be transported away.
Rotational scars and terraced Crescent-shaped Vegetation usually
: Z rotational scar intact on top
cliff profiles of slump
: Terraced cliff profile
In unconsolidated sands and clays, mass movement
occurs in the form of rotational slumps, slips
or mudflows. |
° Rotational slumping is where a section of cliff
remains intact as it moves down a cliff along a
curved slip plane. Toe of slump
* This leaves a crescent-shaped rotational scar
above it on the cliff.
* The vegetation layer is usually intact on top of
the slump.
° A sequence of slumps creates a terraced cliff
profile: terraces or benchesin the cliff profile.

Block falls Miudflows

Glide plane
Impact poinint
Lobe of clay
Debris from and mud at
earlier slide toe of slope

ee
ee ee ee eee ee ee ee

Now {ry this

Explain the factors that contribute to rotational slumping occurring.

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sea level change

Sea level change influences coasts on different timescales, with global warming and tectonic activity _
putting some coastlines at risk from sea level rise today.

Longer-term sea level changes Emergent coastlines

$ : ; These are often the result of isostatic rebound.
Eustatic change is a change in sea level.
* Raised beach: a former beach that is now above ©
° Sea levels in the Pleistocene glacials were much
the high tideline. Some raised beaches may
lower than currently due to so much water being
consist of several different levels, each indicating
on the land in the form of ice.
a different stage of uplift. Features such as
° As ice melts, sea levels rise. It is estimated that rounded boulders and pebbles may be present.
levels h i 120m si f th
me ROE ees ous bibs * Fossil cliffs: near-vertical slopes initially
last ice age 10000 years ago.
formed by marine processes but now found )
isostatic change is a change in land level. It is some distance inland. They may still have visible
also linked to ice on the land. marine erosion features such as sea caves and
wave-cut platforms.
° When ice is kilometres thick, its weight pushes
the land down.
° Britain’s north was glaciated and pushed Interpreting
down; southem areas were ice-free and tilted landforms
upwards slightly.
* When ice sheets melt at the end of an ice age, Make sure you can identify these landforms on
the land that has been pushed down rebounds maps and from aerial photos.
ae ——————————————————————ee
back upwards. Land that tilted upwards starts to
sink back. This is called post-glacial adjustment. Submergent coastlines
* Sediments eroded from sinking land will be Submergent coasts are often the result of sea
redeposited on coasts (accretion). level rise or isostatic sinking.
Tectonic change: * A ria is a flooded river valley. The valley sides
° As tectonic plates move and collide, some may be steep due to their being formed in
continental shelves and areas of land are pushed periglacial conditions, when the soil was frozen.
upwards, or sink downwards (subsidence). * A fjord is a flooded glaciated (U-shaped) valley:
* Volcanic islands may create new coastlines, for very deep water with steep sides.
example island arcs. Dalmatian coasts are concordant coasts where
* Tectonic activity can produce tsunamis, which the sea has flooded the landscape of alternating
threaten coastal areas. hills and valleys to create long bays and parallel
hilly islands.

(1) Low-lying islands (e.g. Maldives)

and ecosystems will disappear

Three possible coastal

Climate change and sea level rise
impacts of climate warming |
¢ As the sea heats up, its volume increases (thermal =
expansion). This currently contributes to over 50%
of sea level rise © Stronger storms will @ wave heights will
create larger increase in the Arctic
* In the future, melting ice from glaciers, destructive waves as sea ice disappears
Greenland and Antarctica could increase sea (leading to accelerated (leading to accelerated
level rise significantly. erosion rates) erosion rates)
* The rate of sea level rise is increasing as the
oceans warm and polar ice melting exceeds
expected rates. A sea level rise of 2m by 2100 Now try th
is predicted.
* Erosion rates and coastal change will be Account for sea level changes at a range of
intensified by climate change and sea level rise. different timescales.

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Rapid coastal recession

Coastal recession (retreat) is the result of natural factors such as geology, marine processes and
subaerial processes. Human actions can sometimes alter these natural processes.

G A&A | Physical factors

syne ptic Theme:
Rapid recession is the result of physical factors
Human actions
Marine Wave type — destructive waves,
Human actions that change sources, transfers processes | high-energy waves — prevailing
or sinks in a sediment cell will influence the winds, fetch, winter storms
rate of recession (or advancement) of the Tides — high tides may mean waves
coast. Two examples are: reach the backshore
Submerging coastline — exposes
Coastal defences built at one location cliffs to more erosion
~ Will stop or limit the supply of sediment
Geology Geology — less resistant to
toa cell, meaning that another place
erosion (weakly consolidated rock)
down drift may not receive sediment for
beach-building. This means the beach will Lithology — jointed rock, rock with
get narrower and less able to absorb bedding layers
wave energy, so that waves will hit (and Subaerial Weathering -— cliffs that are
_ erode) the backshore with greater force. processes | susceptible to, for example,
salt crystallisation
& Offshore dredging removes sand Mass movement — for example,
\ and gravel (used in construction). permeable strata overlying
This reduces the supply of sediment impermeable strata
to beaches, making them less able to
absorb wave energy (as above).
Dredging may also allow waves to Calculating
skills
maintain their circular motion and energy
recession rates
closer inshore (see page 52), meaning
they have a more destructive impact on You need to be able to use GIS, aerial photos
the coast. and maps to calculate recession rates.

OFA The Nile Delta and coastal recession Place

Contexts j

° The Nile Delta in Egypt is a densely populated area: 95% of Egypt’s

population live here. Its 250km of coast is highly developed.
* Coastal recession has increased since the construction of the
Aswan Dam in 1964, which seriously reduced the supply of
sediment to the delta (from 130 million tonnes per year before the
dam was built, to 15 million tonnes). Erosion rates at some points
along the coast (including Rosetta) increased 10 times.
* The Nile Delta is thought to be subsiding, and is also very
vulnerable to sea level rise as a low-lying delta. Coastal flooding

Now try this |

Why might there be variations in the recession rate of a cliff over time (that is, why might the recession rate
be faster at some times rather than at others)?
‘ 4 »

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Topic 2

Coastal flooding
Coastal flooding is a major concern around the world because so many people have settled close to
lowland coasts. Flood risk may be linked to local factors, storm surges and climate change.

Local factors increasing flood risk Mangroves and coastal flooding

Local factors increase flood risk on some low-lying Mangroves reduce coastal flooding in three
coasts and estuaries, main ways:
(VY Height: Mlood risk increases for low-lying coastal
They reduce the height of waves, reducing
areas (those only a few metres above sea level)
wave erosion of the coast,
such as coastal plains, estuaries and river deltas,
VY Degree of subsidence: Areas that are Their roots trap sediments, raising the height |
experiencing isostatic sinking, for example, the of the coast.
Essex coast, are more vulnerable to coastal
© They reduce storm surge levels — by 0.5m
flooding, as aré areas where drainage causes
for every 1km of forest that seawater has to ©
land shrinkage,
pass through,
Vegetation removal: Ecosystems such as salt
marshes and mangrove forests are important in
reducing flood risk,

Why humans live on coasts

There are many attractions to coastal
settlements, including:
7) sea ane river trade
(Vi) farming (especially deltas: very fertile soll),

Storm surges
Storm surges are linked to low-pressure weather
systems, tropical cyclones and depressions
in particular, KCC) synoptic
Climate change and
Low air pressure over the sea allows the water to bulge
upwares in a dome, The lower the pressure, the higher coastal flooding
the dome, Storm surges are made worse by storm
wines on top ef the dome, which increases the height of Climate warming is likely to significantly increase
the water at the coast, inereasing the risk of fleeding, the risk of flooding to coasts,

Sea level rise would increase the risk of

NAic Nae flooding for low-lying coastal areas — many
When the low pressure system moves tewards a coast, of which are already at significant risk of
the dome ot seawater surges ashore, The shape of the
coastline can also inerease sterm surges If it acts to
flooding due to existing factors. It is not
funnel the storm surge towards an area ef shallow clear how far and how fast sea levels will
offshore water, rise, but increasing rates of melting of the
Antaretic ice sheets has led some experts
to predict as much as a 2m rise by 2100,
5 Global warming will mean that depressions
and tropical cyclones have more energy and
are stronger. This could increase the risk of
storm surges and coastal flooding.

Explain why removing mangroves from a lowland

coast increases the risk of coastal flooding,
e
a

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Topic 2B
Coastal flooding examples
You need to know an example of where local factors and global sea level rise increase coastal flood risk.
It may be useful to know examples for storm surge events and climate change risk,

OF Bangladesh ig
Local factors lead to coastal flooding:
* 70% of Bangladesh is less than 10 metres above sea level,
and at the coast most areas are at sea level,
The coastline is mostly delta sediment, unconsolidated and
easily eroded.
There has been extensive deforestation of the country's
mangrove forests (the Sundarbans), reducing their role
in stabilising sediments and buffering the coast from
tropical cyclones,
Bangladesh is at the head of the Bay of Bengal, which is
shaped like a funnel. This increases the risk of storm surges.
Bangladesh experiences many tropical cyclones, often
accompanied by storm surges. In 2007 Cyclone Sidr * hit +1,5 matre
(Siadieniveapienlebied
south-west Bangladesh, causing a 10m storm surge. 22.000 km? of lanel submerged
Three million households experienced
coastal flooding.

HLL *
YORKSHIRE
TKINGSTO
|, Welle
iS)care|North Sea storm surges, 1953 and 2013 Cle joey MULL) Sea wall breached in two
° eethorpe . ' | places, 300-ton vessel
New sea wall was | GRI Y lifted on to quay.
In January 1953, a night-time storm surge caused the being built but
deaths of 307 people in England, and over 2100 people in Mes tered i SUTTON GySEA
the Netherlands. 1500 homes % PSKEGNESS
ote
alleeted,
* Sea levels rose by 5.6 metres as the storm coincided Damage ‘runs Inte THE WASH
INS ea
with extreme high tides. milions’, ) | Vf
pty Sie ih . 9
”SS Ne sn

* Flooding occurred along the east coast of England, with oa pe n |

a Pas 77 aA
almost 65000 hectares of farmland and 20000 homes Boston me =NORFOLK |
River Witham a. Margate
were flooded. breaks King’s Lynn Pier destroyed,
°
There were no flood warning systems, weather forecasts edefences = homes||
atahacied 9¢a walls held but
water came over ||Sea tops wall
leaving 300
were basic and communications limited. 7 the top, Famine Nacied.
A400 homes INST OWE
In December 2013 the largest storm surge since 1953 Hooded,
took place. The surge reached 6.3m in places, for example, oeany
pele) y—4
Blakeney, North Norfolk. ‘
iver Land below pax
* Eighteen thousand people were evacuated, but only 1400 high tide level C
Land flooded
properties flooded, with no deaths. BB rebruary 1953 KENT
* Major impacts were avoided due to the Thames Barrier,
better sea defences and better forecasting.

Identify reasons why some coastlines are more at risk of coastal flooding than others.

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Consequences
Coastal recession: economic losses Coastal recession: social losses
These include costs of repairs and rebuilding, loss These are the losses directly affecting people,
of jobs and income and the money and resources for example having to relocate temporarily or
needed in the form of aid. permanently or losses of amenity areas.
¢ In the UK the government does not pay * Coastal recession can produce a less
compensation to people who lose their homes to aesthetically attractive coastline with
coastal erosion. boarded-up properties and closed roads.

of time and affects relatively few people. example if people experiencing coastal
The properties affected lose their value. erosion blame the construction of sea
; : defences updrift.
° Sudden economic losses from coastal recession
do happen, but are rare. A UK example is Holbeck ° Living with coastal erosion can impact on health,
Hall in Scarborough, destroyed in a coastal because of the stress of property losing value,
landslide in 1993. insurance increases, etc.

Orr Consequences of coastal | Of Consequences of coastal

flooding for developed | flooding for developing
countries: Australia countries: the Philippines
° More than half of Australia’s coasts are ¢ Around 100 million people live in the Philippines,
vulnerable to coastal flooding if sea levels spread out over many low-lying islands.
continue to rise. * Isostatic sinking (subsidence because of
* Sea level rises would threaten the Great | excessive groundwater abstraction) and sea
Barrier Reef: reefs die if they are more than . level rises have contributed to twice the
50m underwater. global average of sea level rise: 5-7 mm per
° It has been estimated that a 20cm increase year. Around 167 OOO hectares of coastline
in sea level rise would cause US$1.4 billion are predicted to be lost to rising sea levels.
of economic damage in south-east * Storm surges from tropical cyclones, like
Queensland alone. ; Typhoon Ketsana in 2009, can leave 60% of
* Tourism (which employs 8% of the Australian Manila (the capital) underwater.
workforce) would be affected if Australia’s famous * Twenty tropical cyclones enter Filipino waters
sandy beaches were eroded by rising sea levels. each year. Six of the Philippines’ 10 most
deadly typhoons have been since 2006,
which may be linked to climate warming.
Environmental refugees
Typhoon Haiyan, in November 2013, was the
CG Around 22.5 million people have been displaced strongest tropical cyclone ever recorded and
due to climate-related events 2008-2016. killed 6300 people.
Ww A World Bank study estimated that more * Rapid urbanisation and industrialisation has
than 100 million people will be pushed into meant apartment blocks and industries being
poverty by climate change by 2030. | located in areas at risk of flooding.
/ Rising sea levels are a major factor. | * Each destructive typhoon season costs the
For example by 2050, it is estimated that | Philippines 2% of GDP in lost activity, and
up to 16 million people may be displaced in | another 2% of GDP to rebuild infrastructure
Bangladesh by rising sea levels. | lost to coastal flooding.

Identify risk factors that would make a developing country especially vulnerable to increased risk of coastal
flooding/storm surge events.

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Hard engineering
Hard engineering approaches to managing risks directly alter physical processes and systems and are costly.

| Type of hard
|engineering | How it works: Benefits Costs
Groynes Barriers on a beach set at & Maintain size of beach, & Expensive (£1000 per
right angles to the coast to protecting the coast at linear metre).
slow down pongenore Anat: that point. p May hinder people from
orcs se ees ee &S Enhance the beach as a crossing the beach.
expend energy on it rather recreational amenity. Reducing longshore drift will
than on the backshore. & Less expensive than narrow beaches downdrift:
sea walls. more erosion there.
Sea walls Recurved sea walls reduce dS Very effective at & Very expensive (£5000
wave energy by reflecting preventing erosion. per linear metre).
UES 0S I aide
Stepped sea walls dissipate
Prevent high
3
water levels| & Greatly reduces supply
; from moving inland. of sediment to the
wave energy with their edges. S BAiient cell
dS Give people a sense ;
of security. & May be considered unsightly.
Boulders (usually granite) or SS Long-lasting and flexible & Cost: about £50 per metre?.
concrete tetrahedrons that ae f
are resistant to erosion and Seawater can still eS
have a large surface area to Q oc through, permitting some
dissipate wave energy.
susceptible points backshore erosion.
along the coast, e.g. to &) May look unsightly.
protect a sea wall.
Revetments | Sloped walls, placed & Absorb wave energy and & Cost: £1500 per
parallel and in front of the trap sediment. linear metre.
backshore. abey, take the Perecnare act can & ps prea a area g
force of breaking waves, till a
weakening erosion. at a alae Reduce access from
SS Cheaper than sea walls. backshore to beach.
Offshore Boulders (granite) dropped SS Allow longshore drift to & Cost: £1—2_ million.

masters etic te | cm cee share | dopaton ne

breakwaters | in shallow nearshore waters P
continue ;
behind them. May create increased

energy and dissipate waves oe a a i ind them landward side, reducing

before they can damage the my eee ee longshore drift.
foreshore or backshore. & Proven to protect Other defences may be
vulnerable areas. needed for the gaps
between reefs.

e: A&B
| X() synort ic Them
(A 2\ Geographical
Cost-benefit analysis “~
‘» iesVskills : _ Unforeseen consequences
A cost-benefit analysis considers the aim of a Hard engineering approaches can have
coastal management project and then weighs up unforeseen consequences. If hard engineering
the benefits and costs of different approaches. interrupts sediment flow along a coast, places
GIS can be used to find land-use values. _ downdrift can experience increased erosion.
eens cee mere

Explain how a hard engineering approach directly alters physical processes and systems.

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soft engineering
Soft engineering approaches — beach nourishment, cliff re-grading and drainage, dune stabilisation —
try to work with physical systems and processes to protect coasts and manage changes in sea level.

Type of soft
engineering How it works Costs
Beach Replaces beach sediments Uses natural sediments, so &) Cost: £10 per m’.
nourishment eroded or transported by the beach looks natural.
May have to be
longshore drift. A large
&) Provides an amenity replaced frequently:
beach will absorb wave
for recreation and so after winter storms.
energy and protect the
supports the local If sediments are
backshore from erosion.
tourist industry. dredged from offshore,
alters sediment cell,
He removes habitats.
Cliff Re-grading an unstable cliff, & Createcianatinaic & Cost: about £1 million.
re-grading prone to sudden collapses, looking slope
creates a new slope angle p ;
: Other defences needed
chat is Stable for ih 9 dS Will remain stable as long to protect the cliff base.

characteristics of the i itsneers Dieses Cliff drainage may also

rock type. peokeneeee eeu be required.
marine erosion.
Cliff drainage |Where the cliff lithology & Reviices the risk on Only reduces the risk of
has permeable above mass movement after mass movement, does
impermeable rock, drains heavy rainfall. not prevent it.
at ete eure: & Looks natural once Implementing across
us SE GUC: revegetated as the a whole cliff disturbs

engineering is not the cohesion of the

generally visible. rock layers.
Dune Dunes can provide a natural dS lake natticalanciistan Costs £1000 per 100m
stabilisation | barrier to sea level rise and effective barrier to higher for replanting dunes (dune
storm waves, but are fragile. sea levels and tides. fencing costs around
Monitoring their condition £500 per 100m).
yy Provides a natural
and repairing them with
ecosystem and May need to be fenced
a geofabric or replanting
recreational area. off while the plants grow,
of grasses (e.g. marram
&S Can be used to restore reducing amenity value
grass), helps to keep them
dunes lost to storm (short term).
in place.
surges or ‘blown out’ Powerful storms can
following trampling. undo stabilisation.

Geographical 0 °
Photo interpretation
You will need to be able to recognise different coastal management approaches from photos and
interpret their likely environmental impact.

Now try this

1. Explain how a soft engineering approach tries to work with physical systems and processes.
2. Draw a cross-section of a slope to show how cliff re-grading and cliff drainage reduce slope instability.

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Topic 2B
Managing future threats
Sustainable management
Sustainable coastal management plans to provide ways to continue using coastal and marine resources
that will not reduce the ability of future generations to use them in the same way.

The full environmental impact of new Waste in coastal environments needs to

developments on the coast needs to be be minimised (for example, plastic
evaluated before developments proceed. pollution, sewage discharge into the sea).

\daptation to future change/threats Features of Everyone affected by new developments

for example, relocating developments sustainable on the coast needs to be involved in
er Epa Reece cciend them coastal decision-making about the developments.
rom rising sea levels).
management
a
Vork with physical processes where New economic developments on the
ossible to reduce unsustainable The over-exploitation coast should provide some benefits
ending on hard engineering of coastal resources for the local community, for
oastal defences. must be avoided. example recreation.

Managed retreat
Managed retreat is an example of a sustainable approach to coastal defence in areas where costs of hard
or soft engineering significantly exceed the benefits. This may conflict with the wishes of local people.

How it works
Areas are set aside Can avoid the construction & Requires the agreement of affected
for the sea to flood and maintenance costs of landowners and property owners.
eee ore: hard engineering. & May only be a medium-term solution if
former salt marshes that ; ,
ey Can extend valuable sea levels continue to rise further.
are now farmland may be eee ee
allowed to flood again. C1 RAS TS AZAD Defences often need to be
ey An adaptation response to constructed around the edge of the
sea level rise flooded area to protect property.

6 Syne ptic Theme: F&U Three adaptation strategies

_— } Restoring mangroves, which are effective
Coastal adaptation against storm surges, boost fish numbers,
; ’ benefit local communities.
Stronger storms and higher sea levels will
create a lot of uncertainty for coastal areas, Zoning areas of the coast threatened |
and sustainable management will be difficult, and _ by sea level rises to prevent further |
perhaps impossible, for some areas. Conflict is development there. This avoids
likely between policy makers and people who . increasing risk.
may lose their homes and land. So, effective
mitigation and adaptation strategies will be Elevating critical infrastructure
Peet athe future. a . (for example, power stations) to protect
them from flooding.

Explain one reason why sustainable management aims to ensure all local stakeholders have a role
in decision-making about new developments on the coast.

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b+)
1A

ICZM strategies
Coastlines are now increasingly managed by integrated coastal zone management (ICZM), which is based
_on the concept of littoral cells (similar to sediment cells).

What is ICZM?
* Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)
is a process for planning and coordinating how
coastal resources are used and developed.
Integrated means it looks at the coast as a
whole system, and brings together all
stakeholders with the aim that everyone benefits,
including human and physical marine and
terrestrial processes.
Coastal zones are the littoral cells — a similar
concept to the sediment cell (see page 54).
Having littoral cells as the unit for management
means all the different physical processes and
human activities are considered over a
long timescale.

Shoreline Management Plans

SMP coastal defence evaluation
* The UK’s Shoreline Management Plans (SMP) are
Coastal defences are a very significant part of
an example of ICZM.
each SMP. Coastal defences in the littoral cell
are evaluated as to whether they are: * There is an SMP for each littoral cell (there are 11
in England and Wales).
CO appropriate for the physical processes in
operation in the cell * Putting together an SMP involves consultation
with scientific advisers and many groups of local
Vv environmentally acceptable (EIA)
stakeholders: resident associations, landowners,
VY feasible to build farmers, wildlife organisations, local leisure clubs,
economically (cost-benefit analysis), socially local tourist boards, chambers of commerce and
and politically viable utility companies.
Vv sustainable in the long term. * SMPs identify the risks associated with coastal
An environmental impact assessment (EIA) will processes operating in the littoral cell, and make
be a key part of the evaluation, The EIA analyses decisions about how to manage them.
the predicted environmental consequences of
the proposed defences. eSnv.
4
6Coastal recession
b skills

SMP coastal management policy The impact and effectiveness of SMPs can
There are four policy choices for SMPs: be evaluated by comparing the aims of the |
strategy with the extent of coastal recession
Hold the existing shoreline: Maintain rates. You should be able to use aerial
existing and building of new defences photographs and satellite images of lengths of
® Advance the existing shoreline: Building coast to record and calculate coastal recession
new defences closer to the sea rates over short and long periods of time.
oe

3} Managed realignment of the shoreline:

Natural processes allowed to operate
without interference, but carefully monitored

4) No active intervention: No investment Suggest a reason or reasons why an SMP might

in defences or maintenance of any decide against allowing the following proposed new
existing defences. coastal developments: (a) a wind farm; (b) offshore
dredging; (c) a golf COUTSE,
| , ‘A
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Topic 2B
Coastal policy conflicts
(clsynoptic Paome: Ri
Policy decisions about coastal management can lead to conflicts, especially when a policy of no active
intervention or managed retreat goes against the wishes of local players/stakeholders.

Implications of policy decisions Factors affecting policy decisions

Some places have seen an SMP policy decision Although the economic value of the land is often
change from holding the existing shoreline to no the most significant factor in decisions to hold the
a ctive intervention or managed retreat. existing shoreline, there are others:
This usually followed a cost-benefit analysis: * Coastal sites that have strategic importance for
comparing the cost of coastal defences with the national infrastructure, such as nuclear power
value of the land to be protected. stations or gas terminals.
Places with low land value (such as some farmland * Coastal areas with historical sites, areas of
and recreational areas) had difficulty qualifying for archaeological significance or important cultural value.
government money to pay for sea defences. * Coastal areas that provide habitats for rare
This affected property values in these places and also plants and animals.
had social impacts — communities felt less secure. ° Places that mount effective publicity campaigns for
coastal protection or effective lobbying of their MP.

OE
e
Happisburgh,
North Norfolk
Coastal management in
developing countries
This is an example of policy decisions leading
to conflict in a developed country. Coastal management is challenging where:
* The SMP policy decision in Happisburgh is VY coastal erosion is rapid
‘no active intervention’. Ww coastal communities are vulnerable because
* This was against the wishes of local of poverty and lack of opportunity
residents, especially those on Beach Road WV local people have no legal rights to the |
where several houses have been lost. coastal land they depend on
House values are very low, which has meant GY coastal regions are controlled by elites who |
residents are unable to afford to move to look after their own interests only.
less at-risk locations.
Campaigning by the CCAG (Coastal Concern
Action Group) raised awareness nationally.
A council bid for government money led to a
Case
© study Chittagong, Bangladesh Place
Contexts
£3 million grant. A Coastal Climate Resilient Infrastructure
The grant was spent in giving Beach Road Project (2012) funded a range of small schemes
residents grants to help them move. for Chittagong, a port city on the Bay of Bengal:
Beach Road houses were demolished to make * Embankments raised roads above normal flood levels
a buffer zone between the village and the * Twenty-five tropical cyclone shelters
cliffs. The council constructed new homes on * New market areas with sheds raised on
nearby farmland, so the community could stay platforms above the predicted 2050 sea level.
the same size.
Positives of the schemes included: generation
° Profits from the sale of the new houses will of jobs (reducing poverty); reduction in road
be used to buy more properties when they flooding to five days a year instead of 20 days.
become at risk from coastal erosion.
Negatives: 200 people were relocated due to
road realignment; embankments were slow to be
constructed; natural habitats were disturbed.

A key reason for the ‘no active intervention’ policy decision at Happisburgh is that sea defences would, over time,
create a headland at Happisburgh that would limit the transfer of sediment down drift. How might the SMP policy
decision be explained to the Happisburgh CCAG?
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°

Topic 2B

Exam skills 1
These exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for the Coastal Landscapes and Change
- topic in Paper 1.

‘Explain’ questions
Figure 1: A coastal landform You should provide a reasoned explanation
of how or why something occurs.
WEEE ae An explanation requires understanding
1. Name the coastal landform at A in Figure 1. (1 mark) to be demonstrated through develomidl
Cuspate foreland the points you make and/or providing
examples to back the points up.
2. Explain the formation of the coastal landform = =
shown in Figure 1. (6 marks)
A cuspate foreland is a low-lying headland that
is formed when significant longshore drift is
from opposite directions along a coast.
This is indicated in the photo by the two plumes
of sediment deposited in the sea on either side
of the low-lying cuspate foreland. First pebbles
and sand are deposited across a bay from both
sides, forming two spits. Eventually the two spits
meet and shelter the area behind them, which
gradually fills up with sediment. The photo shows
the parallel ridges of shingle that mark the stages
of the cuspate foreland’s formation.

3. Suggest one way in which human activity might @

impact on the landform in Figure 1. (3 marks)
Human activity that interrupts the sediment cells
that meet at the cuspate foreland would have an
impact on the landform — for example, if groynes
were deployed updrift to reduce the loss of ewes 6§
sediment from beaches then less sediment would ‘Suggest’ questions
reach the landform. The landform might then
You do not need to know a specific
become eroded, or it might become a relict
situation, but you do need to show your
feature rather than an active one.
general understanding by applying ideas
that you have learned.

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Exam skills 2
These exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for the Coastal Landscapes and Change
topic in Paper 1.

Worked example This answer uses a stralahttorward

approach to the question: a range (three)
4. Explain how human activity can influence &
rapid coastal recession. (6 marks) au
of valid human activities are |dentitied and
their link to rapid coastal recession
Humans influence rapid coastal recession in three is made.
main ways. Dredging offshore sediments for gravel
and sand reduces the supply of sediment to
beaches downdrift, leaving cliffs more exposed to Although not required by this question,
erosion and rapid recession. Coastal management, the specification identifies a synoptic
especially hard engineering, has a similar impact so point in this topic: Actions of different
that protecting one part of the coast from rapid (a players may alter natural systems, It Is
recession leads to increased erosion elsewhere well worth making a note of synoptic links
along the coast. Climate warming, resulting from as you revise,
human activities, is increasing rates of coastal
recession through intensification of winter storms
and rising sea levels. In these ways, human You must look for key words in the
activities are intensifying the physical factors that question in addition to the command,
lead to rapid coastal recession. [his question does not want a
description of climate change threats
5. Evaluate the extent to which climate change is &) au or a list of management approaches.
the main challenge for the sustainable management Meant e Wanta to kreuvabeun the
of coastal landscapes. (20 marks) relative importance of climate change
Different coastal landscapes have different levels compared to other challenges to
and complexities of stakeholder involvement, and sustainable management of coastal
management strategies also vary from economic landscapes. In the exam, circle or
exploitation to total protection. This means that underline key words to help you,
challenges for successful management will vary.
At a local scale (e.g. Shoreline Management
Plans (SMPs)), climate change intensifies existing ‘Evaluate’ answers should include
challenges for successful management. At a accurate and relevant qeographical
national and global scale, climate change is, in my knowledge and understanding, You must
view, the major management challenge because of ai also use geographical information to
its impacts on sea level and storm intensity. make connections in your answer and
In the Philippines, for example, sea levels are rising organise these points in a logical order,
at around 5.6mm per year, and the economic try to cover everything that Is relevant
costs of this are estimated at $6.5 billion a to the question and use evidence
year if management of the coast does not bring (examples, data), and reach a logical
in adaptations to coastline economic activities. supported conclusion consisting of a
Up to 2.3 million people could be affected, the balanced argument,
majority in Manila, if sea levels rose by 1 metre,
which is predicted by 2100. The challenge of
successfully managing this change is enormous, Here, part of the student's complete
but other countries face greater challenges. In the answer is shown. Having considered
Maldives, for example, the government has already national and global scale challenges,
begun to move people away from low-lying coastal 4 the answer goes on to consider local
areas because of the increasing risk of coastal examples where coastal management faces
flooding and storm damage. The challenge is that complex challenges linked to multiple
most of the Maldives is no more than 1.5m above stakeholders that are exacerbated by
sea level: leaving the only long term solution as climate change (e.g, integrated coastal
encouraging ‘people to leave the country and zone management), before reaching an
settle elsewhere.... evidenced and balanced conclusion,

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Topic 28

Exam practice I
Practise for Paper 1 of your AS or A level exam. Afterwards see suggested answers on page 296,

1. Study Figure 1, a diagram illustrating two

eustatic changes.

The diagram may look unfamiliar at first, |

but study it carefully, reading the caption
and labelling, and you should be able to
connect it to your understanding of longer- f
7

term sea level change. The second diagram

(b) shows eustatic sea level change from
Sea level today
thermal expansion. .

Sea level 11000

years ago Use the diagram to assist your answer
to 1 (b): although it does not have text
b Cold conditions
to explain each cycle, it should jog your
memory about the ways in which the
eustatic changes lead to sea level change.

cal \-(
increase ae
Six marks is the first longer question you

sn ep will face in your exam; so plan a structure —

for example: changes in the rate of
recession that happen over a shorter term
.

|
(e.g, yearly) and two or three factors that :

| ae |
Ee eke operate on this timescale; and longer-term
changes, with two or three factors that
Figure 1: Eustatic sea level change operate over the longer term, |

(a) Identify the cause of eustatic sea level

change shown in a. (1 ot OF Revision
When revising, you should think about which
parts of the specification could include
(b) Explain two ways in which eustatic
changes are responsible for long-term
changes in sea level. (4 marks)
@ an ‘Assess the significance ...’ question.
Think about how you would answer such
a question.

In question 3 you need to think about the

(c) Suggest one source of landform
factors that influence the development of
evidence for past sea levels. (3 marks)
coastlines, and consider to what extent
geological structure is significant in
understanding this development (see
2. Explain why rates of coastal recession are not
constant. (6 marks) @ page 50).

‘Assess’ questions
3. Assess the significance of geological structure
These can ‘suck you in’ to writing a lot, but
for understanding the development of coastal
this takes up too much time. You should spend
landscapes. (12 marks)
a maximum of 15 minutes on this type of
question, so be concise and to the point.

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Exam practice 2
Practise for Paper 1 of your AS exam or A level exam. There are answers on page 296.

1. Suggest one reason why climate change The command word ‘suggest’ means
may increase coastal flood risk. (3 marks) that there is not one expected correct

answer. Identify a reason and then

2. Explain how erosion creates distinctive make two linked points to develop
coastal landforms. (8 marks) your answer

Gea eS aisraber) The &-mark ‘explain’ questions

: are looking for a wider range of
Businesses (number) uoee:
geographical ideas: at least two ideas
Motorways and A roads (km) 1600 or themes. Each of these should be
Railway lines (km) 650 detailed and fully developed. One good
Farmland (hectares) way of doing this is by using
Historical landfill sites relevant examples.
Figure 2: A summary of coastal assets at risk of
flooding in the 2060s, for a 2°C rise above
pre-industrial temperatures scenario (Source:
Managing the coast in a changing climate, Committee
: 6-mark questions have 3 marks for AO1
on Climate Change October 2018, pp. 27-28)
and 3 marks for AO2.
3. Study Figure 2. Explain the consequences for * AO! is: demonstrate knowledge and
coastal communities of an increasing risk of understanding of places, environments,
coastal flooding. (6 marks) concepts, processes, interactions and
change, at a variety of scales.
* AO2 is: apply knowledge and
4. Evaluate the importance of the Sediment Cell HEIL MGSO KER Rh
, to interpret, analyse and evaluate
concept for understanding coastal landscapes. } é ;
(20 marks) geographical information and issues.
You could develop the points that
demonstrate your understanding of the
: , consequences with evidence from Figure
5. Evaluate the extent to which coastlines AL) 2 andlor through making connections
can be managed to meet the needs between your consequences
of all players. 4 (20 marks) ;
YA

‘Evaluate’ questions
Avoid dismissing one viewpoint from the
start: consider the alternative views In A Level 20-mark questions, three-
and then make your own substantiated Bearrers: of the marks eagle from AO2
judgement. It is useful to consider a (application of understanding to interpret
themed approach as this provides more and evaluate). Your answer must conclude
depth to your answer than a ‘on the with a judgement: you will need to make
Pe eae. ‘but on the Bthen hard a balanced evaluation of the different
viewpoints your answer has considered.
that’ approach.
~ er

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Topic 3

Global connections
Developments in transport and communications technology have increased connectivity, accelerated
_ globalisation and contributed to a ‘shrinking world’.

What is globalisation? Other factors helping globalisation

Globalisation is the process of linking together
countries from all around the world so that they are
Ww TNCs: Large companies invest in several
interdependent, especially in economic terms (such as countries and make links between places
with raw materials, factories and consumers.
business, trade and financial systems).
Economic interdependence has also led to other Ww International organisations: Big players
strong links such as cultural processes (for example, in the political (e.g. United Nations),
migration), commercialisation (for example, online trade (e.g. World‘Irade Organization) and
financial systems (e.g. World Bank) agree
marketplace) and concern for the natural environment
international rules and, to some extent,
(such as protocols to tackle pollution).
‘police’ international interactions.
Transport developments (VW) Development of countries: As developing
counties emerge economically, they become
* Transport technology: In the 16th and 19th
more involved in global systems (e.g. India). —
centuries steam power based on coal improved
land (railways) and water transport (steamships),
but refinement of oil in the first half of the 2Oth Communications developments
century introduced faster transport, especially * Telecommunications: The telegraph first allowed
the development of the aeroplane, which remains for fast messaging between countries and
important in the 21st century. businesses within them, followed by the telephon
Transport costs: Started to reduce in the 19th and television (for example news). From the 1960
century and fell further in the 2Oth and 21st this was improved by satellite technology and,
centuries as transport got faster and also later, fibre-optic cables underneath oceans.
more efficient at carrying larger loads Computers and internet: Linking computer
(for example, containerisation). systems in different countries became possible
Transport speed: Travelling between countries with the development of ‘webs’ in the 1980s,
got faster over time, especially with jet aircraft culminating in the global internet from 1990.
since the 1960s. This allowed the coordination of business in
different countries, and the rise of global brands
and social media (for example, using the digital
economy that has grown on the internet).

aoe Use of proportional flow lines showing networks of flows

/

5.1 to 10%

<P>3.1to 5%
—>P2.1 to 3%
— 1.5 to 2%

Now try this

Describe and explain the pattern of flows in the map above.

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Governments and
organisations
ternational political and economic organisations and national governments have promoted policies that
ave helped globalisation take place.

World organisations and national governments

Many organisations have been major players in the globalisation process, for example political and
economic processes involved the policies of the World Trade Organization (WTO), International
Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, European Union (EU), and Association of South-east Asian Nations
(ASEAN). National governments have promoted economic globalisation, although recently there has
been an opposite reaction in some developed countries, most notably the USA and those in Europe.
\ 5

mportance of political and economic decision-making in globalisation

ositive and negative factors combine to influence the rate and shape of globalisation.

(TO: Works to reduce tariffs World Bank: IMF: Supports countries that
nd trade barriers, discourage Provides loans, grants and technical get into financial difficulties so
ubsidies and establish free assistance to help countries develop that they can continue to
‘ade links between all countries economically and tackle poverty. It works _ participate in global trade, and
ather than preferential deals with governments and multilateral keep the global monetary
etween countries. organisations and global banks. system stable.

rotectionist policies:
lobalisation increases competition TNCs and Foreign Direct
nd businesses in a country may Investment (FDI): Large
uffer. Some governments are put corporations invest in other
nder pressure to impose taxes countries and make links
nd tariffs on external goods and Economic influences between resource supply
ervices to protect domestic on globalisation points, manufacturing areas and
usinesses. This theme may consumer areas.
iclude other processes,
uch as immigration, ss : Liberal economic policies:
National governments encourage
entrepreneurs to start businesses
SEAN: An agreement between 10 SE (e.g. lower taxes) and privatise
sian countries to link their production businesses as part of free-market
nd markets to create equal economic economy (e.g. removing restric-
evelopment and a competitive region tive rules). They join and promote
tegrated with the global economy. free-trade blocs.
art of the agreement is for easy flows
f people, goods and finance between EU: A trade bloc with intergovernmental
1é countries. It has attracted agreement on trade within the group of
onsiderable external FDI. countries and common tariffs on goods
from outside the bloc. This increases
political and economic interactions within
the bloc. It also increases global power
for the bloc.

1. Explain how political decision-making has helped the globalisation process.

2. Explain how economic decision-making has helped the globalisation process.

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nic globalisation
Over time globalisation has reached new world regions, partly enabled by special economic zones,
government subsidies and attraction of foreign direct investment.
Special economic zones (SEZs)
SEZs are usually large areas of land reserved for
economic purposes near major transport hubs,
9) cae|The rise of China
Prior to the death of the Chinese leader
Place |
especially seaports. The national government Mao Zedong in 1976, China was an insular ‘
exempts businesses within these zones from taxes. communist country with a centralised planned
economy. In 1976, his successor Deng Xiaoping
Foreign transnational corporations (TNCs) are
introduced economic referms that set the
attracted to locate subsidiaries in SEZs,
country on a path towards a more open market
boosting the local economy by employing people
economy, known as the ‘open door policy’.
and providing them with skills, and making links
with local businesses who gain knowledge In 1980 four SEZs were set up (for
of technology. example, Shenzhen). Three of these were in
Guangdong near Hong Kong (which returned
Government subsidies to Chinese control in 1997).
* National governments may subsidise the costs of In the mid-1260s whole coastal cities (for
TNCs and local companies so that they will locate example, Zhangzhou) were chosen to link
in certain places within the country. with global capital, technology and talent.
e These can take several forms, such as tax
The 1990s saw economic growth in
incentives, tax exemptions, no customs duties,
China and SEZs were upgraded and new
and no tariffs on imports or exports, all of which
zones created with FDI such as the
greatly reduce the costs for industries and
China-Singapore Cooperation Park.
increase profits.
° Investment in infrastructure by national and local ® In the 21st century, China became the
government also subsidises the costs for businesses. world’s top trading nation (from 2013)
and set up regional industrial/high-tech/
agricultural parks and areas. SEZs have
45% of total FDI, GO% of exports,
and over 30 million jobs (accelerating
industrialisation according to the World
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Bank). However, SEZs and similar areas
Most FDI is through TNCs, who may: created regional disparities within China as
growth focused on the coast.
° buy a company in a country that is not its
HQ (for example, Kraft (USA based) bought Being more open to the outside world
Cadbury (UK based) in 2010) meant that the global economic recession
° locate a factory/office in another country as (from 2007/08) eventually caught up with
part of their expansion plans (for example, China in 2015/16.
Nissan (Japan based) built a factory in According to UNCTAD, in 2017 China was
Sunderland, UK, in 2015). the third largest recipient of FDI (after
For FDI to happen the national government of USA and UK), with over $135 bn received,
a country must make it legal for this ownership mostly from Singapore, South Korea, USA
to take place. and Japan, with over 43% invested in
manufacturing. Foreign TNCs face issues in
China, such as poor protection of intellectual
property rights and legal uncertainties.

Now {ry this

1. Choose one type of government subsidy and explain how it helps globalisation.
2. Why has China’s government had a positive attitude towards FDI into the country?

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Glohal indi TNC role

The amount of globalisation varies between countries, and TNCs have a key role to play in globalisation.

Indicators and indices for globalisation

Types of globalisation are socio-cultural, political and economic; the last one is often considered the main one.
Different countries, or regions within countries, have varying degrees of connectivity to the globalisation
process. Complete data is difficult to obtain, but some indices have been created:
* The KOF Globalisation Index measures the rate of globalisation in different countries.
* The AT Kearney indexes look at FDI confidence and the economy of cities.

Indices from ranking or scaling

\ hi e O e

Global cores = | Upward transition Downward transition Resource frontier

eases esiny sere rank | country | score | rank| country country
__ 18 | Italy UAE 74.4
ep *| France Australia | 79.3 | 64 Armenia : 44 Qatar UDCE
Poland | 78.7 | 97 Russia 69.1 ||
Mexico | 70.5 |99|Kazakhstan |59.1| Peru 67.9
Saudi Arabia | 62.8

Rank: 1 is most globalised, 183 is least globalised Downward transition: Countries that are moving
Score: O to 100, with 100 being fully globalised backwards economically
Global core: The main economic countries of the world Resource frontier: Countries that mainly supply raw
materials to other countries
Upward transition: Countries that are making
economic progress

‘The role of TNCs in globalisation

TNCs, historically based in the USA, Europe or Japan, are increasingly from emerging countries such as
‘India and China. They have contributed to the spread of globalisation through the following:
* Production networks: Extract raw materials in one country, refine materials in another, make
components in several countries and assemble them in others. Includes selling licences to other
companies or permitting local companies to make the products.
* New markets: Sell finished products to main markets in developed countries plus create new markets
in emerging economies using global branding and marketing (such as advertising) to meet local needs.
_* Glocalisation: Change products to suit local cultures and tastes, perhaps due to religion or different
regulations. Global brands remain the same but their identity is tailored to suit the local situation.
* Liberal policies: Use economic liberalisation of countries to locate outsourcing (another company
completing some of the work at a lower cost) and offshore operations (moving some operations to
another country
to lower costs).

Now (try this

1. Analyse the KOF Globalisation Index for the countries shown in the table.
|
_ 2. Explain how TNCs help to spread globalisation processes.

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mopic 3

Degree of globalisation
Physical, political, economic and environmental factors have reduced the spread of globalisation to some
places such as North Korea or the Sahel countries,

Why countries or regions have difficulty EPeINg to globalisation

Physical and environmental ; Political Economic
Long distance from economic Corrupt government or High level of government
core or markets discourages administration, or disruption by | debt reduces subsidies and
links such as FDI, especially with | crime (including terrorism). spending on transport
obstacles like mountains. and communications.
Wilderness areas create National government not Low education levels reduce
difficulties for survival or building |committed to ‘free market’ or worker skills and the ability to
and maintaining infrastructure. making links with other countries, |communicate with other countries.
Low agricultural potential due Civil or tribal conflicts within Poverty reduces the ability
to harsh climate or poor soils country create divisions and an of people and the country
creates difficult living, so survival | inward-looking government. to invest in transport
is a priority. and telecommunications.
Lack of resources for energy Inability to join trade blocs Dependence on one or few
or raw materials for businesses due to ethos differences, or resources or industries creates
and industries, so they disadvantaged by world disadvantages and exclusion.
jane develop.
cannot Sore AI BOD trade rules.
eH) VA
Case studies
The Highlands of Scotland are North Korea has Kazakhstan has large foreign
a long way from both the UK experienced a debts ($164 bn in 2016) and
core in South East England and dictatorship and has been unable to make
the Evropean core. mismanagement of resources economic links (KOF economic
Place |
Chad is a hot arid area Contexts and economy (KOF political globalisation = 43.0),
in the Sahel of Africa, It is globalisation score = 33.8; Bangladesh had the second
landlocked and survival is social globalisation lowest adult literacy rate
difficult, so external links have score = 18.2). in 2016 (72.8%) and the
low priority (KOF Index = 40.1; Afghanistan suffers from second lowest KOF economic
social globalisation terrorism and has little political globalisation score (20.9),
score = 28.4), ability or experience (KOF so has difficulty engaging with
Index = 38.7). external links.

‘<) “dinner! Human and physical features on maps

You need to be able to analyse maps showing the difficulties some countries have connecting to
globalisation because of human and physical obstacles. To remind yourselt how to do this, see page 266,

Explain two physical/environmental reasons why some countries or regions are not very globalised.
. Explain two political reasons why some countries or regions are not very globalised.
Explain two economic reasons why some countries or regions are not very globalised.

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Benefits and costs

The movement of economic cores — world regions with most business and industry — leads to changes in
urban and rural areas.

Global shift
Europe (since 1960) and the USA (since 2000) have been in relative economic decline, while the
Far East and India have grown since 1990. This is due to:
* the main locations for manufacturing industry shifting to areas with resources and cheap labour
* outsourcing of service jobs to English-speaking emerging economies
* services centralising in world cities.

Benefits and costs (problems) of global shift

dS Infrastructure investment: Money from Loss of productive farmland: Urban areas
exports enables governments of emerging have grown rapidly outwards onto farmland
economies to improve transport and due to rural-urban migration; this reduces the
communications, including upgrading seaports amount of food that can be produced (example:
and airports (example: Shanghai, China). Nairobi, Kenya).
& Waged work: Factories and offices offer formal & Shanty towns: Much of the outward growth
jobs with better pay, attracting people and of cities is unplanned informal housing built by
providing a workforce (example: Bangalore, India). poor people who have squatted on the land
Poverty reduction: The number of people and built their own shelters. There is no formal
earning less than the UN minimum target electricity, water supply or sewage system
(Sustainable Development Goal 1 = $1.90 a day) (example: Dharavi in Mumbai, India).
has halved since 1990 (example: Ethiopia). Degradation of natural environment: Controls
ey Education and training: Money from selling goods on pollutants from industries, power stations
or services enables governments of emerging and cities are often limited, leading to pollution
economies to invest in schools and higher and contamination. Deforestation is common
education, producing a population with skills to (example: Jakarta, Indonesia).
secure the global shift (example: Thailand). Pressure on resources: The concentration of
people in urban areas increases demand for living
space, clean water, fuel and food (example: Sao
Paulo, Brazil). Industries and offices also increase
the demand for raw materials and energy.

Or Global manufacturing 4@
shift
OF Outsourcing services
ney
Place
Contexts

In 2016 China had 12% of all world In 2016 India had a 3.4% share of world ©
merchandise trade (top position, amounting exports of commercial services, placing it in
to a value of $2.1 trillion) and an 16% share eighth position. India also had a 2.6% share
of world exports of manufactured goods of commercial service imports (tenth position).
(compared to the USA's 8.6%). 96% of all In 2016 it had a positive trade balance in
China’s exports are manufactured goods, commercial services of $28bn (compared
especially textiles and clothing and office to the UK’s $129bn). As an English-speaking
and telecom equipment. Shanghai is a main country it has 50% of the world’s outsourcing
industrial hub. (for example, Bangalore).

1. Which is the best benefit and worst cost of global shift? Explain your choices.
2. Suggest why countries like China and India wish to be involved in the global trade of manufactured goods
or services.

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Global shift: issues

Environmental problems in developing countries
| Global shift of | TNGs and FDI flew Resources in == = Weak government
manufaeburing inte developing Energy demands developing countries = regulation or
induatry te Yh eeunitries and help inerease, leading to __. |exploited, ineluding Lj enforcement
develaping growth af demestie fare power stations land, raw materials (corruption) in
eeunbries industries and pallution and water (frem = |developing countries
ground and rivers) of pollution and/or _
ior warkina y | | monitering systems |
jor Werke } : -
eonditians (law Better paid jobs ere! ‘eee
health and satety), ereated in urban areas Factories produce y
exploitatian of albraats many people air, water and land
werkfaree whieh fram Pural areas pollution, for example | | Degradation of
lowers well-being | dumping ef wastes — natural
y (ne system fer =—2 — environment and
Urban sprawl takes | Clearanee of natural collection and | |blesphere resourees)
place with grawth et areas tor living treatment) and services =
| sharby bewns whieh —B space around cities —
lack amenities and leads te loss of
SelViees biodiversity

M
Foor living eanditians ' Laek of clean water,
are ereated with risk lower food supplies, —
oat disease (2.4, | and lack of access
eeektail at jollutants, | te health eare .
dirt arid ne sanitation) leads te poor health

Social and environmental problems in developed countries

Deindustrialisation in developed | Inelustrial reatrueturing and regeneration
Clabal eeanamie eountries: manufacturing | take time, New tertiary and high-tech jobs’
ehange and shift industries elase as they ean _ require different skills to those of the
ne longer be competitive werkferee in the older industries

Empty faetery buildings, | , High unemployment — | Seeial and economic |

vaeant land and derelict at rate, with lange-seale | | deeline as there is
land, Unsightly image impaet en seme | ne money to support
ereates feeling of dee zz. settlements or | shops or services
_ Possible inerease in eommunities ) . (contributing
y erime, usually linked ta se peel aeenigmeneeresea ed to deprivation) |
illegal drugs )
Coantaminated land where | i
taetoriés were laeated due
te disposal af wastes ar
ehemieal vee _ Depepulation of ! _ Reduetion in tax
‘industrial settlements | revenue for eouneils,
| a8 people move te | _ se little money te
_ tind jebs and better | _ suppert communities
living eenditions / or tamilies .
% ) PTT you feed to be able to quantity the impacts of de-industrialisation using
aleills population, deprivation and land-use datasets,
oe PAS nenrere

Explain why environmental issues in developing countries have increased due to global shift.
.*

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Rural to urban migration and rapid urban growth leads to the growth of
megacities such as Karachi. This creates challenges, benefits and costs.

Rapid urban growth

Push out of rural areas — includes poverty in rural areas and lack of job opportunities, and lack of
services such as education and health care,
Pull into urban areas — includes the opportunity to obtain a formal, better paid job, and better
access to education and health care.
Natural increase — megacities have also grown 4 auickly y because rural to urban migrants
gq are most y
young adults who then have families.

Social challenges from Environmental challenges from

rapid growth rapid growth
Overcrowding — leads to lower quality of life, as &) Traffic flows increase transport infrastructure
there are not enough services or resources, cannot be expanded quickly enough to cope and
Poor housing — not enough proper housing is congestion leads to increased air pollution,
available, so people are left to build their own oe Lack of planning and requlation — industries
on whatever vacant land they can find. and businesses appear quickly, often without
Poverty — rural-urban migrants expect to find consideration of waste disposal so air, water
formal paid jobs, but this is often a false. and land pollution increase.
perception and many have to enter the informal fa Lack of waste disposal sewage and industrial
sector where incomes are extremely variable. wastes are dumped,

Orn Karachi — a megacity ec Use of proportional

= Contexts &
Rapid growth of central city from arrows
Volume of owe
9.3m (1998) to 15m (2017). (Population in thousands)

Himachal Pradesh ti | Seeahmie

6 |i]tae eee
ta 20) — uae
* 50% of the population live in slums (homes | ~
200 to 300
Mare than S00 sss
made of bamboo and industrial waste in Punjab Uttrakhand Assam
dry riverbeds). Harayana ———
“Deihi Chhattiegarh
* 75% work in the informal sector,
Uttar Pradesh
* Poverty means that the city government Gujarat
does not receive much tax money; it also Madhya Pradesh — ~ &
suffers from corruption — both reduce what
Mumbal, Maharashtra State ~~
can be done about problems: e.g., sewage Population growth:
1995 « 14 milllon
is directed to storm drainage channels “2O1M 20 million Goa \
~ 2035 « 2'7 millon
rather than being treated properly. . Internal migration from: Rarnatane
Urban areas outelde state 10%
Rural areas outolde state « 20%
Urban areas within state «© 39% Kera
Rural areas within state « 37%
Kanyakumari

ee ee ee ee

;
1. Suggest how globalisation has increased economic migration from rural to urban areas,
2. Describe the pattern of migration flows into Maharashtra and its biggest city, Mumbai,

719
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BS/A lev
Topic > |

International migration
Interdependence between global regions has increased due to international migration by elites and
low-wage economic migration. Migration has costs and benefits for host and source areas.

rit

Definitions 8) cae|Elite and low-wage Place }¥ Hi

Contexts
International migration — where people move migrations a ti

from one country to another, crossing an

International. economic migration has contrasts,
international boundary (legally or illegally).
with the very rich and the very poor moving.
Global hub city — an urban area with
° Elite migration: Wealthy Russians are attracted
lots of connections to other world
to the world city of London because it is
cores. Connections include transport,
a key financial centre providing investment
communications, industrial and financial.
opportunities and a world city lifestyle (inward
Often these cities have a wide range of
flow of £250bn between 2004 and 2013).
nationalities and ethnic groups.
| ° Low-wage migration: Filipino female workers
Economic migration — the movement of
move to the Middle East for low-wage jobs in
people for work, either to get a job or to get |
rich households (maids, cooks, cleaners and
a better-paid job. Usually voluntary.
nannies: Saudi Arabia 1.1m, UAE O.5m, Qatar
Diaspora — the spread of a people or culture 0.4m). They return $286 bn in remittances
from one country or region around the world. (9.6% of Philippines GDP).

Benefits and costs for host areas

Host areas Source areas Host areas Source areas ‘

. yy Larger workforce & Remittances flow & Migrants may need Loss of workforce
for basic jobs or from the diaspora supporting services, and investment
Q influx of money to located abroad, e.g. health and money.
8 help economy and and links made with education. Some
WwW boost bank income. foreign businesses. rich migrants may
be linked to crime.
dS Variety of cultures & May relieve Ethnic tensions; & Domestic service
S add diversity to population pressure migrants may migration may cause
8 the population. and make links outnumber national gender imbalance with
(()) with foreign population. a surplus of males
social networks. and fewer families.

= SS Promotes debate yy Land reform, Presence of & Migrants may pick

8 on national culture such as changing diaspora may lead up new cultural traits
2 and immigration. land ownership, to nationalistic and which may lead to
Pa becomes possible. anti-immigration unrest when diaspora
feelings. return home.
ny &S Immigrants are yy Relieves pressure Urban growth may Dereliction
D used to being of urban growth increase pollution, and decline as
E efficient in use into natural areas urban poverty and depopulation
9 of resources. by reducing urban sprawl. leads to poor
2 population growth. land management.
|
—

Now try this

Compare the issues created for source areas by low-wage emigrations and elite emigrations.

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Cultural globalisation
Globalisation has increased cultural diffusion and raised awareness of opportunities in emerging and
developing countries.

How does cultural diffusion occur?

Knowledge and experience of different cultures used to spread very slowly. Globalisation has increased
contact between cultures, through international migration, news and media contact, the internet, and
transnational corporations (TNCs) introducing ‘western’ brands and culture into different countries.

ORs Opportunities for

e ontexts iS
OF Changing diets in Asia Contexts

disadvantaged groups Globalisation is helping to shift Asian

Migrations to World organisations Use of ‘Western’ oe occalass seach eiyle eines sree
developed (e.g. UN, FIFA, democracy and Nhs on oh ah ag le A ce ie ey
countries, for job !OC) promote freedom as a people become wealthier they are more
opportunities or anti-discrimination model to compare connected to ‘Western’ lifestyles,
to escape and equality against helped by global supermarket chains and
persecution eel authoritarian fast-food restaurants.
asylum 0) ortunities egi
yen) fae th aelelaney °¢ Positives include a more varied diet and
F OF tte less time preparing food, which allows more
disadvantaged | women to enter the workforce.
Adoption of a ‘free Access to information — * Negatives include an expansionof farming, which
market’ economy and knowledge from causes a loss of natural environment. Often the
creates more formal paid around the world
attitude towards the physical environment is
jobs and access to FDI
that it provides resources for people.
Paralympic movement: the first competitions
were held in Rome in 1960, and since Seoul in
1968 the Summer Paralympic Games have been me: P
held after the Olympics using the same venues.
In Rio de Janeiro 2016 there were Paralympic
The role of TNCs
teams from 159 countries.
Americanisation Brands are Culture based
of cultures introduced into on TNC home
through TV, film, many countries, country beliefs;
fast food, perhaps with if American or
SEGeographical
Rxpatvcing TNC clothing, some cultural European this is
y V skills brand value dataset a modification to likely to involve
product Christian morals

ae os | oe and traditions

gece |
24.5
155.5
|| Spreading culture |

gece | 100.8
Global uniformity of TNCs employ people in
product or service many different countries,
creates similar consumer introducing a work ethos
demand in different and methods of the
types of country home country
| Toyota Japan 53.4
| Mercedes-Benz Germany 48.6

McDonald’s USA 43.4 Now try this

emer eos s3.0

IBM USA 43.0 1. Explain the role of TNCs in global
cultural diffusion.
2. Outline the extent to which USA brands
dominated the top 12 brands in 2018.

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Cultural impacts
Some places experience cultural erosion and negative changes, leading to opposition to globalisation.

Cultural erosion * The globalisation process may result in

an undervaluing of traditional local built
Globalisation processes expose people around the environments and lead to decay and replacing of
world to other cultures. important cultural symbols. UNESCO works to
* ‘In most countries, people are free to choose prevent this by designating places and buildings
their lifestyle, and there is evidence to suggest on their World Heritage List.
that people are selecting aspects of other . The traditional balance between people and
cultures to fit with their traditional culture. nature may be harmed, Globalisation may
¢ In turn, some aspects of traditional culture are change attitudes as economic motives and
rejected, for example: English words within the local rural-urban migration take place, eroding
language, ‘white’ weddings, Western-style fast- traditional cultural values.
food, wearing branded trainers and
; T-shirts, and * Degradation of ecosystems may occur; as cities
modern architecture among traditional buildings. expand, trees are felled for fuel, resources are
exploited and industries pollute surroundings.

OFA Papua New Guinea (PNG) Place

Contexts

° The 2018 KOF Globalisation Index placed PNG 116th out of 165 countries, a relatively high ©
position for an isolated country, due to its economic globalisation (rank G&th).
° After independence in 1975, PNG retained strong economic links with Australia; this continued
the strong external cultural influences that started during 19th-century British colonisation.
° The diversity of tribal culture has reduced; education of the young and intermarriage between
different groups has created a divide between those following the traditional ways of life and
those influenced by ‘Westernised’ culture.
* TNCs, such as Rio Tinto, have extracted resources in PNG, with employment of local people
increasing conflicts between local tribal groups.

A&A |
Synoptic Theme:

Attitudes towards globalisation

Pro-globalisation Anti-globalisation
SS Free markets and free trade provide wealth Poverty is created by those excluded from
via job creation, reducing inequalities. globalisation, while the rich get richer.
dS Given time, all countries will benefit greatly & Inequalities are created when capital is
from globalisation in many ways, especially put before people, men before women, or
improving quality of life for all. one ethnic group above another.
& Promotes democracy and freedom. & Rules are rigged in favour of ruling elites.

Ss Increased wealth provides funding for &) Rapid urbanisation may happen before
protecting the natural environment. countries are able to cope. |
Ss External and local technologies can be & Economic change creates environmental
learned and exchanged (e.g. waste recycling). risks (€.g. overuse of pesticides). |

ow try th is
1. Explain how globalisation may cause cultural erosion.
2. Explain how globalisation may cause damage to the natural environment.

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Measuring development
There are various ways of measuring development; these may focus on economic, social and/or
environmental factors. Many people prefer to consider quality of life or sustainability.

Social measures Economic measures

* HDI (Human Development Index) — United * GDP (Gross Domestic Product) per capita —
Nations composite measure: It includes World Bank measure: Divides the wealth
economic (GNI) and social factors (life created within a country by the population size.
expectancy and years of schooling). The UNDP * GNI (Gross National Income) per capita — one of
also report on other aspects of development. the World Bank’s World Development Indicators:
° Gil (Gender Inequality Index) — United Nations Takes the wealth created by a country and its
composite measure: Examines the disparity expenditures and divides this by the population
between men and women by considering size of the country. The amount is often modified
maternal mortality rates, females in education, by purchasing power parity (PPP), which reflects
and parliament, and participation in the different costs of living between countries.
the workforce. * Economic sector balance — As a country develops
‘ there will be an increase in secondary industries
Environmental measures and then tertiary industry.
* Global Urban Ambient Air Pollution — World Health
Organization (WHO) measure: Compares pollution MDGs and SDGs
levels in 3000 cities with health limits, recognising
links between air pollution and health risks. Development is also shown by the progress
emerging and developing countries made
° Ecological Footprint — Global Footprint Network
towards meeting the UN’s Millennium
measure: Compares annual use of biosphere
Development Goals (MDGs) (by 2015) and
resources and services with reserves to calculate
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (by
the amount of ecological deficit (or surplus).
2030). For example, Papua New Guinea only
made small progress with MDGs — forest loss
ie hz e (Goal 7) improved by 9% and women’s share of
bein a ads Data sets and sila paid ae (Goal 3) by 15%. In 2015 the
development trends | | UN created an SDG Index but PNG had no data.
: === South Africa mmm India |
sot wee Haiti === Burundi
0.8} - |
: 0.74 Eales

00.5 =
0 0.4. 2 |
a
0.3 S
0.2
oe |
Oo = . T 7

iIvOmmIooOD) 12000) “2005 ; 2010) 2015

The HDI has a scale of O to 1, with countries

closer to 1 being more developed.

(a) Draw a best-fit line on the graph above to show the trend of Burundi HDI.
(b) Compare the development trends of the selected countries shown on the graph above.
| ‘ i ‘ \ »
P , de Y> - - » \ \ - . L L

| A Bd maar A ~ 83
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Ineguality and trends

Globalisation has created winners and losers, as shown by widening gaps in development measures and
contrasting development trends.

The 1960s global recession slowed

economic growth in developed
In the early stage of globalisation countries the most, allowing New transport and communication
developed countries increased developing countries to catch up by —_technologies from the 1990s
their economic wealth due to establishing their own industries and _ boosted opportunities for
their more advanced industries participating in world trade (for emerging countries and their
and skilled workforces. By 1970 xample, South Korea and China). people (e.g. a large cheap
there was a very large income per workforce
and migration).
person gap between developed The economic trend in many
countries and developing developed countries became
countries. stagnation, even before the
2008 global recession.

Scientific advances revealed World agreements and protocols

major problems such as oil spills, (for example, Helsinki Rules,
ozone layer holes, deforestation Kyoto Protocol) have been led by
and global warming. Developed the UN, but TNC operations and
countries then pushed for pressures of population growth
international action. However, at and economic development in
the same time, poorer countries emerging/developing countries
started developing their From the industrial revolutions until make global environmental
economic and resource bases, the 1980s, developed countries management very difficult.
and this led to a lack of thought little of managing the
environmental management. environment, except for protecting
special areas as national parks.

Income inequality | Widening inequalities

wa ° The income share within Ww Some societies emphasise equal
countries is not evenly distributed: even in an | opportunities for people to improve
agrarian (farming) society there are those that — themselves (for example, North America).
have more than others. . CG This tends to produce larger gaps in
* As emerging countries become interconnected, wealth than in those societies that
at first the wealth gap appears to increase: in believe that outcomes should lead to
India the number of billionaires has increased but equality (for example, Europe).
there are still millions living in extreme poverty. Cf However, since about 1980 globalisation
° This can be graphically represented by a appears to have increased inequalities in
Lorenz curve and statistically by the Gini many developed and emerging countries,
coefficient (the closer to 1, the greater the such as India, China and Germany.
inequality of income distribution). See page We Parts of Latin America are an exception, with |
267 for more on Lorenz curves and the Brazil, for example, decreasing inequality.
Gini coefficient. f
——— -—-- - !

— at a ht i a a Oe er ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eet ee ee ee lee eee le ee ee |

Describe how income distribution changes with the transition of a country from developing to emerging and
to developed.

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Mixed cultures and tensions

-Feople moving with economic flows have created culturally mixed societies. Some of these are thriving
migrant diasporas, but others suffer from tensions.

Open borders Deregulation and FDI

Some countries welcome immigration because Some governments loosen regulations regarding
they need an unskilled or skilled workforce, financial or mercantile flows in order to attract
and movement has been made easier by foreign investment or trade, and become a world
globalisation (especially information and hub for these. This attracts some migrants such as
transport improvements). wealthy elites or TNC managers to world cities like
For example, the UK has received waves of London, which has a thriving migrant diaspora.
migrants from different world regions, first from For example, in 2011 London had 55% of its
the Caribbean in the 1950s, then South Asia in population classified as not ‘white British’, with
the 1960s, African and East Asian refugees in the 2.7m born outside the UK. The city has a wide
1970s, and Eastern Evrope in the 2000s. range of cultural events and boroughs dominated
In 2011, 13% of UK residents were born outside by different cultural groups. Immigrants do all types
the country (mostly from India, Poland and Pakistan). of jobs and this helps large cities like London to
function effectively.
Tensions
* Immigration causes pressures on services and
cultural integration (for example, language and
religious barriers).
° There may be a feeling that a government has
lost control of global movements and is unable to
protect citizens from rapid change.
* Feople become worried about the survival of the
national culture and concerned about their jobs
and use of their taxes.
* These feelings are strongest among the ‘lower
middle-class’ and manual workers’ groups.

'S) Transboundary water Place

Contexts
\@
.

conflicts: Nile Basin 9) cae|Extremism in Europe Place |

Contexts |
As well as tensions within countries, there may be In the 2010s a significant number of people @
transboundary tensions over both the movement in several countries voiced concerns about
of migrants and the movement of resources large-scale immigration, leading to the rise of
(a result of globalisation). One essential resource political parties with the same viewpoint.
is water, and environmental tensions arise when
° In Hungary this resulted in new laws
this is obtained from rivers flowing through
to criminalise actions that help illegal
several countries.
immigrants, because the country received
The river Nile flows through 10 countries with many immigrants from the Middle East.
360 million people depending on it. A1959
¢ Southern and Eastern European countries
agreement, which favours Egypt, is now out of
are concerned about the influx of migrants
date, but negotiating a new-agreement is difficult,
from Africa, leading to an anti-immigration
as demand from all countries is now much higher —
government in Italy, and attempts to close
for water to drink and agriculture, but also for HEP
its borders to immigrants.
(dams reduce flow downstream).
PT Ea a mvinionanel ° In Germany the ruling political party was greatly
weakened by its pro-immigration stance.

1. Explain one process that has enabled large-scale immigration.

2. Explain why tensions arise in a host country from large-scale immigration.

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Topic 3

Controls on globalisation
Censorship
One aspect of globalisation is the flow of information and availability of ‘big data’. Sometimes this
information is ‘fake’, and sometimes the information contrasts the ideologies of a country, therefore a
few governments have sought to control it.

Limiting immigration
Immigration can be beneficial, but a multicultural society can also lead to tensions and dilution of the
national culture, so some countries decide to limit the number of immigrants.

Or
e
Censorship in China ontexts
Os
e
Immigration controls ontexts 3

° Despite opening up to economic in Japan

globalisation, China is still a communist
° Japan has had strict controls on immigration for
state with a strong ideology. It is therefore
some time, and businesses have restrictions on
concerned about its population having
employing foreign workers. It is even difficult
access to foreign information and allowing
for skilled immigrants to gain citizenship and t

‘free speech’.
rules for foreign entrepreneurs are complex.
* The government has got the agreement
° Due to an ageing population and an unusually
of internet providers to block types
low birth rate, there have been quiet, informal
of information, especially criticism of f

changes as immigration is necessary to

imprisoning journalists and protestors.
maintain economic and service standards. L
* Chinese citizens will also have their online
* In 2016 there were 2.3m foreigners in Japan,
activity monitored and be given a citizenship
1.6% of the population — it has been estimated
rating based on it. This is designed to
that this needs to be 10%. Yet most Japanese
dissuade protests, as getting jobs is likely
are still opposed to allowing immigration.
to depend on the rating.

Trade protectionism Synoptic Theme: P

One aspect of globalisation is free trade, but
sometimes this leads to a lot of competition for Players and attitudes
industries within a country, resulting in fewer ; ive Recast
sales, closure and unemployment. National governments are important players in:

A government may decide to protect some or all ¢ determining the legal position ofseeds
of its industries by imposing tariffs on imported news and information
goods that are in direct competition with national * restricting numbers and sources
industries. This is often against WTO rules and of immigrants
usually provokes retaliatory tariffs on some of the ° establishing tariffs to protect home |
country’s exports. industries from foreign imports. 4
In 2018 the USA introduced tariffs on imported
goods to protect its most at-risk industries,
such as solar panels, washing machines, steel
Contrasting attitudes may be found on these _ <
and aluminium. These tariffs especially applied to
policies both within and outside a country and _
Chinese goods and to Mexico, Canada and the EU —
iN ; : : : may involve political parties (for example, Front
the USAs main trading partners. Retaliatory tariffs National in France) or international pressure
by China and Mexico on USA exports of farm crops sane (for example, Amnest International). a.
may bankrupt some American farmers. a c eee . ia

Identify two advantages and two disadvantages of trade protectionism.

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Attitudes to globalisation
Some groups embrace global economic change, while others seek to protect their culture and resources.

Protecting cultural identity

One of the best ways of protecting
indigenous culture is to form groups,
perhaps political assemblies, which can
negotiate and apply pressure on national
governments to slow or reduce change.
National governments pass and enforce
laws to protect and preserve cultural
rights. International organisations such
as UNESCO educate people across the
world and achieve consensus on protec-
tion and preservation of culture. Global
media and celebrities may be used to
support a cause. Tribal cultures must be
involved in the creation of laws and
education to ensure that these are Protecting physical resources
sensitive to their true culture. Tribal councils can strongly represent views about the local resources that
are important to their subsistence economy and culture, through campaigns
(such as First Nations’ ‘Idle No More’); form global alliances with pressure
groups (such as Greenpeace); use legal processes such as seeking compensa-
Protecting culture and tion through lawsuits with the help of international environmental groups or
resources or embracing organisations (such as International Water Tribunal); get buffer zones around
economic opportunities commercial operations, or get national parks and reserves established;

Embracing economic change

If commercial resources are located within tribal areas (such as Yonggom in Papua New Guinea) then tribal authorities can
try to get a share of the wealth; this income can be used to improve services for the indigenous peoples, especially
education and health care. They can also negotiate contracts with commercial companies to get work linked to the
extraction of resources for some of their people, providing wages to support families and improve quality of life. Jobs
may also be available in local businesses and construction projects in urban areas.

OFA First Nations, Canada

The indigenous peoples in Canada, a developed country, are organised into 634 governments.
Each of these is represented in the Assembly of First Nations, with direct links to the Canadian federal
government. There are 1.64m First Nations people in Canada; 5.6% of its total population. There are
also many physical resources in Canada, most notably boreal forests and oil sands, and much of these
are located in or near First Nations territories. The First Nations have self-government and so are able
to directly pressure and negotiate with the federal government and the companies wishing to exploit
resources in order to protect their culture and physical resources.
nen a me peET

1. Explain how indigenous groups can protect their culture and physical resources.
2. Explain why some indigenous groups may wish to embrace economic change brought by globalisation.

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Topic 3

Localism
Local sourcing to increase sustainability has economic, social and environmental costs and benefits.

Localism Pressures and concerns

Localism is a response to globalisation with the * More global consumers (especially in
aim of increasing local sustainability. emerging countries)
* Increasing consumption (for example, meat)
Local production * Cheaper foods and goods transported long
distances as part of trade
ve a * Concern about global eco-footprint
Local, control here Gere * Environmental issues in producing areas (for
example, deforestation, use of plastics,
transport emissions, overuse of water)

Benefits and costs of the localism process

ey Saves energy use (especially transport). Emissions from long-distance transport
are often offset by more efficient
Ss Reduces size of eco-footprint.
production methods.
& Encourages eco-friendly farming and other Local products may be of lower quality than
production methods. available elsewhere.
& Provides alternatives for local people. & Limited choice for local consumers.

® Improves social and cultural interchange Shortages of products at certain times due to
and cooperation. local production cycles (physical and human).
Q Supports local suppliers and businesses. Local market may be unreliable so local
3.) Keeps money within local area businesses are not sustained.
(multiplier effect). & Prices of local products may be higher.
ey Self-sufficiency at local, regional and national Limited interaction with non-local markets
scales is achievable. reduces opportunities outside the area.

Dee
Case
Transition
v4.8
towns |
These are settlements or communities Actions of pressure groups
that try to soften the impact of negative global
* Actions of local groups are important to the |{
feedback such as oil running out, climate change
spread and success of localism.
and economic recession. They do this by:
* Localism and transition towns only work if
* creating local groups that take actions to
achieve) a’ sustaldable Iveatvle the majority of people are directly involved.
So promoting these and canvassing people |
* reducing dependence on fossil fuels to get involved is essential to create
* promoting local foods, using local ways of enough long-term support for them to work. —
paying for goods and services | © These pressure groups also help to face up
* using wastes, working with nature. to external influences that may upset the |
Examples in the UK include Worthing, Liverpool, sustainable ideals, and negotiate with local _
Durham City and Blackdown Hills. and national governments.

amr ami mr Emr mmr mmm mim rama mma eal ee Otel ee lee lh

Now try this

Explain the economic, social and environmental costs and benefits of local sourcing.

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Fair and ethical processes

Fair trade and ethical consumption may reduce inequalities and environmental degradation and improve
working conditions.

Fair trade Ethical consumption

A small but important global network has grown Consumers can choose products and services that
based on fair trade: meet high ethical and environmental standards at
ey) Certification shows products have been the point of production, such as:
produced by small-scale farms or businesses & safe working conditions
so as to meet high social, economic and
environmental standards. & zero or limited pollution
dS Producers receive a minimum fair price by & sustainable farming
operating as cooperatives and selling directly
SS sustainable use of resources
to the processing point or retailer.
ey) Workers’ rights are protected and no slave or ey sustainable forestry
child labour is used. & animal welfare.
dS A Fairtrade Premium is invested in local Alternatively, consumers can avoid (boycott)
communities, improving health care and products and services known to damage the
education and looking after the natural environment or reduce quality of life.
environment (for example, keeping a forest NGOs investigate and provide information to
structure within plantations). consumers. Businesses are now aware that
For example, in the UK in 2016, £1.6bn of fair consumers in developed countries especially have
trade food and drink products were sold, with a become more selective on the basis of ethical
growth in value of 47% between 2010 and 2016 principles. For example:
(though total sales value is slowing as prices are e In the UK, sales of ethical goods and services
lowered to attract consumers). totalled £61.3bn in 2016, with annual growth
over 3%.
eG Synopti * In 2016, £2.4bn was spent on Rainforest
Alliance certified food and drink products — the
fastest growing food and drink category.
NGOs and pressure groups
Perhaps the most important method used by Average ethical spend by UK
these groups is the certification of products,
which offers a guarantee to consumers that household (2016)
certain ethical and environmental standards
have been met. These groups monitor the
_ situations at production points, and include:
* the Fairtrade Foundation
_* the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC
Certified Sustainable Seafood)
* the Rainforest Alliance Certified
* Human Rights Watch (personal interviews
about labour rights). :
| * the Royal Society for the Prevention of @ Ethical food and drink 31.5% Local and charity purchases 7.6%
| vee Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA Assured). @ Eco-transport 26.9% ® Ethical personal products 7.6%

™® Green home 23.8% ™ Renewable energy 2.4%

ee ee ee ee ee eee eee eee

1. Explain how fair trade reduces environmental degradation and inequalities in world trade.
2. Explain the importance of ethical consumption schemes to reducing environmental degradation and
improving working conditions.

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Role of recycling
Recycling can help control resource consumption but needs better management.

Benefits

& Reduces amount of waste going into landfill. Zero waste is unachievable, as some wastes
This is important because the number of cannot be recycled or not easily. Recycling has
sites available are few. Landfill tax in the concentrated on dry wastes such as paper,
UK encourages recycling and is reducing glass, metals and a few plastics.
dumped waste. Some recycling technologies are currently more
&S Provides raw materials for production and expensive than extracting and using original raw
consumption, reducing the need for materials. Developing ceuntries cannot afford
new materials. these technologies.
dS Makes the Earth’s resources last longer, Need to expand recycling principles to the full
especially finite resources such as metals. range of resources, such as water.
& Reduces industrial energy use, as some Urbanisation and higher incomes have increased
recycled materials use less energy in the amount of waste created, so a change in
processing than original raw materials. people’s behaviour is needed.
Ss Reduces greenhouse gas emissions due to Lifespan of electronic goods and recycling of
lower energy use; reduces deforestation their components needs to be improved.
(nearly 39% of dry recycling is paper or card). Large variation in willingness and ability
ey Creates new industries, which can help to recycle between countries, so difficult
replace those lost due to deindustrialisation to get global agreement or develop
(a result of global competition). recycling technology.
& Creates a new range of jobs linked to Great variation in ability to recycle between
recycling, from low-wage to high-tech. regions or areas within a country; advice and
collection services are inconsistent.

eme: F&U |
eG Synoptic Th
OF UK local authorities
In 2016 the household recycling rate in Environmental consequences
England was 44.9%, with an EU target of 50%
Recycling can help improve the future for the
by 2020. Around 10.2m tonnes of waste were
environment and people.
recycled and the amount sent to landfill is
decreasing annually.
However, there is considerable variation in
recycling rates between local authorities (LAs):
e Eastern was best (49.4%).
¢ South West, North West, East Midlands and
South East were above the national average. recycled
total
of
%
waste
¢ North East, West Midlands and Yorkshire
and Humberside were below the
national average.
* The worst LA was London (33%).

Finite resources, such as metals, will run out

unless they are effectively recycled. Recycling can
Explain how recycling can improve the also reduce the damage to the environment by
extraction methods.
management of resource consumption.
5 EE

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Exam skills 1
The AS exam-style questions and worked examples below will help you to prepare for Topic 3
Globalisation in Paper 2 Section A. Look back at pages 72 to 90 to remind yourself of the content.

, ‘Define’ questions |
1. Define what is meant by the term During your studies make sure that you learn
f ‘global shift’. (1 mark) definitions of key terms, as this will help you
' The change in world location of the main to prepare for this type of question.
_ manufacturing production and economic It will also enable you to use these terms
activity, for example the current move towards in relevant ways in longer answers.
_ East Asia.

_ 2. Suggest one benefit for host areas of & v

ie | low-wage migrations. (3 marks)
An influx of people able and willing to do low-paid ;
work benefits host areas because local people
are often unwilling to do these jobs, but they
still need to be done. So filling the ‘job gap’
is important so that the rest of the economy
and
ee
Cee
society can function properly.

4 ‘Suggest’ questions
3. Explain the role of TNCs in the diffusion of
- slobateulture. (6 marks) “Suggest questions expect you to
identify a reason and then make two |
_ TNCs are one mechanism by which cultural mT development points to get 3 marks.
_ diffusion has taken place. Media TNCs,
_ especially internet-based, have enabled
people with electronic devices or access to
TV to see different cultures or a portrayal
of them. The American and ‘western’
rq cultures have a strong appeal as they
| suggest opportunities, freedom and wealth.
_ Manufacturing TNCs spread these cultures
| 3 through their brands, which are seen as a
sign of prosperity, and through providing a
4 product or service that symbolises wealth or
_ freedom to choose. The factories in which
hj people are employed are often organised in
line with ‘western’ principles. Sponsorship by
TNCs of global events, such as the Olympic
movement, is also important in promoting
|a
agree
ae
disadvantaged groups (for example,
with disability). J
‘Explain questions
-

Cmte te etna tee Six-mark ‘explain’ questions test your

a ability to recall and apply knowledge and
understanding, and demonstrate this
' a through a broad range of geographical
ideas that are presented in a detailed
way and fully developed.
aie

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Exam skills 2
The exam-style question and worked example below will help you to prepare for Topic 3 Globalisation in
Paper 2 Section A. Look back at pages 72 to 90 to remind yourself of the content.

i
Worked examp Le Read questions carefully!
Read questions carefully and circle and/or
"4. Assess the effectiveness of trade & underline the key words or short phrases.
(12 marks)
PCr Chorin): This will help you to stay closely focused
Trade protectionism aims to help national on the question. Twelve-mark questions are
businesses when they are faced with fierce best completed after devising a brief plan.
competition from abroad. Protectionists argue
that restricting imports protects the home
economy, keeps people in jobs, increases the
standard of living and protects the national
culture. The tools used include tariffs on
imported goods to make them more expensive,
so encouraging people to buy locally or
nationally produced goods.
For many decades the USA has tried
to protect its car industry from foreign
competition by placing tariffs on imported
cars, such as from Japan or Europe.
The hope was that Americans would buy
home produced cars, however, the higher
quality cars from Japan and Europe, along
with consumer demand for smaller more
economical cars, helped to ensure that
this policy was not entirely successful
with large impacts on Detroit in particular
which suffered from deindustrialisation (for
example, derelict land, high unemployment).
The European Union uses tariffs on imported
foods to protect EU farmers; this has helped
to maintain the economic viability of marginal
farming, such as in the hills and mountains in
Europe, which also keeps rural communities
viable and keeps people in rural areas to
manage them. However, food prices may be
higher for consumers than they would have
been with free competition, and consumer
tastes may still prefer certain imports...

‘Assess questions
Structure your answers to ‘assess’
questions into short paragraphs following
a plan. Use small amounts of accurate
locational detail. Make sure you use factual
information and examples to support your
points. Be clear about the logic behind
your answer and make sure that in your
conclusion you make a clear judgement.
Tn,

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Exam practice I
The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 2 Section A of your exam.
Suggested answers are on page 299. You need to answer all questions in Section A.

1. Which of the following is the correct definition Multiple-choice questions

of ‘outsourcing’? (1 mark)
MCQs are rare at AS level, but might be |
A An intergovernmental agreement in which used as a version of a 1-mark question
trade barriers are reduced. for definitions, simple calculations, or the
identification of a fact or point from a
B A company moves part of its manufacturing photograph, map or graph.
or service operations to another country to
gain benefits.

C A business makes a contract with another

company to complete part of the work on a
product or service.

D A way of adapting goods and services to

increase sales in local markets.

2. Suggest one development in communications

that has contributed to globalisation. (3 marks)

3. Explain two environmental challenges found

in megacities. (4 marks) £¢@a )

4. Explain how globalisation has provided new

opportunities for disadvantaged groups &
of people. (6 marks)

5. Assess the impacts of economic globalisation on

environmental tensions. (12 marks) & v

‘Assess questions
In ‘assess’ questions you may need to
consider other factors not specified in the
wording of the question; for example, the
geo-political tensions in the Arctic Ocean.
Make your judgements very clear and
support them with evidence — for instance, |
in this question consider how severe
the impacts are. Plan your answer into
short paragraphs. |
Ii IS ER ER TET Py,

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Exam practice 2 a
The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 2 Section A of your exam.
Suggested answers are on page 299. You need to answer all questions in Section A.

1. Study Figure 1.Explain one reason for the AL) Statistics

globalisation differences between the two
groups of countries. (4 marks) Any question requiring a statistical
calculation will provide the formula if
needed. So you do not need to remember
any formulas — just how to use them.
Upward transition || Downward transition
Make sure that-you can do basic arithmetic.
country
Georgia
Armenia To answer this question, first establish
what the differences are by using the
rank positions and the scores, perhaps
Mexico |70.5 ||99 by even calculating means. You will not be
Figure 1: A table showing KOF Globalisation Index expected to recall all possible reasons for
rank positions and scores for selected countries ditferences; instead aim to develop two
(2015 data) main reasons.
EEE

2. Explain two costs of using recycling to manage You need to identify two separate costs and
resource consumption. (4 marks) Mim. explain each one. Remember that ‘costs,
" as used here and in other geographical
questions, means more than monetary
3. Assess the view that globalisation has led to costs — it refers to problems and issues.
increased inequality in the world. (12 marks) dilniienihenanaineeeninaiaiatsnheesnininsamiiliaid
alsSee)

Ty ‘Assess questions usually link at least two

ideas from the specification; try to identify
4. Assess the view that traditional indigenous G these before you start writing an answer
cultures and WANs of life are threatened by You must always include specific examples as
global economic change. (12 marks) evidence, even if you think that a question just
requires a generalised answer

Be careful with your timing — it can be

tempting to spend too long on 12-mark
questions. Spend a maximum of 15 minutes
on this type of question — be concise and to
When answering ‘assess’ questions you none the point. If the lined space runs out then you
must identify the two sides of the central should have finished. Remember that there are
argument. Here you need to consider the 20-mark questions still to do in other topics.
benefits as well as the threats. Select a a oe rein
see

few examples to support your answer — ee

don’t use too many and don’t be too
superticial with the few that you do use
(i.e. don’t just name an indigenous culture).
Plan which key points you are going to | {
make and explore them in as much detail
as possible.
ST
Loser
RT

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Classifying economic
activity
There are different ways of classifying economic activity: by sector and by type of employment.

Economic sectors
Economic activity can be classified by sector:

Manufacturing and Service sector: High-tech Knowledge

resources: mining, | processing: iron and tourism, banking, | research and management,
| farming, forestry steel, car manufacture education design consultancy, CEOs

Types of employment
A second way of classifying economic activity is by
type of employment.
° Permanent contracts have no fixed date for
when employment will end. A permanent contract
will usually include employees’ benefits such as
pensions, company cars and health insurance.
Temporary contracts will set a date for the end
of the employment. Benefit packages are not
usually included, though sometimes money is paid
in lieu (instead of) some benefits.
Full-time employment: usually permanent
contracts where people are working 35 hours or
more a week. —
Part-time employment: usually permanent
contracts but with a set number of hours per
week that is fewer than full-time. Part-time jobs
usually have the same benefits as full-time
- employees, but on a pro rata (proportional) basis.
Employed status means someone is an employee
of a company: paid a salary and benefits such
_as paid sick leave, holiday entitlement, pension
provision, etc.
Self-employed means someone works for
themselves. They often earn money providing
servicesto other companies. They are paid a fee
for the work they do, nota salary, and do not
have the same rights and benefits as employees.

4 It is estimated that 5 million people in the UK work in the gig economy.

(a) What are the advantages and disadvantages of the gig economy?
(b) What impacts could the gig economy have for places?
SS eS 5 wae —“ A “‘

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Ws) pie

Economic inequalities
There are differences in economic activity across the UK, and this economic inequality is reflected in
social Inequalities, for example in health, lite expectancy and levels of education,

Differences in economic activity

* ¥ Hampstead
People in some places in the UK are paid more ard Kilburn
£35 000
than others, Reasons for this include:
‘estminster,
* Different employment sectors: for example, North
£39745
London has the UK's largest concentration of
Twickenha
finanelal services jobs (tertiary sector), while
the south-west has a higher proportion of Richmond Park Wimbledon
Blackpool South £35 689 £36185
lower pald primary sector jobs, £15401
Kingston upon
* Differences in cost of living! for example, Blackburn Auil 4
£15 735 £15 554
prices for housing and food are more Blackley are Sheffield,
expensive in London than elsewhere in the Breau a
£15
country, 66 jobs there have a ‘London Dwytor Marionniua
weighting’ = more money, £14743
Median earning
* Differences in employment opportunities: by constituency,
all employees, 2011
some parts of the UK have high rates of WM Over £35k
unemployment, For example, Hartlepool WH £30k to £35k
MM £25k to £30k
(a former shipbuilding ane steel town) had MM £20k to F25k
WM £17k to £20k
30% unemployment in 2014, Under £17k
Data unavailable

Social impacts
Explaining social impacts
There is a strong correlation between areas
with low pay ane areas with low quality of life,
Although inequalities in pay levels are reflected in
quality of life indices, there is not a simple causal
* Health inequality: Males and females living relationship between them. For example:
in the most deprived areas spend nearly a third
of their lives in poor health, compared with * The UK's National Health Service means
high-quality health care is freely available to all,
a sixth in the least deprived areas,
and not dependent on income, Health inequalities
* Life expeetaney: Males living in the most are caused by lifestyle choices, for example fast
deprived tenth of areas can expect to live nine food, smoking and high alcohol consumption,
fewer years compared with the least deprived
* London has achieved high educational levels in’
tenth; seven fewer years for females,
areas with deprivation measures as high as or
* Levele of edveation: Family income is an higher than areas with low educational levels.
important factor in edueational success,
Working-elass white children living in poverty have
lower edueational attainment and are most likely Es
Geogr aphie al
sleills
to eontinue to Underachieve in education,

|, Explain why differences in the economic sector might be reflected in quality of life indices.
2, Suppest why differences in employment type might be reflected in quality of life indices.
 Had a look | | Nearly there nh Nailed it! yer “S/H leve]

Changing places
Places have changed their function and characteristics over time. Different factors can explain
this change.

Function change Demographic change

The function of a place is what the place does for UK places have seen three main demographic changes:
its community and its surroundings. Over time,
Age structure: Rural areas in the UK are
places that started off providing a single function
increasingly elderly, while urban areas often
have become multifunctional:
have an increasingly youthful population.
° Administrative functions: for example,
organisation of services like waste disposal, Ethnic composition: Migrants arriving from
collection of local taxes. the Caribbean, West Africa and India after the
* Commercial and retail functions: for example, Second World War often clustered together
a place that is the main shopping destination for in major cities.

a region. Gentrification (the process of ‘improving’

* Industrial functions: some places are still strongly an area to make it more acceptable to a
identified with particular industries, but many are wealthier social group) attracts higher-income
now ‘post-industrial’: a major function change. people into formerly poorer urban areas.

Reasons for change

Five major factors have shaped how places have changed in the UK.
The role of local and national ‘ Historical development,
planning, for example: Physical factors, for for example:
* National government policies eenrle: ; * The primary, historic functions of
to increase housing, improve ; Coastal 2 cpio places are often no longer
accessibility and *_Increasing flood risk important, e.g. port cities can
connectedness, e.g. HS2 Reece ae cuourrelimate lose their primary function when
National government polices to change trade routes change
conserve culturally or * Changes in residents’ needs and
environmentally important priorities, e.g. increasing emand
places >aa for detached houses
* Local planning grants or Reasons for changes Repurposing of historic buildings,
refuses permission for changes ina place e.g. warehouses into apartments
to places

Accessibility and connectedness, Globalisation

for example: * Deindustrialisation in the UK, as
* Developing motorway and railway manufacturing companies have
networks. moved production to cheaper
° Increased migration places
* Access to fibre-optic broadband * Migration into the UK, e.g. from
the European Union
* Changes to retail, e.g. Amazon

eS eae \ | De
ay)coomict P accounts
oral M
Now try thisi
ple to interpret 1. Describe how location could affect how places change
5 of the values and lived over time.
of places from different | 2. Why might changes in retail lead to changes in
> communities. place function?

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Measuring change
Data sources for measuring change
Employment trends, * ONS: Labour Force Survey ° House prices (property websites
e.g. unemployment data * Gross Disposable Household and Land Registry)
Income (GDHI) estimates
Demographic changes, ° Census (ONS 2011 Census data) ° Local Government Association
e.g. changes in * ONS: neighbourhood statistics
age structure
Land-use changes * Ordnance Survey maps * Google Maps
° Goad maps ° Photographs of change over time
Levels of deprivation | ° IMD (Index of Multiple Deprivation) * School performance (Department
* CDRC Maps of Education)

* Crime data (police.uk) ¢ Public Health Outcomes Framewor

What does the IMD measure?

The IMD is a measure of the extent of deprivation skills
IMD and measuring
in small areas in England. change
* Thirty-seven different indicators are collected into ° The IMD means you can say how deprived
seven ‘domains’, each representing a different a place is in relation to all other LSOAs in
aspect of deprivation (e.g. income or education). England, for example ‘X is among the 20%
The domains have different weightings (see most deprived small areas in England’.
percentages in the diagram above).
° The IMD Explorer makes it easy to find a place
The areas that data are collected for are called and explore its relative deprivation.
LSOAs — Lower Layer Super Output Area.
* Because the IMD collects exactly the same
There is one LSOA for each postcode in England
data for each place, and the places are all
and Wales.
of equivalent size, it is a reliable measure
LSOAs have similar population sizes: a minimum for comparison.
of 1000 people and a maximum of 1500: this
makes them comparable.
° A place’s ranking on the current 2015 IMD
can be compared with previous versions to
¢ The IMD ranks each LSOA for deprivation, from identify change.
the least deprived to the most. Each domain is
also ranked.
¢ Not everyone living in an LSOA is equally
deprived. The IMD does not show pockets of

Employment Education Crime Barriers to Living

22.5% SISO D372 housing € environment
services 9.3%
9.3%

1. Can the IMD tell you how deprived a place is? Explain your answer.
2. Can the IMD tell you how affluent (wealthy) a place is? Explain your answer.
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Past and present connections

This topic relates to your two chosen places: the place where you live/study and a contrasting place.
Past and present connections have shaped the economic and social characteristics of your chosen places.

Connections shaping your chosen places

¢ How do national government policies * Do TNCs have an influence in your

Your two
influence your places? For example: the places? Are they visited by
chosen
impact of Brexit, or HS2. | international tourists?
° What are the regional plans for development? places ° How has international migration
For example: enterprise zones. influenced your places?

¢ What have the economic and social

changes been in your two places? |
° How have these changes in your
chosen places influenced people’s
identities?

Typical changes to places over time

| Rural Post-industrial decline | Post-industrial
regeneration
Employment Primary: slowly downwards High unemployment Tertiary: quickly rising
trends
Demographic | Counterurbanisation; Suburbanisation; young | Young graduates move in;
changes increasingly elderly adults move to other possibly studentification
cities
Political — Conservative and resistant Liberal and more radical | Variable, depending who
allegiance to change elements takes credit for change
Land-use —_| Farming increasingly computerised; Some abandoned Brownfield regeneration,
changes | suburbanised villages derelict land e.g. flats, offices, leisure
Income Relatively high and probably High Falling for some (those
deprivation increasing appropriately skilled)
Mixed — high for low skilled, low | High Falling for some (those who
deprivation for high skilled are appropriately skilled)
Probably high High Improving
deprivation
Crime Probably low High Falling
Quality of Pristine scenery Poor Improving
environment

G Synoptic 1

Attitudes on changes
: How are the lives of students affected by (a) regional
Economic and social changes range from and national influences and (b) international and
cultural erosion (such as loss of traditions) global influences that have shaped one or both of
to enrichment (embracing new traditions). your chosen places?
————

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successful regions
Cumulative causation
What makes a region become successful is often a process of cumulative causation: new opportunities
encourage inward migration, which boosts the region’s economy, encouraging new development.

A two-tier economy
Over time, the continuing success of a region can ‘S) Berkshire _bince
result in a two-tier economy: I
° High demand for housing creates high property
prices and rents.
° Workers in less well-paid jobs are unable to afford
* The 2011 Census showed Berkshire’s
the housing and may have to leave the region.
population rose by 6.4%; Slough’s by 16.3%,
* A skills shortage can develop if there are not
¢ Slough, Reading and Bracknell have major ICT
enough highly skilled workers to fill new positions,
companies, and TNCs headquarters.
or people able to accept lower paid, lower skills Sane
jobs because of the cost of living. ¢ The region is located close to Heathrow
airport and has the M4 motorway and fast
* Solving these issues can require investment in
train access to London.
affordable housing, training, recruiting highly tated - ;
skilled overseas migrants and using low skilled * Employment is high, with a:skills shortage
migrants for low-paid work. meaning recruitment from overseas.
* The demand for living space means property
prices have risen 40-50% since 2005.
* Around 20% of the working population
ees ami cannot afford property in the region.

9 > QS
dow arr
Profile your successful region, detailing the factors that have made it successful, such as location, physical |
factors, accessibility, economic development, workforce and migration.

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Declining regions
@ @ @

In some regions, especially those rural regions once dominated by primary economic activities and
deindustrialised urban areas, economic restructuring has triggered a spiral of decline.

Spiral of decline
What makes a region decline is often a ‘spiral of decline’, also known as a negative multiplier effect.
The starting point is often the closure of a factory or primary economic activity, such as a coal mine.

Redundant
buildings

Closure of
Redundant | Less money | Environmental
factory
workforce to spend decay
or coal mine

Closure of supply Closure of Housing falls into Growth of

industries and shops disrepair and crime and
services and services disuse vandalism

Out-migration Eavestion and

of people with | health services |
transferrable skills | reduced

Long-term Depression
unemployment | and despair|

Decline processes as,

For some towns the spiral of decline can be almost Middlesbrough Place

impossible to reverse. * Middlesbrough has struggled with the

* Loss of major employers has a devastating consequences of deindustrialisation.
effect on employment because there are Around 20000 people have left since 1990.
few other regional opportunities to get jobs. * The unemployment rate is twice the national
* Unemployment means less money to spend, average (13%) and in 30% of the town’s
which affects the income domain of the IMD. working age households there is no one
Local shops and services are affected. in employment.
* The lack of opportunities affects young ¢ Around 10% of LSOAs in Middlesbrough are in
people’s motivation and parental the bottom 1% of deprivation.
_aspiration, which has a negative impact on * The built environment has been badly
educational achievement. affected. Whole streets are boarded up.
* Without other opportunities, people may turn to * Education is suffering: in 2014, half of all
_ erime, such as drug dealing, to make money. secondary school students went to schools
* Those people who are able to, move away from that ‘required improvement’.
the region (migration), increasing its decline. * Average house prices are less than half the
* The index of multiple deprivation (IMD) measures national average.
the relative deprivation of neighbourhoods, mainly
based on income and employment but also using
health, education, crime, housing, services and
living environment.

Profile your declining region, detailing the measures that show it has increasing levels of social deprivation.

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Regeneration priorities
The economic and social inequalities between places provide the priorities for regeneration planning:
for example, a ‘sink estate’ is prioritised over a gated community, or a declining rural settlement is
prioritised over a commuter village.

Planning regeneration priorities

Key terms
The economic and social variations between places
within a region are captured in economic and social ‘Sink estate’: council housing estates that
profiles, and judgements about need are then made in are among the most deprived areas (very low
evaluation reports. IMD scores) in Britain. There are frequent
negative representations of sink estates
ECONOMIC PROFILE (high crime rates, ‘benefit culture’, etc.) in
Review of economic mainstream ancl sociaiamedia
activity— job sectors, aie ricanis 2 = :
SRE OF ee Gated community: affluent neighbourhood of
towns or cities where houses are designed
Sa with gates and fences to improve privacy
"Stage
1: Establish the context for regeneration
Review of socio-economic and physical environment | and safety. In some countries, the gated
EVALUATION REPORT: JUDGE INEQUALITIESIN LIVING SPACES community is patrolled by private security
> a and access to the community is controlled,
Stage a: lnival masterplan end key actions especially where the community is located
INCLUDE VIEWS OF LOCAL PEOPLE AND THEIR ATTACHMENT TO © ;
_ THOSE PLACES AND POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT = near to deprived urban areas.
Commuter village: affluent rural area where a
ECONOMIC PLAN high proportion of residents travel to work in
Economie restructuring urban areas rather than depending on the
Infrastructure . i
eee, rural economy for jobs. Commuter villages
have higher IMD scores (low deprivation)
than declining rural settlements, though
TE ARES s/o Snares HORST AT RE AE these scores may mask pockets of

a
cersARENOERNFUT
FOREVALUATIONGerORT -_-—=«|: derivation among some residents who
are not accessing higher incomes from
al urban-based employment.
ECONOMIC PLAN =
Regeneration plans Declining rural settlement: rural
Deregulation steps settlements once dominated by primary
economic activities but which have
se ee see CE lost some or most of these activities.
Stage 4: Implementation and evaluation of regeneration | These settlements can be characterised

disipse saeices z | by low IMD scores because of lower

employment, an ageing population and social
problems related to drug use and lower
y'outh expectations. |

Now try this

Identify three specific priorities for regeneration for the declining region that you studied in class. F

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Lived experience
Lived experience is the experience of living in a place. Different people have different lived experiences
of a place, and this can produce different levels of engagement with that place.

Engagement
Remain Leave
Engagement with place is measured by turnout
in national and local elections and by support for
community groups.
* National election turnout has generally declined
in many countries since the 1980s. This is often 48.1% 51.9%

thought to be due to national political parties failing

to connect with the real issues affecting people.
* Rural regions of England and Wales are traditionally
Conservative and Liberal voters, and often have
higher turnouts.
* Urban regions of England and Wales are more often
Labour-supporting, especially for younger voters.
* Local election turnout is often very low in the UK.
This is often thought to be because people do not
think local government has the power to make any
real difference to people’s lives.
* Support for community groups depends on the issue
concerned. Some local issue groups may have a lot
of online support (likes on Facebook) but struggle to
get people to turn out to support the group.

Factors affecting lived experience of places

Gender identity:
traditionally different spaces and
Length of residence: places have been associated with Age:
for example, a student, a gender, e.g. homes and women, for example, teenagers’
recent migrant and someone football clubs and men: experience of a place is likely
who has lived in a place all associations that are now breaking to have differences from their
their life will have different down. parents’ (and grandparents’)
lived experiences and experiences.
attachments. Factors affecting lived
experience of and
Religion: attachment to places Level of deprivation:
in some parts of the UK, deprived places may encourage
place and religious Ethnicity: negative experiences and often
denomination are strongly sometimes ethnicity can lead have a weaker community that
associated, deeply affecting to different experiences of is less well integrated, meaning
experiences and levels of exclusion or inclusion in a place, a lower attachment to place.
attachment. which affects attachment.

Now try this

How reliable is using voter turnout in national elections to measure engagement in place?

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Conflict
Theme: P

Players attitudes and approaches vary

Different groups within a place often have contrasting experiences of day-to-day issues, which
frequently result in radically different views about the priorities for regenerating a place, and what
approaches or strategies should be used in regeneration.

Causes of conflicting views t

Different views about issues affecting a place have iS)

R case|Regeneration conflicts
; Contexts Jy
complex causes. Four key areas are: in London
i
1) Lack of political engagement, which leaves Central Hill is one of six council estates, built
some groups feeling powerless to influence, in the 1970s, which Lambeth Council has
and resentment against those who appear to proposed to regenerate. This decision was h
have too much influence. strongly opposed by many residents, partly
because they understood that the council’s ?
Ethnic tensions, for example between new plans were to demolish the estate rather than
migrants and longer established residents, renovate and repair the existing homes.
especially when tensions are intensified
by external events (e.g. terrorism) or
perceptions by one group that other
ethnicities are getting preferential treatment.

Inequality, almost always a tension in

regeneration, since improved property prices |
. 4 wp e f
in regenerated deprived ‘ areas threaten to Hi¥ @save central hill community
savecentralhill
=" ;f
exclude longer-term residents who are less _www.centrathill.tondon f
well-off from the place they have lived in for
many years.

Lack of economic opportunity, for example

regeneration can threaten to reduce
opportunities, for instance by closing
workshops located in the arches underneath
railway bridges.

The 2011 London riots Poor relationships Petty Urban

‘ between police and criminality deprivation
The London riots revealed strongly conflicting black community in Alienateciane
lived experiences among Londoners following Tottenham | Ve disaffected a
the death of a local man, shot by the police.
Police youth |
Contrasting contemporary views portrayed stop-and-search 2011 London population
the rioters as anarchists, thugs, thieves and tactics riots
terrorists, and the police and government er. High youth
as powerless to protect law-abiding citizens Anger about
unemployment —
bonuses paid
from the places that came under attack.
to bankers |
Government
Increased
Unusually : ; eye cutbacks to
warm summer university tuition
EMA
fees

Now try this |

| 1

Suggest reasons why some residents looted shops in the London riots while others joined together to clean up
the streets following the riots. Refer to different lived experiences of place in your answer.

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Evaluating regeneration
Statistical evidence
* Census data is collected every 10 years. statistical tests
Local characteristics on ethnicity, identity,
Spearman’s rank correlation: tests the
language and religion are available for output
strength of statistical relationships, e.g.
areas — the Census’ smallest geographical unit.
between income and health. See page 264.
Detailed characteristics cover many more topics.
Scattergraphs: used to evaluate the
* The ONS website provides statistical evidence on
relationship between two variables in an area.
employment, housing, crime and environment issues.
° Use a best-fit line to indicate the trend and
* Local councils provide statistical evidence for their
its strength.
council areas, often with visualisations of evidence
that makes comparisons between places easier. ° A strong positive correlation has little scatter
about the line. the slope of the line is positive.
Different media e A weak correlation has more scatter around the line.
° No correlation has no best-fit line.
National and local news media and local community
social media can provide conflicting views on plans
for regeneration. Express ®
* It is important to recognise bias in news media
coverage as a reason for conflicting views. Guardian @
* Bias does not stop a view from being useful.
* For example, the Guardian is usually more
Independent None None @ q
sympathetic to minority groups; the Daily Mail Mil @ @ @ @
less so; the Financial Times tends to be more
focused on the business case for regeneration. Mirror © @
* Media is more sympathetic to minority groups
that have tended to support Labour and Liberal Telegraph 6 @
Democrats, while those that prioritise return
on investment have tended to support the
Sun & @
Conservative Party.
Times ©& @
Representations
A VY A (e) ) 0 a
Qualitative viewpoints of places (maybe through music, Year ON My oN & er ne ne)

photography, film, art or literature) are valuable and

@ Labour & Liberal or LibDem
can be just as valid as a representation of a place, as Ke y
quantitative, objective statistical evidence. & Conservative q Labour and Liberal or LibDem

In order to evaluate the needs for regeneration,

decision-makers, planners, architects and
geographers need to understand the perspective
of people who live there, how others influence their
lives and the power relationships this creates.

A e + !

if kvtaaaee Evaluation of different sources

You need to be able to refer to how statistical evidence, media evidence and different
representations of your places affect perceived needs for regeneration.

ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

Using a named place, describe statistical evidence indicating the need for regeneration.

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UK government policy
UK government policy decisions play a key role in regeneration: infrastructure investment is so expensive
that often only national government can fund it. Government decisions often determine the rate and type
of development, and also economic growth and investment.

Infrastructure
This includes communication systems (for example,
motorways, broadband) and social infrastructure,
such as hospitals, public housing.
° Examples of current government infrastructure
projects include Crossrail, HS2, Heathrow’s
expansion and the Northern Powerhouse (which
includes road and rail improvements).

° The high cost of infrastructure projects means

government funds are often mixed with private
investment. Crossrail (a new railway for London)
had an estimated cost of £17.68 billion in 2019.
° Governments back infrastructure projects in
the expectation that they will boost economic
development and reduce inequality between
places. However, the extent of benefits is
disputed. For example, HS2 may end up
benefitting rich London instead of addressing the Open and closed door policies
UK's north-south divide.
* Opening the UK's borders to international
Synoptic Theme: A&A migration (open door policy) is a government
decision that has led to rapid economic —
National vs local government development and regeneration in many UK
places, as migrants have brought population
decisions growth and new business to towns and cities.
* Planning decisions: Local government Likewise, government deregulation of capital
administers planning laws, but UK government markets has enabled foreign investment in
decisions sometimes override these: for British property markets. This flow of capital
example, to achieve economic development into the London property market, in particular,
and address housing shortages. For example, has fuelled regeneration because of the greatly
government removing local red tape over increased revenues to be gained from building
planning permission to speed up development, or renovating high-end houses and flats. /
and increasing potential for local regeneration.

Permission for fracking: The UK government,

facing increasing energy demands, is keen ——SSs—

to allow fracking to go ahead — not least

because of its potential for regional economic Now (try this
regeneration. However, local opposition to |
fracking has so far limited its development. .
The UK government is loosening planning 1. Explain three ways in which UK government
decisions are important in regeneration.
regulations to make it easier for local councils
to let fracking go ahead. 2. Explain the connection between an
open door policy on immigration and
House building targets: National decisions economic regeneration.
to increase house building can meet NIMBY
(‘not in my back yard’) opposition in some
places. National government has threatened
that councils that do not build enough homes
to meet targets will lose their control over
planning laws.

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Local government policy

Local government policies aim to represent areas in ways that will attract people to invest in them.
There are a range of strategies that local governments can use, but there are often conflicts between
local interest groups as decisions are made about regeneration.

Local government competition hoe orca lea terereunisteek

internet industries attract highly
* Local councils are competing with each other to attract — skilled employees
new investment to the areas they govern. |
New investment is important, as it boosts economic
development and brings more people to their area. Attractive
surroundings
Science parks are an example of one strategy that
and facilities
councils use to attract new investment to places.
These are areas with special benefits for quaternary
sector industries. Additional benefits of science parks
Modern Link to latest science
include ready-built buildings, space for expansion,
buildings and technology research
access to childcare (nurseries), gyms and restaurants.
from Cambridge University

Local interest groups

Local interest groups play a key role in
decision-making about regeneration. They include
groups such as: Regeneration strategies
* Chambers of Commerce (local organisations
There are many different regeneration strategies
promoting the interests of local businesses)
available to local government to use in trying to
* local preservation societies (groups looking attract business investment and people to their area.
after historic sites)
* trade unions (organisations formed to protect
the rights of workers).
Wealthier areas often have the most volunteers
involved in local interest groups.

"Conflicts
There are often conflicts between groups that _
‘promote economic growth in a place (such as
Chambers of Commerce) and those that are i
trying to preserve places (such as anti-fracking
community groups). i
There can also be conflicts between groups |
aiming to help deprived groups (homeless
people, drug addicts) in a place, and groups
_ opposing investment in social projects |
because
of possible impacts on places: such
as opposition to more affordable housing
being included in local building projects.
ton ee er ee reer PRO
IRN Ee Pm aleeiiiaiane
a. on ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee eee eee ee ee ee

|
1. Suggest how retail-led plans could regenerate places.
2. Suggest why trying to increase tourism might not always be the best strategy for regenerating places.

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London Olympics 2012 —

OR You need to know an example of an urban or rural regeneration strategy that includes am
retail-led plans, tourism, leisure and sport. This book uses the regeneration of the eypeat)
e

Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in London, which you can use; alternatively, you could revise the
different example you studied in class.

Retail, tourism, leisure and sport

The Olympic Park, the location for the 2012
Olympic and Paralympic Games, was previously
a deprived area of London. The plan was
always to regenerate this area as a legacy of
the Games.
° Venues such as the Olympic Stadium, Velodrome
and Aquatic Centre were converted into public
sports facilities.
* The Park itself provides many leisure and cultural
opportunities such as gyms, sports fields,
playgrounds and cafes.
* The Athlete’s Village was converted into 2&0O
flats and apartments, and the International
Quarter is adding 7OOO additional homes to the
edge of the Park.
Tourist attractions were designed into the Park,
such as the ArcelorMittal Orbit.
The area’s Westfield Shopping Centre has been
extended since opening in 2011 and is Euvrope’s
largest shopping centre.

Success of the strategy Tensions over the strategy

* Communication and accessibility: Improved rail Original high-level plans promised as much as 50%
transport (Stratford International and regional of all new housing in the area was going to be
train stations) have integrated the area much affordable (80% of market rates: which is not that
more successfully into London’s transport affordable), but local government in the area wantex
network, making it much easier to live in the area more of the more expensive housing, as the sale
and commute into the city centre. of these houses would improve local government
* Employment: New jobs in construction and budgets. Local residents complain that increasing
tourism have created a multiplier effect. prices and rents has made the area unaffordable.
Over 20000 jobs could be created by 2030.

What have the advantages been of linking regeneration to the major sporting event of the Olympic and
Paralympic Games?

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Regeneration in Powys
Place
OFA You need to know an example of a regeneration strategy that uses public/private rural Contexts
>
diversification (government and private investment to help move rural areas away from
reliance on farming). This book uses regeneration in Powys, Wales, as its example, which you can use;
alternatively, you can revise the example you studied in class if you did something different.

Powys regeneration strategy

Environment
Needs of Education
and place
young people and skills

Economic

Tourisn = — @

fa Health and
Local culture ae lL \ wellbeing of the
and creative community
industries
Renewable
energy research Quality of
and development service provision

Powys regeneration partnerships Powys Whole Town Strategy

_In 2011, Powys county council started a new The council does not have money to make
regeneration strategy for this rural county. At the improvements to Powys’ towns, so its strategy
time, the UK government’s austerity programme relies on a lot of input from stakeholders.
meant the council also had to save £16 million over * The council will share information on a range of
the next four years. The regeneration strategy was different regeneration strategies.
designed to:
* Stakeholders in each town will then work closely
* encourage private partners — businesses — to together to develop a plan.
add their investment to the council’s money in
° A key idea is that each town should develop a ‘niche’
regenerating Powys
for their place — something that gives it a distinctive
work with local groups to help them to find identity: for example, a local food festival.
their own strategies to regenerate their
° The council will support this process by providing
own communities
training for stakeholders and by reducing the
* try to create multiplier effects from council ‘clutter’ of street furniture (benches, road signs,
spending: for example, by buying what the council road markings, etc.).
needs from local suppliers rather than suppliers
from outside Powys
improve broadband connectivity throughout
Powys, since communities with higher broadband
speeds have seen young people staying rather
than leaving
encourage local communities to diversify using
Powys’ natural assets, for example, green/
sustainable tourism, renewable energy, carbon
and water storage and recreation.

1. How does regeneration in Powys contrast with the retail- and sports-led regeneration in London following
the 2012 Olympics and Paralympics?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the Powys regeneration strategy?

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Rebranding strategies
Rebranding is a range of approaches attempting to represent areas as being more attractive for
potential investors. It includes re-imaging: changing public perception of places.

Rebranding places using a variety of media

Regeneration Rebranding Re-imaging

Investing in an area (e.g. Redeveloping a place in a way This aims to change negative
improving infrastructure) with the | that makes it more attractive to views about a place (e.g.
aim of triggering cumulative investors, visitors and residents. deprivation) into positive views
causation (a multiplier effect) of | e: It often involves both through presenting new
increased investment and regeneration and re-imaging. associations. Positive views will
movement of people into the attract more investment and
place visits

Geographical °
Media sources
You need to be able to explore discursive/creative media sources (such as social media responses to
events/views) to find out how place identity has been used as part of rebranding.

Players benefiting from regeneration

The nature of rebranding may vary according to the target group (‘customers’) it is designed to attract.

Visitors Residents and Business and industry | Exporters

employees
* Business visitors who * Professionals * Older heavy industry ¢ International
may be attending a * Skilled, semi-skilled | * New hi-tech industry businesses
conference or sales trip and unskilled workers | » Quaternary sector * International travel
* Non-business visitors * Young people employees companies
who may be tourists
* Investors and
or travelling to visit
entrepreneurs
relatives/friends

Urban rebranding sector production. Tourism is increasingly importar

: in encouraging growth in rural areas.
* High levels of deprivation in UK deindustrialised cities
meant declining investment and falling populations. eet Relcatliecl RUE eM ilalielet
* diversification into heritage and literary
* Rebranding strategies often focus on industrial
associations: for example, Victorian farms, the
heritage: conservation of old industrial sites into
Bronté sisters (writers) in rural Yorkshire
commercially successful, distinctive spaces.
* farm diversification: into, for example, education
° Liverpool’s Albert Docks is an example of an
(school visits), tourism (Airbnb lettings, caravan
industrial site rebranded as an attractive place to
work and visit. and camping sites) or retail (farm shops selling
specialist farm produce)
Rural rebranding * outdoor pursuits and adventure, such as quadbik
The challenges of making farming pay and concerns racing, paintballing, teambuilding activities, clay
about the environmental impacts of intensive pigeon shooting.
farming are making rural areas more multifunctional
(‘post production’) than purely about primary

Identify three ways: (a) of rebranding a deindustrialised city; (b) of rebranding a ‘post-production’ rural area.

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Rebranding examples
© You need to know an example of rebranding for a UK deindustrialised city and rebranding for
es a post-production (multifunctional) UK rural area. This page looks at two examples from the
textbook; you can use these or revise the ones you studied.

The Titanic Quarter urban regeneration strategy, Belfast

Belfast was once famous for Demand for flats in the Titanic The “Titanic Belfast’ visitor
its shipbuilding. The Titanic was Quarter now outstrips supply. centre had 1 million visitors
_ built in Belfast — a ship that is A university campus is now part in its first year of opening,
famous around the world. of the regeneration. 70% of them from outside
Northern Ireland. Most had
come specifically to visit the
The Titanic Quarter mixes ne visitor centre.
historic maritime landmarks,
such as the huge yellow lifting
cranes used in shipbuilding, Regeneration has succeeded
_—

with post-modern architecture

in attracting investment from
companies such as Audi and
to create a distinctive and
Premier Inn.
interesting urban space.

The cranes are still in use for i A report in 2012 found that
building wind turbines, while the 693 jobs and £105 million of
old “Paint Hall’ is a film studio additional tourism had resulted
(Game of Thrones). from the regeneration.

Regeneration in ‘Bronté Country, North Yorkshire

“‘Bronté Country’ is the name Some farms in the area have diversified away GCSE aid A level students can
given to a rural region in the from farming to offering accommodation for come to workshops in Haworth
Pennines that is linked to the tourists and leisure services such as wedding about Jane Eyre (by Charlotte
19th-century writing family of venues and outdoor recreation centres. Bronté): a set text for exams.
the Brontés.
oes novelists can come
Other attractions for tourists " a to workshops about writing
_in the area are the Keighley SS historical fiction in Haworth.
and Worth Valley Railways
(steam trains) and the
industrial village of Saltaire — ———-
The area has strong
home to a gallery of pictures
associations with Fairtrade,
by world-famous artist
and the Fair Trade Way links
David Hockney.
Fairtrade villages and towns
in the area, taking visitors
Haworth, the town where the ae SN through the countryside and
Brontés lived, has many Bronté- historical sites that appear in
themed attractions including 3 the Bronté sisters’ books.
the Bronté Parsonage Museum,

— ee

Now try this

What makes naming Belfast’s regeneration ‘The Titanic Quarter’ a good example of successful re-imaging?
}
ath tp

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Measuring success
The success of regeneration can be measured in economic, social, demographic and environmental terms.

Different ways to assess the success of regeneration

It is important to use multiple measures, both quantitative (facts, measurement) and qualitative (opinions,
observation), to judge regeneration projects. Qualitative sources help indicate the viewpoints held by
stakeholders, and can be vital in assessing the impact of projects on everyone in an area.

Aspect of Economic regeneration | Social progress Living environment

regeneration
Measurement ° Income * Reduction in inequality * Reduced pollution levels
* Poverty * Improvements in ° Reduction in abandoned
¢ Employment measures of deprivation and derelict land
* Demographic changes — * Improvements in
increased life rankings for IMD
expectancy, reduced Living Environment
health deprivation Deprivation domain
Potential fieldwork | ° Census data ¢ Interviews/oral histories * Photography and
and research * ONS employment data ° Newspaper accounts comparison with
historical photos
¢ Neighbourhood ¢ Acorn scores
statistics * Pollution data from the
® Crime statistics
Environment Agency
¢ Historical and current * Broadband speeds
data — including * Environmental
* Blog entries for local areas quality surveys and
historical land use
* Social media pollution indicators

Assessing regeneration success

* The criteria to judge for success are the skills
Change over time
economic, social and environmental changes
that have taken place as a consequence of the Maps and photographs are two key sources for
regeneration strategies. comparing a place before and after change.
Measurement can be for changes in one area * OS maps are an excellent source because
over time, or for changes relative to another the map series go back a long time and
area (or both). comparisons can be made at the same scale.
° Timescale is important: regeneration takes time, * Goad maps or plans (named after Charles,
especially for multiplier effects (cumulative causation) Goad) provide very detailed maps of retail
to occur. spaces, going back to the 1960s.
Different stakeholders will have different views * Google Maps incorporates a slider that
about success. A conflict matrix is a good way of enables you to compare different years.
presenting and analysing these different assessments The satellite view in Google Maps goes back
of success. to 2009 in some locations.
° Local history websites and Facebook pages
provide historic photos of most places.

Now try this

What sorts of change might it be possible to identify and evidence by comparing photos?

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Topic 4z
Urban regeneration
OF You need to know an example of the strategies used in the regeneration of an urban Place
fe place, the changes that resulted and how successful different stakeholders think Contexts

the regeneration has been. This book uses the example of Plymouth: use this or a different
example you studied.

Devonport, Plymouth
* Devonport is a residential area of Plymouth, next Remember that attitudes to regeneration often include
to the Devonport Dockyard: the largest naval NIMBY-ism. See page 106.
base in Western Europe. GOOO people live there.
¢ At one time the dockyard employed 15 O00 Evaluating success
people, but this fell to 4000 in 1990s after it Evaluation uses a range of economic, social,
was privatised. As the area declined, deprivation demographic and environmental variables.
and crime increased. By most measures, Devonport is deprived:
To reduce thefts from the naval base, a 3m high * It is the most deprived of Plymouth’s 39
wall was constructed that cut off Devonport from neighbourhoods on IMD.
shops and infrastructure.
¢ Unemployment is at 11%: the city as a whole is
Regeneration began 10 years ago: the city at 4%.
council developed the Devonport Area Action
* The rate of all crime was 119.6 per 1000
Plan together with stakeholders from the local
community, house builders and developers,
population: the citywide figure is 72.4.
government agencies and social landlords. * 46% of pupils achieved five or more good grades
at GCSE: the city average is 61%.
Involving stakeholders * Life expectancy is seven years below the city
e A common agreement was developed that all average: 73.6 years compared with 80.5.
stakeholders could sign up to. The different However, there are positives: the regenerated
priorities, views and opinions were recorded. Devonport Park saw a 30% increase in use and a
* Conflicts were resolved through finding score of 80% user satisfaction with the park (the
compromise positions that the different pre-regeneration score had been 22%).
stakeholders could all agree to.
* Success in regeneration projects can depend
on past decisions and previous experiences of
Different views of
leading changes in communities. regeneration
‘There’s hardly any crime ‘There’s no character
Devonport regeneration strategies now - and this used to be to Devonport
one of the worst crime anymore. It looks like
areas in England.’ everywhere else.’

‘The new ‘It’s good

people who Devonport tharthe
have moved views from. |— house
in don’t social media| "<5
spend much | haven't
time here.’ gone up
‘No jobs were that much.’
created and that’s
what we need most.’

Suggest why different stakeholders view Devonport’s

regeneration in different ways.

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Rural regeneration
Or You need to know an example of the strategies used in the regeneration of a rural
xg place, the changes that resulted and how successful different stakeholders think Contexts

the regeneration has been. This example is of the North Antrim coast: use this or a different
example you studied.

North Antrim Coast Regeneration strategies

¢ The North Antrim coast, Northern Ireland, is world
famous for the basalt columns of the stunning Giant’s
Causeway, and increasingly also for its filming
locations for Game of Thrones.
* The region is 200O0km? in area and has 140000
residents. Educational achievement, employment and
income are lower than average for Northern Ireland.
* Consultations showed that residents prioritise better
transport (such as lifts for hospital visits), jobs for
young people, better childcare provision, training for
farm diversification into B&B provision.

Involving stakeholders
The contrasting criteria for success between
some stakeholders can make assessing success a
complex process.
® The National Trust (success = increased visitor
numbers and visitor satisfaction)
* Moyle District Council (success = more employment,
increased tax revenues)
* local farmers (success = no disruption to farming)
° Translink (Northern Ireland’s public transport network)
(success = increased demand for their services)
° local hoteliers and restaurants (success = more
customers throughout the year).

Understanding different views of regeneration

‘Such a beautiful place — we visited early to ‘There was a rock fall and the
avoid the busloads of tourists.’ Causeway was closed: not
‘convenient and disappointing.’
‘The new visitor centre was ————
Contested space at the | Not only does the visitor centre
designed to be largely
i : na bring in 30% more visitors, it’s also”
underground to minimise its
Giant's Causeway created 150 jobs for local people.’
impact on the landscape.’

‘| liked it because it had free ‘|! objected to the display that ‘£30 for a family of four is too much!
wi-fi and we could get in from included ideas that God made the Although you can visit the rocks for
the very heavy rain.’ Causeway: just the science, please!’ free.’

Suggest why there are different views of the success of the Giant’s Causeway visitor centre.
Consider economic, social, demographic and environmental factors in your answer.
—

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Exam skills 1
These exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for the Regenerating Places topic in Paper 2.
Look back at pages 95 to 114 to remind yourself of the content.

Learn key terms

Ensure you learn definitions of key terms — |
this helps to prepare for this type of
Worked example question but also enables you to use these
|

terms in relevant ways in longer answers.

1. Define what is meant by the term ‘regeneration’. AS)

d ark)
One-mark questions do not require long
The process of improving a rural or urban place > answers, but in definitions try to add an
by making positive changes. An example would be “ example if you can.
urban regeneration in Stratford for the London
Olympics in 2012.

2. Suggest one reason why local residents may a) Suggest answers should identity a
object to infrastructure improvements in yy reason and then make two development
their area. (3 marks) points to get 3 marks. Other reasons
could have been: infrastructure
Local residents may object to increased noise
improvements bring congestion and
pollution, for example in the expansion of airport
delays while construction is going on
infrastructure at Heathrow airport. The high noise
(which can be for several years); or
levels of planes going over houses means the
infrastructure improvements having
houses are not as pleasant to live in and may be
environmental impacts, for example a
difficult to sell for the price they were bought.
bypass going through ancient woodland.
3. With reference to a named example, explain a —_ on es _
the factors that create perceptions of a place
being successful. (6 marks) Six-mark ‘explain’ questions test your
Places that are perceived as successful have @ ability to recall and apply knowledge and
growing economies and low levels of deprivation. understanding, and to demonstrate this
For example, rates of employment are high and through a broad range of geographical
there are good education and health opportunities ideas that are presented in a detailed
and low crime rates. There is population growth way and fully developed.
as people migrate to live and work in the place. nee ene ——
For example, in the case of Slough, a successful
place, the 2011 Census showed population growth
A question will only ask you specifically
of 16.3% since 2001. Perceptions of success
for a named example when it is focusing
_ may also include negative factors, such as high
on a part of the specification that has a
_ property prices. For example, Slough’s property
place context — that means you will have
~ prices have risen 40-50% since 2005.
studied a particular example / a case
- study for that topic. For this topic you
5 may also be able to use the local places
7} ‘ that you have studied in depth (i.e. the
place where you live or study and one
contrasting place) in your answer

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mopic 4&

Exam skills 2
These exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for the Regenerating Places topic in Paper 2.

The seven indices of deprivation that

Worked example make up the Index of Multiple Deprivation
are also factors for deprivation: income
i
ten Tuddenham
St ner |
deprivation; employment deprivation;
education, skills and training; health
deprivation and disability; crime; barriers

nf to housing and services; living environment.

>
) Rushmere
Map Legend » St Andrew
‘
Deciles of deprivation
WH 10% most deprived Rushmere
Eiht Common?
The questions on the paper for this
e rT
option are a mix of shorter answer
questions, some of which may involve
py Purai er
using a stimulus resource, and a 2O-mark
question. As you revise this topic, try
Wherstead
coming up with 3-mark, G-mark, 12-mark
10% least deprived
and 2O-mark questions of your own.
Pani valet. SS
Figure 1: Index of Multiple Deprivation (2015) for Ipswich,
a town in east England
You must read questions carefully and
4. Study Figure 1. Suggest one reason for the pattern circle and/or underline the key words
of higher deprivation in Ipswich. or short phrases. This will help you to
(3 marks) stay closely focused on the question.
High unemployment is likely to be a major reason In question 5, the key phrases are:
for the pattern of high deprivation. If people do different groups, contrasting views, rural
not have the qualifications, skills or opportunities regeneration.
to get jobs then they will not have much money.
This leads to income deprivation so that people
living in high unemployment areas do not have Six-mark ‘suggest’ questions have 3 marks
enough money for a good standard of living. for AO1 (geographical knowledge and
geographical ideas) and 3 marks for AO2
5. Suggest why different groups could have
contrasting views about regenerating a
rural place. (6 marks)
@ Ml (applying knowledge and understanding,
analysing and evaluating). Your answer
should aim to tap into more than one
One reason is that different groups will have
geographical idea, and bring in accurate
different needs and that will produce contrasting
and relevant knowledge and understanding.
views. For example, in North Antrim the National
Trust has expanded a visitor centre, with a café,
expanded car and coach parking facilities. This has This answer has suggested two reasons
brought in more day-trip tourists to the area, but and developed both. The development of
some longer-term visitors to the North Antrim coast the first point uses relevant place context
(for example, ramblers, bird watchers) wanted to knowledge. Notice how the answer gives

Re
experience a wild coastal landscape in solitude and some specific information about different
object to the regeneration scheme because it has groups. Referring to specific groups
made this rural place more crowded and congested. in this way (especially when backed up
Another reason could be that regeneration goes by place context information) is a good
ahead without consulting all groups, which could way to pick up AO1 marks, while the
leave some with negative perceptions of the AO2 marks come from applying your
regeneration, while others feel more positive understanding to the question.
about it because they were included.

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Exam practice l
Practise for Paper 2 of your exam. Afterwards see suggested answers on page 301.

1. Which of the following is the correct As) Multiple-choice questions

definition of ‘deregulation’? (1 mark)
Multiple-choice questions are used on the
A The process of reducing or removing rules AS papers from time to time, usually as a
governing economic activity version of a 1-mark question for definitions,
; simple calculations, or extraction of fact or
B The process of moving manufacturing or point from a photograph, map or graph.
service operations to another country to L
gain benefits

C A geographic area where goods can be

processed and re-exported without payment
of custom dues or taxes

D A way of adapting goods and services to In a 3-mark question only one idea is
increase sales in local markets required but must be developed with two
additional linked points. In this question
2. Suggest one statistical measure that can &<na no credit will be given for a second
be used to test the strength of the statistical measure even if it is correct.
relationship between income and health
in an area. (3 marks)
Where two things are asked for in a
4-mark question there will be 2 marks
3. Explain two reasons for people in the same for each. In this question, 1 mark for
place having different attachments each reason identified and 1 mark for
to that place. (4 marks) developing it. Do make sure that your
reasons are different and not just the
same reason in different words.
4. Explain how economic restructuring
has increased social deprivation in In this question you must think about
some places. | (6 marks)
how economic restructuring (for example,
deindustrialisation) has triggered a spiral
of decline, which has impacted negatively
5. Assess the impacts of global influences & on social and economic indicators of
on your local place and your . deprivation such as employment, education,
contrasting place. (12 marks) health and crime. Use your place context
knowledge, for example, of Middlesbrough
(see page 101), to back up your points with
accurate and relevant knowledge.

t
Plan your answer into short paragraphs.
‘Assess questions for this option may be
(but won't always be) about your place
It may well be possible to use the study — the one you did for the place
contrasts between your two place where you live and another contrasting
studies as a structure for your answer
place. This makes it easier to get your
AO2 marks (which make up 9 of the 12
and help you come to a judgement
about which impacts are most significant. — marks for this question) for applying
knowledge and making a judgement.

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gopic 44
Exam practice 2
Practise for Paper 2 of your exam with these questions. Afterwards see suggested answers
on page 301.

Blog posts
1. Study Figure 1. &) Blog posts are quite often used in
‘The council uses the Herefordshire “Here you exam papers to provide representations
can” on a road sign where you cross into of places and to provide contrasting
Herefordshire. I thought it was quite a clever evidence about the need for regeneration
slogan because of “here” and “Hereford”. | was and rebranding. You can use your GCSE
really impressed that the council had made the English skills for this type of question by
branding available for free on their website for considering how the writer conveys their
local businesses to use in advertising their opinion, backed up by evidence.
products. It makes an effective link between eee
Herefordshire businesses; for example, cosy pubs
can say “Here you can... relax” and local butchers
can use the slogan to say “Here you can... buy the
best local beef”.’

Figure 1: Blog about the rebranding of

Herefordshire, a rural area, with the slogan
“Herefordshire: Here you can...’

Suggest one way the writer of the blog

presents a positive view of this attempt at
rebranding a rural place. (3 marks)

2. Explain why there are often tensions between «)

local interest groups involved in regeneration
projects. (6 marks)

3. With reference to a named example, explain &)

the advantages of involving sport and leisure
in an urban regeneration strategy.
(6 marks)
Named urban place:

4. For your local place and your contrasting @

place, evaluate the view that high rates of
employment are the most important factor in
achieving positive attitudes towards places.
(20 marks) — we
Location of your local place: Evaluate questions
Location of your contrasting place:
Evaluate questions are a challenge and
need to be planned. You will need to
evaluate different factors as well as
high rates of employment, and make
comparisons between your two places.
If a question asks you to refer to a
specific example, make sure you do!
In terms of time: you should allow 25
minutes to answer this 2O-mark question.

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Topic 4B
Population distribution
The population of the UK has grown unevenly in the last 50 years. Some regions (for example, south-east
England) have grown rapidly while others (for example, north-east England) have grown more slowly.

The UK's population growth

° In 2015 the UK's population was 65.1 million.
° Between 2005 and 2015, the UKs population grew between 3.5% and 4% per year. This rapid
growth rate has happened with increased immigration from European countries.
° In the 1960s, the UK's population also grew rapidly. This was the ‘baby boom’ that followed the
end of the Second World War (1939-45).
° In the 1970s and 1960s, the UK’s population grew very slowly — around 0.2% per year between
1975 and 1980. This coincided with deindustrialisation and other economic problems.

Population density
Population density is not even across the UK. S3N
° England is the most densely populated part of the UK,
Oo 100 200
with 413 people per km?. km

* Scotland is the least densely populated, with Highland # Eileen Siar:

9 people per km?
68 people per km?. # (UK’s lowest density)

Cities are much more densely populated than rural areas. Hees
25 people per km*
* Greater London had a population density of 1510 (Lowest density
people per km? in 2017. “4
ya
in England)

* Herefordshire, a rural county in the west of England,

had 87 people per km.
Moyle:
35 people per km?
(Lowest density in N. Ireland)

Ml 9600 to 14 500
MM 4800 to 9600
MI 2400 to 4800 : :
M1200 to 2400 y Ay,
© 600 to 1200
O to 600

Powys: CWE alea=ty

ees coro Ses BS VS

26 people per km? egOc gg AP
Lowest densit

OF Uneven growth rates ie: | Reasons for unequal ° °

Contexts © 0
zm
* Fopulation growth rates are highest in | population distribution
the south-east of England and London in | * Economic: Successful places with strong
particular. Eight of the 10 fastest growing ;t economic growth attract people who want
areas in England are in London. These areas are | to get jobs there. Declining places with low
also densely populated. ; : growth and few opportunities lose people.
° The 10 English regions with the slowest growth _
t
* Social: Immigration boosts population sizes:
. . . . .

are in the north-east and-north-west regions. [ migrants are usually young people who go on
Some areas have declined. to have families.

—————

Now try this

__ 1. Suggest what the benefits of rapid population growth for a place might be.
. 2. Suggest what the costs of rapid population growth for a place might be.
eee. eS eer, eee eee x

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The rural-urban continuum

The rural-urban continuum is a model for how population density and population structure changes with
‘distance away from urban areas and towards remote rural areas (see pages 119 and 121).

The model
|
The key concept of the model is accessibility.
The more accessible a rural settlement is to
the city, the more urban characteristics it
will have. A village down a narrow lane is less
accessible and will stay more ‘rural’.

Historical development can affect population

density and structure. For example, traditional
remote mining areas may have been mostly male
between 25 and 40, and urban industrial areas
attracted a lot of young adult immigrants to work
which increased population density, especially when
The rural-urban continuum model
they started having children.

Planning can interrupt the rural-urban continuum — for

Physical factors are also important in accounting example, green belts. In the green belt zone, planning
for how population density and population structure restrictions prevent urban sprawl by severely limiting
change along the rural-urban continuum. Rural areas the type of development that can occur. Places in a
at high altitude, with poor soils and a cold, wet green belt are much more rural than their placement
climate will have lower density populations, and may on the rural-urban continuum would predict, and
have an older population as young people move away. population densities are lower.

Reasons for variations within

OF Variations within ee urban areas
urban areas: London ip
:. Contexts

Population densities are generally higher in

Population density changes according to inner city areas, where there is high-density
where a place is on the rural-urban continuum, housing such as apartment blocks.
but there is also a lot of variation in density Population densities are generally lowest on the
and structure within urban areas. For example, rural-urban fringe, where there is more space
in London: for low-density housing: detached properties
* Islington has a population density of with large gardens.
15 817 people per km?. Wealthier people tend to live in low-density
* Richmond upon Thames has a population areas in large and expensive houses with
density of 3408 people per km?. privacy, plenty of space and which avoid
And also in London: congestion and pollution. They can afford to
commute to work.
° In inner London, 33% of the population are
between 25 and 39 years old. Less wealthy people tend to live in high-density
* In outer London, 24% of the population are housing, since housing costs are lower and
between 25 and 39 years old. transport costs cheaper.

Now {ry this

Study the rural-urban continuum model above. Explain what the following mean and describe their
characteristics: (a) overspill town; (b) suburbanised village; (c) old core; (d) second home.

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Population structure
Population structure varies from place to place and over time. These variations are a result of
differences in population dynamics: fertility and mortality rates and migration. This page illustrates
these dynamics with an example of the London borough of Newham.

Population structure
The population structure is the number of
males and females in different age groups at
a given time and place.
Cf Population structure is usually presented
as a population pyramid.
Urban places usually have younger
population structures, while rural areas
tend to have old population structures. | 5% aa ae 10% 15%
Ww High-density inner city areas often have Bas ereee Nee)
the youngest population structures, while a Females Newham [fj Males Newham —=Females England —=Males Enalana|
lower-density rural-urban fringe places
may have an older population. |

Differences in fertility Differences in mortality

* Newham (see population pyramid) has a higher Only 6.7% of Newham’s population are aged over
than average number of children under 10 and 65, compared to 16.5% nationally.
of people between 20 and 39. * Newham’s mortality rate is significantly higher than
* Newham has the highest birth rate in England the national rate.
(113.9 live births per 1000: the average for * Male life expectancy is 2.5 years less than
England is 65.5). average; it is 1.5 years less for women.
* This above average fertility is linked to the * A 2012 survey found Newham had one of the
above average 20-39-year-old — the years lowest rates in England for people taking exercise.
when most people have children. ,
* Cancer survival rates are lower than average,
* There is also a link to migration. partly because people leave it too long before
going to see a doctor.

Differences in international
migration Internal migration differences
* Newham is ethnically very diverse. Whites make Internal migration is people moving to a place
a 30% of the population (compared to 52% from one part of the country to another.
nationally: UK). Internal migration can be a cause for population
* Three-quarters of babies in Newham are born decline in deindustrialised urban areas and remote
to women born outside the UK. rural areas, for example young people moving away |
e People who migrate tend to be young adults to find jobs elsewhere. Internal migration then

(higher fertility). 4 increases population growth in successful places.

ee ee

1. How is Newham’s population structure different from the England average structure?
2. What might explain this difference?

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Population characteristics
Population characteristics vary from place to place, producing cultural diversity and change over time.

Variations between settlements Reasons for variations

The UK has a long history of migration and some Accessibility Employment opportunities

mei
of the differences between settlements in terms
of gender and ethnicity go back many decades.
Many Poles joined the UK military after Nazi
Germany invaded their country in 1939.
Many were stationed in Swindon and stayed
Variations between
there after the war was over. settlements
Social
In the 1950s there were not enough British clustering
workers for Bradford’s textile mills.
Pakistani migrants filled the shortage, taking over Physical factors
from German and Irish migrants who had increased
Bradford’s diversity in the 19th century. Government policies
The trend of more women than men studying
at university is affecting the gender balance of
some university towns. For example, 52% of
Chichester’s population is female with a ratio
of 30 males to 70 females at its university.

Variations within settlements

Cities have higher cultural diversity than rural
areas, but ethnic groups often tend to cluster in
particular locations rather than being spread out
evenly. This is called social clustering.
° Social clustering is almost always by choice.
People from the same ethnic group choose to
live near each other. Government actions
° Social clustering has advantages for new
migrants: they can help each other establish Government policies may foster or
themselves in a city, and protect each other suppress diversity:
from hostile reactions. * The UK government encouraged people
° Over time, social clustering creates from other countries of the British Empire
advantages for all city residents, as it adds to migrate to the UK when workers were
diversity; for example, in friends, restaurants needed, such as the ‘Windrush generation’
and takeaways, cooking ingredients, festivals. of Afro-Caribbean immigrants who came to
* Social clustering can also create the UK from 1946. This increased diversity.
disadvantages: residents from other ° The UK's membershipof the European
ethnicities can feel pushed out of a place. Union meant that migration to the UK
from European countries increased rapidly
following the EU’s expansion in 2004.
UK migrants: population RN SRR SP YT TT TT Te TT DE STSCISET SRI

Ww Concentrated in London — around 36%

of people in the UK who were born
abroad live there.
Ww The West Midlands, the South East
and the East Midlands together have 1. Explain why the UK’s rural areas have lower cultural
around 38% of UK residents who were diversity than the UK’s large cities.
born abroad. 2. Explain (a) how fertility rates can change in places
influenced by international immigration and (b) how
ee The lowest proportion of people born mortality rates can change in places influenced by
abroad is in the North East (6.2%).
. internal migrations). 5)
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Connections shaping places

This topic relates to your two chosen places: the place where you live/study and a contrasting place. Past and
present connections have shaped the demographic and cultural characteristics of your chosen places.

Influences that have shaped the characteristics of your chosen places

° How well connected are your places ° What has the impact of globalisation
Your two
in terms of transport infrastructure? been on your places?
chosen
° How do your places compare with ¢ How has international migration
national averages, for example places influenced your places?
population structure, deprivation?

¢ What have the demographic and

cultural changes been in your chosen
local place?
* How have these changes influenced |
people’s identities?

Place connections
sense of place Global connections bring frequent and
This is a key concept for local place studies wide-ranging changes to places: such
and includes as international migration, globalisation,
VY An identity that differentiates one place international conflict (e.g. fear of terrorist
from another — and not all places have it. attack), foreign investment in property.
|

VY The way that particular people feel about National connections can shape places in
a place — this can differ between people. terms of government regional development
plans, new transport infrastructure (such as,
Ww The things about a place that make it
government house building policies).
special and distinctive to people there.
Regional connections often influence sense
Ww Negative and positive senses of place.
of place (such as local dialect).

Quantitative approaches Qualitative approaches

Quantitative approaches to studying Interviews: these allow you to record
places include the following: people’s views and opinions about the way
—* Profiling: using Census data to identify they perceive cultural and demographic
population characteristics. Select the changes to places.
~ characteristics to profile from the Census Social media: people increasingly use
categories. Your profile can compare places, Facebook groups to talk about place — for
or look at changes over time (the ONS has a example, sharing memories of school or
comparator tool for 2011 vs 2001). places of work that have now closed.
Surveys/questionnaires: these can be Photos and maps: photos, videos, Google
used to provide quantitative data about Street View, maps, etc., all record how
people’s perceptions of demographic and/or places used to look.
cultural change.

How are the lives of students affected by (a) regional

and national influences and (b) international and
yers such as TNCs and IGOs can
global influences that have shaped one or both of your
creasing roles and influence in different
chosen places?
example through investment.

123
 change in UK urban are
as
You need to know how regional, national, global and international influences have shaped your chosen
‘places. This page considers urban places.

Urban areas
Of Urban areas are settlements with
over 10000 people.
WV They are built-up areas with many
functions and services.
Ww Urban areas usually have a clear
structure based on land-use
zones, which can be represented
by urban models.
Ww These models have become more
complex over time, reflecting
the demographic changes that
have taken place relative to
population size.
CBD = Central business district
IE = Industrial estate
IP = Industrial park
BS = Borough shopping centre
RP = Retail park
SC = Out-of-town shopping centre

Changes in time for the UK’s urban areas

The high rise flats of the 1960s Continued recession meant
The UK in the 1960s
and 1970s were recognised as redevelopment projects
had an economic
boom. The government Economic conditions a failure and began to be replaced. Slowed as Woe! dried up.
encouraged new migrants, worsened. ceil
who moved mainly to Deindustrialisation Out-of-town shopping Councils faced significant budge’
inner city areas. meant many UK centres developed; cuts, reducing their investment it
cities o
lost high streets declined. arts, diversity and social care.

Cities expanded as wealthier A ©economic recession meant Migration from countries joining Tensions over
people moved to suburbs. many factories closed. CBD and inner the EU in 2004 increased in the Brexit divided
‘New towns’ were created, city places became ‘areas of discard’. UK. Cultural diversity increased places.
such as Milton Keynes. The : in many UK cities.
programme of social The national government set up :
housing building, which n i Ede :
ie 8 PIRES a eoiporauans The 2007/08 financial collapse created a global recessior
started in the 1950s, (UDCs) to encourage regeneration. : as .
dentinued : High street closures increased and redevelopment proje:
slowed or stopped, causing serious cuts to council budg
Counterurbansation began in this period. which impacted on services in urban areas.

Ge hical 3 :
Investigation of
social media
You should be able to write about how the Which do you think are more significant influences on
demographic and cultural changes that have - an urban area’s sense of place: economic influences or
shaped your chosen places have impacted on | cultural influences? Explain your answer.
people’s identity, for example via social media. Wara

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Change in UK rural areas

You need to know how regional, national, global and international influences have shaped your chosen
places. This page considers rural places.

Mechanisatior/computerisation Agri-tech and intensive Diversification as

Rural areas of farming means even fewer farming vs organic and farm profits are
farm workers are needed sustainable squeezed: a
Cf Rural settlements (fewer than 10000 ‘post-productive’
countryside?
_ people) consist mostly of villages
and hamlets found dispersed in areas Changing social
attitudes to the Influences shaping Suburbanisation
of countryside. countryside, for rural areas
and
counterurbanisation
Cf Their main function is residential, but there example, foxhunting
may be some services such as a pub, a
post office, a church and a village shop. Government policy: for Faster transport links, Increased demand for
example, on agriculture, increasing accessibility recreational opportunities
of Some types of village may have a clear to some rural areas in accessible rural areas
| Brexit, conservation,
land-use pattern because they have | wildlife, housing, climate
been ‘suburbanised’ by commuters and __change
exurbanites moving in.

Economic changes
& Full-time farmers
* The development of global agribusiness means
cheaper food from other countries, making HM Part-time farmers

farming a challenging business to keep profitable. @ Full-time farm workers

* Mechanisation and computerisation of farming © Part-time farm workers
reduce the number of workers needed in farming. § Seasonal workers
° These processes combine to make some (though
not most) rural areas ‘post productive’ as
farmers diversify away from primary production.

What are rural places?

The influence of suburbanisation and
counterurbanisation, the diversification of farming
and changing social attitudes towards rural areas
have made it increasingly difficult to distinguish
a rural place identity or determine a distinctive
function for some rural places. The term
“edgelands’ is sometimes used in this context.

Now try th is
1. Study the pie chart on this page. Suggest reasons why there are now more part-time farmers than
full-time farmers.
2. The poultry industry employs around 13000 seasonal workers, most of whom are non-British nationals,
during the run-up to Christmas, while fruit and vegetable picking employs 64 200 seasonal workers, also
mainly non-British nationals, during the summer months. What demographic and cultural influences might
these workers have on rural places?

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Perception of places
People perceive places differently because of their different personal experiences of those places.

me: P

Why do different peapie view pice dittercnay?

Different lifeexperiences | ea ST Ee ntl: eae ae Be
i 2 ; ackgrounds
as
Different stages in life —— Different _ ee
SR
OE
cycle (age) perce _environmental fctoes

Different socio- 4 oe
economic backgrounds \é Different accessibility
factors th

Factors affecting perceptions of urban and rural places

Human factors Accessibility factors Environmental factors
° Age (life cycle) Access to employment * Levels of pollution
* Family composition ° Employment characteristics * Levels of crime
° Family size ° Access to services (e.g. health, ¢ Amount of open space
° Level of education education, shops, broadband, wifi) * Housing conditions
° Ethnic background * Access to public transport * Type of open space
¢ Health status ° Car ownership * Physical geography (e.g.
° Gender Access to recreation climate, scenery)

° Level of income Affordable housing * Traffic congestion

* Socio-economic status Access to community activities
Cultural beliefs (religion) Accessibility and disability

Perception of places: key terms

° Perception: the view of a place based on feelings and experience: a qualitative judgement.
° Life-cycle stage: each person experiences various stages during their lifetime, such as a young
child living with a family, an elderly person living alone. At each stage the opinions and needs of
the person will usually change.
° Lived experience: different experiences in life, shaped by family situation, family culture,
educational experience, life cycle, living spaces and personal interests. These affect people’s
judgements about places and situations and lead to their perceptions about place.
° Living spaces: space that is used for a population’s daily activities — housing is the main living
space, but it includes spaces used for, for example, leisure, entertainment, learning. 1
\

St OB aw 8 Ee ee ee ee ee lee ee ee eee ee eee eee eee

Study the photo on this page.

(a) Suggest ways in which the older man might have a different perception of the place they are in from the
group of younger people.
(b) What factors might have influenced the different perceptions you described?

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Perceptions of urban places

Positive and negative perceptions of urban places
Widest range Highest paid Chance to Higher crime Higher risk High cost of
of employment jobs build a career rates and gangs, of terrorism living: rent,
opportunities knife crime food and
travel are
Variety of Negative media expensive
Diversity and
difference: new
entertainment representations
: Positive and leisure
perspectives E —
perceptions opportunities apes ee Negative | Congested:
Chance to make of urban the very rich and | perceptions / t0° busy
s poor
the very P P and hectic
a new identity;
places | too difficult to of urban
anonymity;
Widest range live with every places | Polluted air,
independence day noise
of services
~ pollution,
Best chance
Too stressful, dirty
of meeting Young, dynamic, *Best too challenging,
interesting, fast-moving, educational workplaces are Too ethnically Too isolating:
fun people SO Oe AnIES opportunities too competitive diverse, too no one is
much change friendly

G hical °
OFA Victorian London Place
Contexts
GIS and crime data
You can use GIS to compare places — and
Industrialisation in Victorian Britain Living conditions to consider how crime mapping influences
caused rapid urbanisation. for the poor were place perceptions.
SS shocking. Crime
oon = =, rates were high.

Poor areas of
the city were
perceived with —_
pity by some
richer residents.

Others blamed
the poor for
having too many Richer people
children — feared the poor
especially and avoided
Irish immigrants. slums.
Crime on or near Edith Road
4 crimes were reported here in July 2019
Violence and sexual offences 4

Who likes the inner city? The www.police.uk website crime maps are a
SS Young people: shared houses and small GIS resource that show where crimes have
apartments offer a potentially affordable been committed.
chance to live in the big city, close to the
CBD and its employment opportunities.
Who likes the suburbs? ~ G hical °
Interviews
Ss Families with young children who are looking for
good schools, accessible health care, low crime, Interviews are a key tool for finding out about
other families with kids, more living space. perceptions of place. You need to be able to
carry out interviews with local residents and
interpret information representing cultural
and demographic issues. Interviews can be
_ structured, unstructured or semi-structured.

How far have perceptions of the city changed since

Victorian times?

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Topic 43

Perceptions of rural places

Positive perceptions of rural places
Rural places are often perceived as idyllic because of their tranquillity, natural landscapes and historical
and cultural associations.
Rural places are often
Nostalgic rather than realistic?
viewed as idyllic =~ —-— a
Hardy’s Wessex is a fictional rural
area that he based on Devon,
Tranquil, calm, peaceful —_____ where he lived. His books portray
rural places that were threatened
by change, such as mechanisation.
Deep connections to the This has helped create a
past: historic places perception of rural idylls, but
he also wrote about the
Viewed as natural, unpolluted,— harshness, cruelty and violence of
friendly, with a slower pace of life rural places.

Undesirable rural places?

Some rural locations are perceived as undesirable by people who live in cities — and also by people who
live in rural places:
Remote — takes too long to Limited socia| Population characteristics (cliques,
travel to oe from, too LE rom opportunities _inward-looking, conservative,
work and leisure opportunities narrow-minded, white, old)

Negative media
representations Negative perceptions High transport
of rural places costs

Reputation Limited range of services

| Synoptic Theme:
Geographical © °
Qualitative
Attitudes to rural areas may vary | information
People can view rural areas in different ways You need to be able to interpret qualitative
at different life-cycle stages, but there are information (advertising copy, tourist agency “
also different types of rural areas. material, local art exhibitions) to show whatit
° Accessible rural areas (accessible from | means about a chosen local place. |
cities) may be attractive to older, wealthier
people looking for places to retire to or
to commuters. This can push up property
prices, making the place unaffordable for
younger residents.
Very remote rural areas are attractive to
some urban residents who want to live
closer to nature. However, they are often
depopulating as younger residents move
away to places with more opportunities.

hoir
w(105 Kelpteleletidtatetietebetetse
tetetee
Why might people perceive remote rural areas in negative ways at different stages of the life cycle?

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Evaluating peoples views

There is a range of ways to evaluate how people view their living spaces, including using statistical
evidence, media evidence and different representations of your chosen places.

Statistical evidence
* Census data is collected every 10 years. Statistical tests
Local characteristics on ethnicity, identity,
language and religion are available for Spearman’s rank correlation: tests the strength
output areas — the Census’ smallest of statistical relationships, e.g. between crime and
geographical unit. These are useful for house prices. See page 264.
evidence on diversity. Scattergraphs: used to evaluate the relationship
* The ONS website provides statistical between two variables in an area.
evidence on employment, crime and °e Use a best-fit line to indicate the trend and
environment issues. This evidence can be its strength.
useful in setting up hypotheses to explore in
* A strong positive correlation has little scatter
your research.
about the line. The slope of the line is positive.
* House prices are a reasonable measure of
e A weak correlation has more scatter around the line.
how attractive people find an area. Zoopla is
a useful site for this. * No correlation has no best-fit line.

Happiness ratings (O-4), 2014/15 Significant change

% since 2011/12
North East 10.8 Improvement
lee) Yorkshire and The Humber 10.2 Improvement Different media
a North West 10.2 Improvement
South West 8.6 Improvement National and local news media and local community
East Midlands 6.7 Improvement social media may cover stories about place
West Midlands 8.6 Improvement identity and provide contrasting evidence about
East of England 8.5 Improvement
Se a reverent issues such as diversity, migration and integration.
South East 8.0 Improvement It is important to recognise bias in news media
England = 9.0%, UK = 8.9%
coverage as a reason for conflicting views.
Media coverage is sometimes responding to the
publication of surveys (e.g. lpsos MORI) and
government reports.

| (4 eniteamee Representations
Different representations can influence perceptions of cultural and demographic
issues and conflicts. Qualitative viewpoints of places (maybe through music,
photography, film, art or literature) are valuable.
* Consider whether the representation is positive or negative about the place:
what is it that tells you this? A
ine Contrast representations of the place to consider tensions about place identity.
* Evaluate
| change
‘ in representations
2S over time.

NW hehe try this

Give an example or examples of how statistical evidence could help evaluate whether people have a positive
or negative image of a place that you have studied.

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UK diversity
Culture and society is now more diverse in the UK, due to internal and international migration from forme
colonies and the European Union. However, diversity is unevenly distributed.
%o
Internal migration
° There is a high rate of internal movement of people
within the UK — 2.9 million people moving between
places in 2014.
For many decades there was a clear north-
to-south movement of people in England,
especially to London and the south-east, causing
regional disparities.
Now the pattern is more complex. While some
remote rural areas (e.g. coast of Cumbria) have
continued to lose population to internal migration,
the same is now true of London.
Reasons for net migration out of London include
the high cost of housing.

International migration
Recent immigration has two main phases:
115.0 to 370.1 (65)
1) Post-war: The British Nationality Act (1948) 75.0 to 114.9 (57)
gave Commonwealth citizens free access to the 50.0 to 74.9 ~ (70)
UK. Large numbers moved from the West Indies (61)
(102)
and from the Indian subcontinent in the 1950s
(26)
and 1960s. See also page 131.

2) EU expansion: Since 2004 and the expansion of

the EU to eight new countries, immigration from
other EU countries to the UK has increased.
By the end of 2017, 3.6 million people from
other EU countries were living in the UK.

Changes to culture and society

° The most popular destinations for immigrants are
London, the South East, the West Midlands, the
East Midlands. t+ Data for Northern Ireland are only available at the country level.
tt Data are not available for areas with fewer than 3 non-British
* These areas have seen the biggest changes in Annual Population Survey (APS) contacts in 2015.
terms of services and characteristics changing
to serve the new residents: for example, shops,
places of worship, entertainment, schooling.
* Votes for Brexit were influenced by perceived
changes to culture and society.

Analysis of the 2016 Brexit vote shows that places with lower than average immigration tended to vote
Leave (85% of such districts voted Leave). What does this finding suggest about people’s perception of
international immigration?
\

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Topic 4B
UK diversity examples
2 Globalisation has created winners and losers, as shown by widening gaps in
development measures and contrasting development trends. Four case studies are
Place
Contexts

investigated here.

The London exodus

Currently, around 60000 more people are leaving
London per year than moving to it. This is mainly due to O 20000 40000 GOO0O0 80000
the impacts of high house prices in London, although South East
there are also cases of councils moving homeless East DASE DARIN LIAS,
South West CT BS
people out of London to house them in cheaper areas. West Midlands amy
Because house prices in London have been double East Midlands [ay
North West San
those in the rest of the country, Londoners have been Yorks ¢ Humber HE
able to afford better, bigger properties in areas outside North East Biss enol
Scotland fo
3)
the capital. Wales my
On the other hand, 2000 homeless families per Northern Ireland

year have been forced to move out of London.

The families involved often have no connections to
these new places: dislocation.

Migration from the Migration from the West Indies

Indian subcontinent ° The West Indies are over 2O islands in the
Caribbean. As part of the Commonwealth, West
* Most immigrants from the Indian subcontinent
Indians were British citizens.
arrived in the 1950s and 1960s.
Between 1946 and 1970, nearly 500000 people
* These immigrants were from a wide range of
came to the UK from the West Indies. Many were
different backgrounds, including Sikhs from
recruited because of a shortage of workers in the
Punjab, Muslims from Pakistan and what became
NHS and public transport.
Bangladesh, and Hindus from western India.
¢ After changes to the immigration system, some
* Many experienced discrimination, including in jobs
long-term residents of the UK were threatened
and housing (which has often continued to this day).
with deportation back to the West Indies in
Around 80% of white British people thought there
2018. This caused a scandal.
were too many immigrants in 19GO0s’ surveys.

Migration and rural areas Social opportunities:

* The area needs vegetable and flower
Some international migrants chose to live in rural areas. pickers.
* More people created more service jobs.
An example is Eastern Europeans settling in Boston, Lincolnshire:
* New shops opened in Boston.
-* Boston saw its non-UkK-born population rise from 1.5% to 11% of
the population by 2011, to meet the demand for workers in the Challenges and
surrounding agricultural area. opportunities
* Most of the new residents were from Poland, Lithuania, Latvia
Social challenges
and Romania, who had settled in Boston to work in the
* Pressure on services, €.g. schools overfull.
surrounding agricultural area. * Increased competition for local jobs.
* In 2016, Boston was unusual in having both high immigration and * Some immigrants send money home
rather than spend it in the local area.
voting Leave in the Brexit referendum.

Now t

How might the arrival of London emigrants cause tensions in the places they move to?

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Topic 4B

Levels of segregation
Diversity often gets expressed in space and place as segregation: where people of the same ethnic
group (or some other social, cultural or economic characteristic) live in the same area,

Reasons for ethnic segregation : |

@ A\ Geographical
International migrants tend to live in distinctive . > ) skills Measuring diversity
places. There are different explanations for this:
* Economic: When immigrants first arrive in a A location quotient (LQ) ratio can be used to
place they need cheap accommodation and establish how spatially concentrated a variable
work. Big cities offer the best options for (for example, ethnic group, cultural attribute) Is.
both. This tends to cluster immigrants in Ina district compared fo a wider region,
specific locations in the cities. * If the LQ is > 1iA then there is a higher spatial
Economic: There are certain types of concentration in a place compared to the
employment that recruits from immigrants, average share of other places in the region.
for example the NHS. This tends to cluster * If it is < 1, then the place is under-
immigrants near specific places of work. represented compared to other places in the
Social: Areas of ethnic segregation tend wider region. .
to have social characteristics reflecting low
incomes and poor quality housing: health,
crime and education may reflect deprivation. Russian oligarch
e Jontexts
* Social: As immigrant communities develop, families in London |
social characteristics of the place will reflect Ah Aen
ethnicity and culture, for example distinctive Segregation is not always about relative .
shops, places of worship, services (such as economic and social deprivation, Some Russian
hairdressers), leisure activities. super-rich oligarchs have been attracted to
Chelsea and South Kensington in London as:
Change over time * it is close to the Russian embassy

Segregation can persist or diminish over time

* has high-end shop ing and cultural
a8 Nigh-6nd SnoPring aNd CuEula OR aa
ities
as communities change. * high-value London property is seen as a
safe investment.
As new generations are born, economic and
social opportunities widen for communities,
and individuals can move to new places with, Gusc
for; example,
‘
better . education
¥
and health care: 2) study
e
Southall 2Ontexts }

this is called assimilation. Southall, west London, is home to a Punjabi

* Segregation can persist over time if new community of around 35000,
immigrants replace older ethnic groups: e.g. * By 1960, 1000 Punjabis lived in Southall: i}
Brick Lane, London was once a Jewish area
most working at a local factory whose
and is now a Bangladeshi area.
manager recruited Sikhs because he had |
* Some areas can become locked in a served with Sikhs in the Second World War, |
downwards spiral
hikeigeof deprivation, which slows Because their incomes were so low, the
down the assimilation process. |
first Punjabi immigrants lived in crowded
conditions: 20 men in one small house.
ic Theme: A&A * A cinema in the area showed Bollywood films: |
audiences of BOOO were common,
These changes influence experiences and New immigrants from Afghanistan and
perceptions of place, . Somalia have moved into the area, while .
many descendants of the original Punjabi
immigrants have moved away.

Explain what is meant by the term ‘assimilation’, How might assimilation have happened in the example
of Southall?

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Change, tension, conflict

Changes to places can lead to tension and conflict.

Changing land use

ull
Different community groups, local and national es

governments and TNCs may make changes to land

uses that create challenges and opportunities for
local people and their lived experiences of place.
For example, the regeneration of the London
Docklands in the 1980s changed land use from
docks and deindustrialised former industrial
areas into London’s second financial district.
Tensions were created as some local people felt
forced out of the area by gentrification. At the
same time, opportunities increased for others
with new job opportunities, higher property prices
for property owners, more retail and leisure
services and improved health and education.

Tensions over migration

Cultural and social changes in a place due to
OF Boston, Lincolnshire
immigration can cause tensions between long-term Tensions in Boston related to increased
residents and new migrants. immigration from other EU countries (see page
° Tensions can be over economic issues, such as 131 for more on this example). Tensions related
new migrants undercutting long-term residents to issues such as:
by charging less for contract jobs. * long-term residents facing longer waiting
Tensions can be over cultural and social issues, times before they could see a GP due to the
often connected to wider political conflicts. town’s population growth
For example, long-term residents may resent what the children of long-term residents being in
they perceive as challenges to British values when larger classes at school, with teaching staff
immigrants bring cultural changes into an area. spending time supporting children whose
Changes to the built environment can also first language was not English
provoke hostility: for example, the building of increased competition for jobs and low pay
mosques to serve immigrant Muslim communities for jobs due to immigrants accepting lower
may provoke hostility from long-term residents. wages than long-term residents.
Hostility as a result of changes to place can lead
to social exclusion. Social exclusion is when a
group of people are shunned or not allowed to OFA Luton, Bedfordshire @@y
participate in the social life of a community. Contexts
* Between 2001 and 2011 Luton’s Asian
population grew by 49%.
x e” 2)\ Geographical
¢ From 2004 to 2009, a small number of
3 ) skits Oral accounts Luton’s Muslim community of 20000 was
linked to terrorism.
onl should be able to identify and understand
* In 2009 a group of 20 Muslims from the
tensions between existing residents and
town protested against British involvement in
newcomers, from oral expressions of the values
¥ Muslim countries.
andee eeeerences: of different proves:
° There was strong opposition to the protest
from other parts of the community.
Asian businesses in the town were attacked.

Suggest one way that changing land use in a place could create both challenges and opportunities for
local people.

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Measuring management
The management of cultural and demographic issues can be measured using a range of techniques:
‘income and employment measures, improvements in social measures of deprivation, and demographic
changes and assimilation of different cultures.

Measuring success
Relating these measures to ethnic groups in places and comparing measurements over time can indicate
how successful the management of cultural and demographic issues has been and enable comparison to
other areas.
Aspect of re
a Sac 2 Economic measures Social progress _-~_| Assimilation
regeneration free ake
Measurement. | * Income * Reduction in inequality * Voter turnout during
° Poverty ° Improvements in elections (low turnout
¢ Employment measures of deprivation suggests lack
* Demographic changes — of engage
increased life Measurement of
expectancy, reduced hate crime (victims
health deprivation targeted because of
their ethnicity)

Potential * Census data * Gini index scores Comparison of voter

fieldwork and | |ocal planning office and local | * IMD ranking Bln. data for
research authority websites * Dewlographicincieaters: at Fike elections
° NOMIS (ONS) population size, age sietartar
° Historical and current data — structure, migration Hate crime sta
including historical land use statistics, ethnic mix, throm Wa
4 life expectancy Development of local
Indices of Deprivation (ONS) cGimuniky eee
unity group

Assessing success
Geographical °
Measures of income and employment can Change over time
indicate successful management if ethnic
Maps and photographs are two key sources for
minority groups show increasing incomes and
comparing a place before and after change.
reduced unemployment.
* OS maps are an excellent source because
Social progress success would be indicated by: the map series go back a long time and
* reductions in inequalities within areas and comparisons can be made at the same scale.
between areas Places of worship are identified.
° improvements in IMD rankings and health * Google Maps incorporates a slider that
measures (for example, life expectancy). enables you to compare different years.
* Local history websites and Facebook pages
provide historic photos of most places.

Now try this

1. Explain why voter turnout is used as a measure of assimilation of different cultures.

2. Suggest a problem or problems with using voter turnout as a measure of assimilation.

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Managing urban change

Different groups perceive urban living spaces in different ways. They also view the success of how different
issues (for example, cultural and demographic) are managed using varying criteria for what successful
management means.

Managing issues of segregation

What is meant by ¢ The immigrants of the 1950s faced open
Managing change? racism and discrimination in Britain.
Change management is used in many Segregation developed in urban centres.
industries to: National strategies to assimilate ethnic minorities
then encouraged minority groups to stop behaving
CA identify an issue that is causing problems
OA : ; in ways that made them seem separate and adopt
come up with solutions ‘British’ ways of life.
assess the
. success or otherwise of Current strategies are multicultural: no one
the solutions culture is seen as more desirable; instead, each
Ww implement the change. culture is equally valued.

@ Problem identified
heme: A&A
Synoptic 4
@ Impact analysis — | A, ee
Assessment ©) how serious is Stakeholder perceptions
and review
the problem?
Different stakeholders will judge the
success of strategies in different ways.
* Governance: Success may be seen in
~ terms of lowered crime rates and in
Change made @ ™ @ Possible solutions terms of cost.
trialled
° Users: Success will be assessed in
terms their own individual circumstances:
do they earn more? Do they feel safer?
¢ Providers: Landowners are interested
in return on their investment; councils in
local government election votes.
Influencers: Success is in how far their
particular campaign was advanced.

Stakeholders in urban change

Providers — for example, the council.
Users — the people who will be using
These stakeholders are providing the land,
what is being changed.
housing, etc. that is going to be changed.

Urban stakeholders

Governance -— the stakeholders with

Influencers — other stakeholders with
overall_control. This may be the
an interest in the change, for example
government that has developed a
local campaign groups.
~ strategy for change.
ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

Now try this

What are the difficulties of a test for how far people have assimilated into British culture?
]

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Urban change example

You need to know an example of contrasting ways in which different demographic and Place
ethnic groups view an urban living space and the impact of national and local Contexts |

strategies in resolving issues.

Angell Town
The Angell Town estate in Brixton, south London,
is home to around 4000 people, of which some
60% are black and minority ethnic (BME).
Angell Town is one of the 10% most deprived areas
of the UK. Crime is twice the average London rate.
Male life expectancy (73) is five years below the
London average.
Differing views
° Young people do not perceive the living space as
safe. They feel threatened by gangs.
Angell Town gang members feel threatened by
gangs from the surrounding estates. They see
travelling to other parts of Brixton as a very
dangerous thing to do.
Because of gang violence in the community, there Angell Town stakeholders
is a heavy CCTV presence all over the Angell
Providers — Lambeth Council: Users — Angell
Town estate. Young people feel the police are
observing them all the time. owners of the Angell Town estate Town’s resident

A youth centre in Angell Town was closed in 2012 Sw

following violence. Young people on the estate Stakeholders in

felt there was nothing to do. Angell Town
Adults in the community are very concerned about
gang culture and violence. Some residents welcome
Influencers — the Evening
the heavy CCTV presence as it has cut crime.
Standard newspaper, Football Governance — the
Mothers are especially active in community Beyond Borders, Citi UK government,
support. Some felt the council needed to provide banking group Metropolitan Folic
more activities for young people.
In 2015, London’s Evening Standard newspaper
began a campaign to improve the lived experience
of Angell Town.

Managing change in Angell Town

Geographical
Analysis. of
In 2015, the Evening Standard highlighted how
newspaper reports community leaders in Angell Town were struggling
You need to be able to analyse contrasting to get the council to improve services for young
newspaper reports about a change, including people. The newspaper and the Citi banking group
opinions about that change. funded 1& grassroots groups to improve lived
experience there.
° A local primary school reopened.

Now try this * The all-weather football pitch was repaired and
training provided by Football Beyond Borders.
¢ A community centre opened with plans to
(a) How could the success of the changes in Angell develop media skills training.
Town be measured? * Residents reported a much more positive feel o
(b) Would all stakeholders agree on these criteria the estate.
for success?

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Managing rural change

As with urban areas, different rural stakeholders perceive rural living space in different ways and use
different criteria for judging whether management of rural change is a success or not.

Judging change Managing issues of segregation

Change is as much about changes to people’s
The UK government’s Rural Development
image of a place as it is about reality.
Programme for England focuses on
Rural change may include: providing grants to rural businesses so they
* Economic change: Innovation and diversification can invest in new machinery and buildings.
cause rapid change in the rural economy, but It also funds the development of rural
some stakeholders resent change away from the broadband. It aims to create more jobs and
‘rural idyll’ image of the countryside. more opportunities in rural areas.
Demographic change: Seeing rural areas as
The National Trust’s strategies include: work
needing to be protected from development
with others to conserve the nation’s rural
reduces opportunities for young people,
landscapes; develop new ways of using the
leading to population decline and an ageing
land that help support nature; celebrate
population structure.
local heritage.
Cultural change: Counterurbanisation sees
people rejecting the city for the countryside, The UK government’s RDPE Countryside
but makes rural areas more urban in character Productivity Scheme has given grants to
(including more culturally diverse). farmers for managing water resources,
forests and soil productivity.

Stakeholders in rural change

Providers — for example, landowners,
the local council. These stakeholders
Users — the people who use what
provide the land.
is being changed.

Rural stakeholders
fe

Governance — the stakeholders with Influencers — other stakeholders with an

overall control. This may be the interest in the change, for example the
government that has developed NFU (National Farmers’ Union) or CPRE
a strategy for change. (Campaign to Protect Rural England).

Stakeholder perceptions
Different stakeholders will judge the success
_ of strategies
in different ways. -
-* Governance: Success may be seen in terms
Hi
of rural population growth, more jobs in rural
areas, higher rural wages.
——————
© Influencers: Success is in how far their
particular campaign was advanced. Now try this
For example, campaigns to conserve the
‘rural idyll’ can conflict with rural
_ development projects. Why might different rural stakeholders have different
views about the changes to ‘idyll’ areas, for example,
* Users: Success will be assessed in terms
a forest to a holiday park?
of improvements or otherwise to their own
individual Clcqumietancese,

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|

Rural change example }

You need to know an example of contrasting ways in which different demographic and Place
ethnic groups view a rural living space and the impact of national and local strategies Contexts

on a rural area. This example is of young people in Caithness and Sutherland; revise the
example you studied in class.

Caithness and Sutherland, Scotland

Caithness and Sutherland is part of the Scottish Highlands in north Scotland: a remote rural area.
Census data shows young people are likely to leave the Highlands, with only 16% of the population being
between 15 and 29 years.

Opportunities and challenges Contrasting views of development

Jobs in Caithness and Sutherland are mostly In 2018 the Caithness and Sutherland council
in public services, primary industries or linked adopted the Caithness and Sutherland Local
to the decommissioning of Dounreay nuclear Development Plan.
power station. Around 60% of Caithness and * The council plans to provide 1300 new homes
Sutherland young people surveyed in 2015 and to do this it needs to expand the amount
did not perceive the area as having plenty of of land used for housing. However, it is more
job opportunities. efficient to build these houses in the main towns |
There are opportunities to develop renewable of the area, which does not support smaller
energy industries in the coastal areas of villages: a ‘towns first’ strategy.
Caithness and Sutherland. * New development outside of the towns will not
Some areas have limited transport options, so be allowed to harm the character of rural areas.
people have to travel by car to access services, This contrasts with developing the wider rural
education, training and employment. This can area, but should help promote tourism.
be especially difficult for young people and old ¢ Communications across Caithness and Sutherland
people without cars. are difficult (many single-track roads) but are too |
In some parts of Caithness and Sutherland there expensive to upgrade. The Local Development
is limited connectivity to high-speed internet, Plan will improve broadband connectivity and |

and also limited connectivity to mains water and encourage the development of more online
waste water treatment. services (banking, health care, etc.). This policy
Despite the area’s declining population, more is popular with younger people but older people |
new housing is needed, especially affordable may prefer face-to-face services.
housing. This is because household sizes are
also falling (for example, due to divorces).
Tourism is underdeveloped in the region
and there are opportunities to promote and
coordinate tourism in Caithness and Sutherland.
Around 49% of young people surveyed in 2015
did not perceive Caithness and Sutherland as a
good place to live as a young person.

1. Suggest reasons why such a high percentage of the young people who took part in the 2015 survey did not
perceive Caithness and Sutherland as a good place to live as a young person.
2. Why do you think development plans for Caithness and Sutherland have taken a ‘towns first’ approach?

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skills l
These exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for the Diverse Places topic in Paper 2.
Look back at pages 119 to 138 to remind yourself of the content.

Worked example
Learn key terms
_ 1. Define what is meant by the term ‘segregation’. Ensure you learn definitions of key terms —
(1 mark) this will help you to prepare for this type
The separation of a group of people from of question, but will also enable you to
other groups. Sometimes this is by choice, use these terms in relevant ways in
sometimes by force, for example in the longer answers.
southern states of the USA before 1964.

Z One-mark questions do not require long

BD» answers, but in definitions try to add an
example if you can.

2. Suggest one reason why some international

migrants choose to live in rural areas. (3 marks)
7 ie Answers to ‘suggest’ questions should
identify a reason and then develop
International migrants choose rural areas for it to get the 3 marks. Note how the
agricultural jobs. Migrants are often skilled at these answer here gives the reason and then
jobs, which are difficult and not highly paid, which
makes two linked points to develop
means employers are happy to give migrants work.
it: the linked points can add detail
(your knowledge) or depth (showing your
understanding).

3. With reference to a named example, explain

Six-mark ‘explain’ questions test your
the factors that mean some urban locations are
Quy ability to recall and apply knowledge and
perceived as undesirable. (6 marks)
understanding, and demonstrate this
Crime is an important reason why some urban through a broad range of geographical
locations are perceived as undesirable. ideas, presented in a detailed and fully
For example, knife crime in parts of London means
developed way. However, your broad,
that people who live there are worried about their
detailed and developed answer should
safety, and people from outside of London might
also not take more than around eight
be worried to go to London to visit.
minutes to write, or you may end up with
Another reason is the way the media represents not enough time to complete the higher
the city. By only talking about some areas of mark questions — so be concise!
London when it is about knife crime, the media
affects perceptions of these urban areas ina
biased way.
4 A question will only ask you specifically
Another connected aspect is ethnicity.
Ferceptions of urban locations as being undesirable
for a named example when it focusing
can be affected by people’s prejudice. So for knife on a part of the specification that has a
crime in London, the fact that some victims and place context — that means you will have
perpetrators are black means the media incorrectly studied a particular example or a case
represents this as an ethnic or cultural problem. study for that topic. For this topic you
may also be able to use the local places
that you have studied in depth (i.e. the
place where you live or study and one
contrasting place) in your answer.

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skills 2
These exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for the Diverse Places topic in Paper 2.

Worked example The use of statistical evidence to

determine whether people have a
Anxiety ratings geste: 2014/15 positive or negative image of a place
North East 22.1 is something you will have looked at
af-4¥u
¥
Yorkshire and The Humber
North West
21.3
20.7
in your study of your local place.
London 19.2 You can use your place study to help
South West 18.8
South East 18.8 you think of reasons why people's
East Midlands 18.6
East of England 18.3 anxiety might be higher in some regions
West Midlands 17.9 | : eee 2
OO. 15\2 10515 20m 25)
than in others.

Figure 1: Anxiety ratings — percentages of each The questions on the paper for this
region of adults rating anxiety as between 6-10 on option are a mix of shorter answer
a scale where O was not at all anxious and 10 was questions, some of which may involve
completely anxious. using a stimulus resource, and a 2O0-
mark question. As you revise this topic,
1. Study Figure 1. Suggest one reason for the pattern &) try coming up with 3-mark, G-mark and
of anxiety in England. (3 marks)
2O0-mark questions of your own.
Reasons why people feel anxious could include
living in a stressful environment. This stress
could come from people’s perceptions of a Twenty-mark questions have 5 marks
place having levels of crime and deprivation available for AO1 (geographical
they find hard to deal with, or perhaps knowledge and geographical ideas) and
because of change happening to their place 15 marks for AO2 (applying knowledge
too rapidly for them to come to terms and understanding, analysing and
with easily. evaluating). Your answer should
therefore identity different measures of
success in rural regeneration (AO1) and
2. Evaluate the view that increasing population then work through them using AO2
growth is the best measure of success for » to evaluate their relative importance.
rural regeneration. (20 marks) Evaluation requires a judgement,
Many different measures of success for which should be backed up
rural regeneration exist, broadly divisible by your discussion.
into economic and social, because there
are a range of problems in rural places that
This extract is from the start of the
regeneration projects seek to solve, which
student's answen The student has
are often experienced differently by different
clearly briefly planned their answer
stakeholders. For this reason it is not possible
before they started writing because
to state that one measure is better than
they indicate from the start what
others in evaluating the success of
rural regeneration. their overall judgement is going to
be. The advantage of this is that
For some rural regeneration projects, you can then make points justifying
increasing population growth would be a key your evaluation all the way through
measure of success: remote rural places often your answer The answer starts off
experience population decline (for example
by looking at situations in which
Caithness and Sutherland). However, it would
increasing population growth would
be important for the measure to provide
be a key measure of success,
more detail about the age structure of the
introducing some place context
demographic growth: had regeneration been
knowledge, and evaluating from the
successful in retaining young people in the
remote rural area, in particular... start, which is a good approach
considering the importance of AO2

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practice l
Practise for Paper 2 of your exam using these exam-style questions. Afterwards see suggested answers
on page 303.

1. Which of the following is the correct 2 ° °

definition of ‘deprivation’? (1 mark) Multip le-choice questions
Multiple-choice questions are used on the
A The movement of people away from AS papers from time to time, usually as a
their homes version of a 1-mark question for definitions,
simple calculations, or extraction of fact or
ee Population and point from a photograph, map or graph.
population change

C The degree of variation within

a population In a 3-mark question only one idea is
required, but it must be developed
ibe wecople. lack the things. they would with two additional linked points. In this
expect to have in the 21st century UNA i
Ag question no credit will be given for a
2. Suggest one statistical measure that second statistical measure, even if it
can be used to test the strength of the & is CoRnect.
relationship between age and positive
ee OL eipiace ene Where two things are asked for in a
3. Explain two reasons for changes in the & i 4-mark poten there will be 2 marks
cultural characteristics of places. (4 marks) "tor éach: in this question, 1 mark for
é each reason identified and 1 mark for
4. Explain how the population of the & developing it. Make sure that your
UK has grown unevenly over the reasons are different and not just the
last 50 years. (6 marks) same reason in different words.
5. Assess the impacts of global influences @) Ve teanotoeammnnnansanes ne eee paces
on your local place and your This is an ‘explain’ question, so be careful
contrasting place. (12 marks) not to get bogged down in describing
the UKs uneven population growth (and
certainly not its population distribution).
Use your place context knowledge to
back up your points with accurate and
relevant knowledge, for example London
Plan your answer to help you structure it
versus the north-east of England.
effectively. It may well be possible to use
.the contrasts between your two place
studies as a structure for your answer
and help you come to a judgement about | ‘Assess’ questions
which impacts are most significant. ‘Assess’ questions for this option may be
(but won’t always be) about your place
study — the one you did for the place where
you live and another contrasting place.
This makes it easier to get your AO2 marks
(which make up 2 of the 12 marks for this
question) for applying knowledge and making
a judgement.

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practice 2
Practise for Paper 2 of your exam using these exam-style questions. Afterwards see suggested answers
‘on page 304.

1. Study Figure 1, a newspaper article from 2014 Newspaper articles are quite often
describing Russian investment in London’s used in exam papers to provide
property market. representations of places and to provide
Ags contrasting evidence about the need for
regeneration and rebranding. You can use
Russians b Lond t
pri emery Cie your GCSE English skills for this type of
By Phillipa Space, April 2014 question by considering how the writer
Rich Russians are buying up London’s conveys their opinion, backed up
most exclusive property — penthouse by evidence.
apartments, townhouses and city SIRE CHor Ne
mansions. With Russia under criticism
for the annexation in Crimea, London Good answers are specific. Make sure
is a great place to invest, and it’s that you explain the causes of tension,
wonderful news for the city’s elite not just describe the tension in vague
estate agents. The money coming into terms. At least two reasons should be
the market is simply astonishing, and
included in your answer. Do mention
estate agents across the capital are
specific places and named groups of
benefitting from an exciting boost to
people. For example, long-term residents
city property prices.
who want to keep living spaces as they
are, and recent in-migrants who want
Suggest one way the writer of the article &) change them.
presents a positive view of changes to an
urban area. (3 marks) If you have learned lots of information
2. Explain why there are often tensions over about a named example, remember only
changes to places. (6 marks) to include details that are relevant to
bf? the question: this question is about
3. With reference to a named example, explain explaining different opinions, not
why people have different opinions about about the details of national and local
urban living spaces. (6 marks) strategies for resolving issues in the
living space.
Named urban place: rere reeenenenn

4. For your local place and your contrasting

You will have studied two places in detail
place, evaluate the view that inequality is AL)
the most important factor in determining for this topic: the place where you live
whether people have negative images and/or study, and a contrasting place.
of places. (20 marks) Ye Having this detailed knowledge to use in
your evaluation is a great help for 20-
Location of your local place: mark questions, but remember that the
majority of these 20 marks are for AO2,
Location of your contrasting place:
50 use your knowledge to evaluate the
view against each of your two places,
using detail to support your evaluation.

Twenty-mark questions
Plan the correct ideas and points to make in relation to the question theme, in this case inequalities
and other factors affecting image. Use evidence from your studies to support these ideas and points.
Place scale must be appropriate i.e. local (small), not whole cities, counties or countries.

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Hydrological cycle
_ Solar energy and gravity drive the operation of the global hydrological cycle.

| The global hydrological cycle — key terms

Ww Closed system: There is a transfer of energy Ww Stores: Where matter (or energy) is kept for a
but not matter between the system and its relatively long period of time; water is stored
surroundings; so the same amount of water for long periods of time in oceans (3600 years)
is kept within the hydrological cycle and just and as groundwater (up to 10000 years).
circulated continuously. Of Flows (fluxes): The amount of matter (or
Ww Inputs: The movement of matter (or energy) energy) transferred from one place to another;
into a system; in the hydrological cycle movements within the hydrological cycle
closed system, this is an internal movement include throughflow and runoff (surface flow).
into a store only, for example, precipitation Of Solar energy: Heat energy from the Sun
from atmosphere to the ground or sea. causes changes in the state of water and drives
Ww Outputs: The movement of matter (or energy) some of the processes within the hydrological
out of a system; in the hydrological cycle cycle, such as evaporation and wind direction.
closed system, this is an internal movement Vw Gravitational potential energy: The mass of
only out of a store, for example, evaporation the Earth exerts a pull on water, causing water
from the sea or land into the atmosphere. to fall as precipitation and rivers to flow
downhill back to the ocean (the main store).

Hydrological cycle — a closed system

A diagram may be used to show proportional flows within systems.

Ocean to land . Mii

water vapour a \ land Evaporation, |
transport 40 \rcrmmensenne 9) precipitation transpiration
113 73

Now t ee ----------------------------
=

1. Describe three flows (fluxes) within the global hydrological cycle and state the size of flow for each.
|
2. Why are oceans the largest store of water within the global hydrological cycle?
3. Explain why the global hydrological cycle is considered to be a closed system.

\ 4 \
tha & Aa i 4 Oe > 4 ‘ ae , ' . 143
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Water stores, fluxes

and budget
You need to be aware of the relative importance and size and storage times of stores and annual fluxes in
providing water for human use.
Water stores Some stores are considered non-renewable
because they are not replaced in a short
Store | Hf total period of time. For example:
° Fossil water-was stored underground
Oceans 96.9
in rocks a very long time ago when the
Cryosphere (frozen water) ore 15 000 years
climate of an area was much wetter.
Groundwater et For example, this happened in the area of
Surface water 0.01 2 wks — 10 yrs the Sahara before tectonic forces moved
Atmosphere 0.001 10 days it away from the equatorial rain belt.
Biosphere (living layer) 0.0001 * Ablation (melting) of glaciers, due to climate
change, reduces the storage of water as
ice and is currently not being replaced.

Annual global f luxes (10? km?/year)

ae Tape

C Atmosphere
ree %,

%O
>

C ocem D Surface flow = 2 CD

Global water budget Water availability for people

* The annual balance between the fluxes (flows) and —* Humans need or use water for many purposes.
size of water stores is known as the global It is essential to life and also used for farming,
water budget. industry, cooling machinery and for HEP.
° Water is generally considered to be a renewable * The water budget determines what is available ©
resource because there is a constant circulation because some regions or areas have more
and replenishment of stores without any losses precipitation than others (e.g. mountains at
from the planet. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ));
* However, the availability of water may vary some have more rivers and lakes; some have
throughout a year, especially if there is a dry more groundwater.
season in the climate or in summer when plant * Some of these stores are constantly replenished
absorption and transpiration and evaporation and so people have enough water each year;
rates are higher. In particular the amount of soil but fossil water reserves are not, and the water
moisture may vary, which is important to plant budget may be experiencing change in a region
growth and runoff and throughflow fluxes. due to global warming.

—S

Now (try this

Explain the residency period (length of time stored) of water in hydrological cycle stores.

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Hydrological cycle: processes

The hydrological cycle consists of a series of linked processes, with inputs, flows (fluxes) and outputs.

Precipitation patterns and types Flows (fluxes)

Precipitation is the main input in the closed system. * Interception: A layer of vegetation intercepts
It may fall over land or ocean. There are three types: precipitation before it reaches the ground.
7) Orographic (relief rainfall) —-caused when humid Trees are particularly effective during the full leaf
air is forced to rise over mountains. When the Bp
od Wie Sem ad Aare VCE one au
A ; : ; Plants also absorb water through their roots.
air cools at higher altitude, moisture condens-
es, forms clouds and droplets of water which Infiltration: The movement of water downwards
then fall due to gravity. Most rain falls on the through the spaces in the soil; this continues
slopes facing the wind direction and tops of until capacity is reached and the soil
the mountains, with drier air on the other side becomes saturated.
(lee) so less rain falls (rain shadow). ° Throughflow: The movement of water downslope
through the soil towards a base level (river, lake
eS Frontal — caused when warm humid air or sea).
is forced to rise at a warm front or cold Direct (surface) runoff: Rain falling onto the
front, usually as part of a low pressure ground may flow over the surface when it is so
system (depression). Again, the air cools,
intense that there is no time for it to infiltrate.
condensation takes place, clouds of water
Saturated overland flow: If all soil spaces are full
droplets form which is followed by rain.
of water then any further rain cannot infiltrate and
©) Convectional — caused when the ground so will run off the surface.
and lower atmosphere are heated by the Percolation: The movement of water downwards
Sun’s energy causing rising thermals of air; through porous or permeable rocks.
humidity in the air condenses when it cools at Groundwater flow: The downwards and sideways
higher altitude, forms towering cumulo-nimbus movement of water in rock layers under the
clouds, often followed by intense heavy influence of gravity and rock structure.
rainfall (thunderstorms).

Outputs
° Evaporation: The change in state of water from liquid to gas when heated by the Sun; this happens
from oceans, lakes, rivers, top soil and plant surfaces. It increases with temperature, wind and dark
surfaces (for example, forests).
* Transpiration: Plants absorb water from the soil through their roots, to use within the process of
photosynthesis; they then transpire moisture to the surface of their leaves (from where it is evaporated
— leading to the term evapotranspiration). It increases with tree cover, leaf growth and soil moisture.
* Channel flow: Runoff moves to the lowest points in a landscape, where it collects to form a linear body
of water flowing over the ground (for example, rivulet, stream, river). The larger the amount of water,
the larger the discharge (cubic metres per second). It increases with amount of rainfall or snow melt.

Now try th
1. Describe orographic rainfall.
2. Compare throughflow and groundwater flow.
3. Explain the factors affecting the rate of evapotranspiration.

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Hydrological cycle: factors

Physical factors determine the relative importance of processes in a drainage basin (an open system
based on a land area linked to one main river). Human factors may change these.

Influence of physical factors

(ingots:ii a ee oes Outputs

Climate: Amount of More direct runoff when Evaporation and
temperature, precipitation precipitation is greater or transpiration is greater
precipitation (especially effective more intense. when hotter.
intensity and rainfall) and
amount, seasonality seasonal patterns.
Vegetation: High transpiration Large forests intercept a lot Extensive tree cover will
type, amount of rates increase of rain, slowing infiltration, increase evapotranspiration
land cover local rainfall. runoff and throughflow. and reduce channel flow.
Soils: depth, Soils with more spaces Clay soils reduce infiltration
structure allow more water to and so increase evaporation
infiltrate, reducing from the ground and runoff.
overland flow but
increasing throughflow.
Geology: ~ Permeable or porous rocks Impermeable rocks prevent
permeability, allow more percolation and so percolation, perhaps causing
porosity increase groundwater flow. saturation of soils leading to
more overland flow.
| Relief: slope angle, Orographic rainfall Steeper slopes cause Slopes direct water
altitude, shape created by high ground, reduced infiltration, more into channels.
|runoff and faster throughflow.

Human disruptions
9) Case
* Deforestation: Removal of tree cover reduces R study The Amazon Basin Place, }
Contexts
interception and evapotranspiration, increasing At least 17% of Amazon forest has
runoff, soil erosion and flooding during intense been lost. This forest released 2Okm® of water
rainfall events. Reduced evapotranspiration may to atmosphere every day, but this amount is
cause local droughts as rainfall reduces, now reducing.
All are noticeable in the Amazon Basin.
Deforested areas are 3°C warmer and much
* Land-use change: Changing catchment areas drier than forested areas. Dry seasons are’
from natural vegetation to urbanised impermeable getting longer, with 21% reduction in rainfall by
surfaces increases runoff and channel flow, 2050. Droughts are more common — examples
creating higher discharges and more flooding. include 2005, 2010 and 2015/16.
Reservoir creation: Damming a river prevents
channel flow, reducing discharges downstream,
and creating an evaporation source.
Abstracting water: People use water for several
purposes and sometimes this is taken from the
surface or the ground faster than it is replaced.

|, Compare the impact on river discharge of deforestation and creating a reservoir.

2, Explain why flows within the water cycle vary naturally.

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Water budgets
A water budget is the balance between inputs and outputs, which are influenced by climate.
This balance determines the amount of moisture in soils.

The water budget equation

Equation
* Allows a calculation of water supply during a year
and identification of time periods when there may P=Q+E+S
not be enough to meet natural and human needs. P is precipitation
¢ Where P is greater than Q and E, there is a Q is channel discharge
positive water balance; where P is less than Q E is evapotranspiration
and E, there is a negative one.
S is change in storage.
* There is growing concern that climate change is
This can be used to show annual (or monthly)
altering water budgets around the world, with
balances between precipitation inputs and
different annual precipitation patterns, higher
evapotranspiration outputs.
evapotranspiration, and more droughts and
severe flooding.
Northern hemisphere Place |}
Soil moisture
water budgets Nhs
The amount of water in the soil is important for
successful plant growth: * Tropical climate, e.g. Brazil (Amazon):
‘Winter’ (November to January) is a period
* In an ecosystem it is important to have enough
of recharge when precipitation is higher
soil moisture so that plants support other trophic
than evapotranspiration. Highest rainfall in
levels (feeding groups).
February, and a soil moisture surplus until
* For farmers, it is important to have enough soil May. Evapotranspiration rates similar all year
moisture to produce high yields of crops (food (100 to 150mm) as average temperature
and profit). is always about 25°C, Rainfall much
It is most important that soil moisture is high lower from May to November and below
during the growth seasons (spring and summer). evapotranspiration rates, so with plant use,
there is a soil moisture deficit by Oct.
Temperate climate, e.g. southern UK:
a &\ Geographical Precipitation similar all year (SOmm per
}
/ skills
Water budget graph
month), with slight summer decrease (May to
~for oe) gralpoate August). Large variations in evapotranspiration:
high in July (7Omm) but very low in winter
(December = 5mm), as temperatures are
much lower and plant growth ceases.
Soil moisture deficit in July and August when
plants have used the winter surplus.
Polar climate, e.g. northern Canada:
Precipitation low all year, and maximum
in summer (July and August = 24mm).
Evapotranspiration only between May
and September when temperatures are a
little higher and plant growth occurs (July
peak = 126mm). Soil moisture recharge
between September and May, especially with
snowmelt, and a surplus at the start of the
—~ = monthly precipitation _ summer but with a deficit by August.
’
_ &~ = monthly potential evapotranspiration
A = soil moisture surplus
B= soil moisture utilisation
vn = = soil moisture deficit
Es soil moisture recharge
% eee = field,capacity

Data for June: precipitation 65mm; Ona copy of the graph, plot the data shown to
_Svepobranepiration "15
t mm complete the water budget graph.
ee

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River regimes and storm

hydrographs
Land-use patterns within river catchment areas
Land uses affect the movement of water after precipitation, such as interception and absorption by
forests or the impermeable surfaces of urbanisation.

Z Land-use zoning can reduce risk by controlling building on, floodplains. Planners are also involved in
decision-making about flood prevention and protection.

River regimes: factors Storm hydrographs: factors

* Seasonal precipitation patterns: Some areas * Drainage basin size and shape: Smaller and
are wet or dry all year and there is little variation. more rounded catchment areas create a fast
However, some climates have wet and dry response ‘flashy’ hydrograph.
seasons and there is a big difference in discharge. Drainage density: More tributaries collect rain
Seasonal temperature patterns: Tropical quickly creating a fast response in the main river.
areas have a similar temperature all year so Soil and rock types: Impermeable types cause
evapotranspiration rates are similar; but some areas more runoff and a rapid increase in discharge.
have warm and cold seasons and there is a large
Local relief of land: Steep valley slopes increase
difference. Frozen ground may also affect runoff.
runoff and speed throughflow, shortening lag time.
Main geology and soil type: Some areas are
Vegetation cover: Lack of natural vegetation
dominated by impermeable rocks and/or soils
cover, especially forests, decreases interception
which increase runoff, creating variations in the
and absorption and shortens the lag time.
regime. Those with porous soils and rock have a
more constant flow. Precipitation intensity and duration: High-
intensity or prolonged rainfall causes more water
Human alterations to profile: One major
to get to the main river quickly.
alteration is the building of dams; these create a
more regular discharge downstream. Human land uses and channel alterations:
Urban developments increase impermeable
Discharge: Cubic metres per second.
surfaces, which increase runoff; concreting and
straightening a channel also increases discharge.
je)ox:|Yukon and Amazon Place
Contexts |
Compare the different river regimes.

tt He
Sebi
FE
Eau Geographical
skills
You must be able to construct and label
Storm hydrographs
le
|
{

|He150; hydrograph features. '

oe} ’ ‘
eeaoa f a i
Ka (
4, scharge Ae” vi)

Wepeecee | Fea
3 thts pan 4

ak Peak |= ;
9 409,
Rate rainfall Falling
gg limb |f1s ey
8
3 re
6 & Beno Normal (base) |10 3
2 20 flow a
HRP
RBRROapGC
et
EI
S¢ 19
SE 10 7
raeae
Hat Bite0)
pea a <.
1200 (ele)
Approach \
segment H
i}

Day 1 : Day 2

Compare the Yukon and Amazon River regimes shown in the graphs..

148
 Had a look r | Nearly there a Nailed it! ee

Natural causes of drought

Drought iis a slow onset hazard affecting 10% of the Earth’s land area and 18% of the population.

Defining drought
Drought is a matter of perspective: in the middle of a desert you would not expect much precipitation
$0, even though it is dry, it would not be considered a drought.
‘However, in areas that usually experience rainfall there may be much less water available as:
_° weather conditions may remain dry for a longer period than normal, or
* farmers may experience a decline in soil moisture levels, or
¢ water levelsin rivers and reservoirs fall,
* human demand for water is greater than the supply.

Medium-term causes

(1) El Nifio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): ENSO cycles occur in

the Pacific Ocean on average every seven years. During El Nifio
warm water moves closer to the Americas, reducing rainfall in the
western Pacific. During La Nifia warm water moves to the extreme
west of the tropical Pacific, reducing rainfall in western parts of
the Americas. These cycles are now known to have global effects,
such as La Nifia events causing drought in East Africa.
(2) Hydrological: Reduced amounts of water in rivers or the
ground may occur if precipitation is reduced in mountainous areas
over several years, especially reducing the amount of snowmelt
(e.g. USA Rockies in the 21st century).

Long-term causes
} (1) Global atmospheric circulation: Descending air between the Hadley and Ferrel cells and between Polar cells
| (worldwide system of winds) creates hot and cold deserts respectively. Areas adjacent to these areas are also
influenced, creating semi-arid climates where droughts are common,
(2) Climate change: Evidence shows that higher temperatures are changing atmospheric systems. Subtropical high
pressure areas are getting stronger, which stops the seasonal movement of the ITCZ (which caused droughts in
Australia 1997-2009, and Sahel 1970-2007). Rainfall events have become more intensive rather than being spread
over time. Higher sea temperatures have changed evaporation and wind patterns, which may cause rain-bearing winds to
_ fail, and have changed ocean 1 currents; where cold currents become stronger evaporation is reduced and drier
| conditions result.

(aaa Drought database to analyse long-term trends |

e been assembled to show conditions, using hydrological data collected from |

Is in hazards such as droughts satellites to complete water budget calculations.
page 153). For example, This index provides early warnings but does not
ted include South Asia and include vulnerability or preparedness.
i

ie Standardised
transpiration Index (SPEl),
ony ees ofTee

‘Now try this

| Explain the short-term causes of drought.

rr aS

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Drought impacts
You need to know how human activity contributes to the risk of drought and the impact of drought
‘on ecosystems.

Human activity and drought risk

a Over-abstraction of surface water: Taking too much water out of streams, lakes and rivers
reduces the amount stored or transferred to areas downstream. If precipitation inputs are not
enough to replenish these stores and flows then drought can be made worse.

Over-abstraction of groundwater: Taking too much water out of aquifer stores lowers the water
table and may make wells dry up, reducing availability. If precipitation inputs are lower than the
water taken out, then drought conditions get worse.

Deforestation: Reduces interception, absorption and evapotranspiration so that water is lost from
local areas, making them drier and more susceptible to drought.

Climate change: Emissions of greenhouse gases are accelerating global warming which is changing
precipitation patterns, making some areas more likely to experience drought.

Drought and wetlands

° Wetland ecosystems have adapted to the OFA Sahel droughts Place
Contexts
presence of water, so if conditions become The semi-arid area south of the Sahara
drier, the whole ecosystem is very vulnerable. Desert has always been prone to droughts, but
If inputs of water are reduced, areas of open since the late 1960s there has been a decline in
water shrink or dry up, soil moisture is lower the amount of rainfall, especially in the mid-1980s.
and dry soils can be eroded, and the capacity This change could be part of a long-term natural
to absorb floodwaters or provide water sources pattern, and some dry years are due to Pacific El
during a drought is reduced. Nifio events. However, human factors also apply:
Other processes that may take place include ° Air pollution from Europe and North America
oxidation of soils, which releases carbon into cooled the Earth, preventing tropical rains
the atmosphere, and nutrients or pollutants may moving northwards.
become dangerously concentrated.
° Higher sea temperatures (from global
Some species will leave the area (such as warming) prevented moist Atlantic air moving
aquatic birds). Others that have lost their habitat over western Sahel.
may die, and plants that are unable to adapt may
° Desertification has resulted from overuse of
be lost.
land due to population pressures.
rrrer renee

Drought and forests

° Forests have an important role in the hydrological Droughts weaken trees so they are more easily
cycle, as well as other natural cycles, such as attacked by pests (such as pine bark beetle in
carbon. They are also an important resource. the Rocky Mountains of Colorado) and diseases.
° Due to their large size, trees require a lot of Drier warmer winters, a consequence of global
water, especially fast-growing species such warming, allow pests and diseases to survive.
as pine. Drought slows growth and causes The die-off of trees due to drought affects
stress — trees may lose leaves and be unable habitats and alters food chains.
to photosynthesise, so they die. It can take
between two and four years for a tree to recover
after drought conditions.

Now try this

1. Explain one way in which human activity may increase the risk of drought.
2. Explain the impacts of drought on forests.
 Had a look | | Nearly there a Nailed it! ja

Natural causes of flood

Defining flooding
CO In areas experiencing meteorological conditions providing a lot of precipitation, flooding is always
a possibility. It may be a fast onset (‘flash’ floods) or slower onset hazard.
Cf The most common form of flooding occurs when a river reaches and then exceeds bank-full
discharge; additional water cannot be contained within the channel and so spills over onto the
surrounding land (the floodplain).

Causes of floods
Intense storms Heavy rainfall
Severe storms such as tropical A lot of rain may fall over a short time period,
cyclones bring a lot of rainfall in perhaps caused by a cold front in a low pressure
a relatively short time period. system. This is too much to allow throughflow or
This water moves quickly into groundwater flow to take place, so the excess
channels, as it is unable to soak water quickly runs off the surface and into river
into the ground, causing them channels where discharges increase to flood levels.
to overflow their banks. In arid
and semi-arid areas, occasional
Monsoon rains
thunderstorms drop a lot of
rain suddenly which runs quickly Meteorological Subtropical areas have a wet
season; these are especially wet
over the baked ground, causes of flooding
where land areas are found
creating ‘flash’ floods.
between mountains and a warm
ocean (India). Monsoon seasons
Snowmelt Prolonged rainfall are characterised by torrential
In some areas, such aS mountains, Fersistent rain over a long period rainfall, which initially falls onto
winter snowfall accumulates to of time, perhaps the result of hard dry ground — increasing
considerable depth. Warmer several low pressure systems runoff, and then onto saturated
temperatures in spring cause the passing over an area, causes a ground — with the months of
snow to start melting, often quite sequence of frontal rainfall. First heavy rain adding to runoff and
rapidly. The ground under the snow the soil is saturated so that later increasing river levels until
may still be frozen so a lot of the rainfall, however small, cannot they flood.
meltwater flows rapidly down steep infiltrate. Runoff is increased and
slopes into river valleys, causing quickly enters river channels,
increased river discharges. causing floods.

|Gea Flood database to analyse long-term trends

:1) The EM-DAT database shows that floods 2 The Flood Protection Standards
appear to be increasing in frequency and (FLOPROS) global database assesses flood
severity, largely due to climate change risk by analysing the links between the flood
and increasing population pressure. return period and flood protection measures.
: Regions particularly affected: central Europe, It combines information on flood protection
| northern India and Bangladesh, south-east measures and policies within a modelling
Asia, south-east China, south-east Brazil, approach. The data output does not take
: central America and central USA. into account future change (e.g. climate,
population and socio-economic activities).
lp
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Now try th
Suggest how large databases on floods help identify patterns and trends.

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Flooding impacts
Human influences on flooding

Land-use change Hard engineering

Removal of natural vegetation, Bridges narrow river channels,
especially deforestation, changes reducing capacity and causing higher
hydrological processes in the water levels upstream or suddenly
catchment area. Farmland and downstream if a bridge collapses.
impermeable surfaces, such as roofs, Artificial levees increase channel
increase runoff as interception and capacity but transfer more water
absorption are reduced, downstream, increasing flood risk; if
Hydrographs are ‘flashy’. Soil Human actions they break, flooding happens quickly
erosion increases, sading sediments and flood risk Ques wide area. Channelisation
to river channels, changing their (straight concrete channel) transfers
shape and reducing capacity so that more water quickly downstream,
they flood with a lower discharge. increasing risk.

Floodplain use
Population pressures and rural-urban migration increase building on floodplains. Despite flood
protection measures, major floods can still occur, causing huge risk. Floodplains may be drained for
farming or construction, but the land shrinks as it dries out, taking it below even normal river levels.

9) case UK flood events 2015-16

* During the winter of 2015-16, northern parts of the UK were affected by a sequence of
low-pressure systems (depressions), each providing periods of prolonged intense heavy
rainfall associated with fronts.
* Storm Abigail saturated soils in November. In December, Storm Desmond caused flooding in
Cumbria, with over a month’s rainfall in one day (convectional and orographic rain combined with
frontal rain); Storm Eva caused flooding over the Pennines, and Storm Frank in western areas.
* Overall 16 O00 properties in England were flooded, each with prolonged, intense heavy frontal
rainfall. The UK government provided £200 million for flood recovery, and estimated total economic
costs were £5 billion.

Economic impacts Infrastructure impacts Settlement impacts —

Insurance costs; businesses Roads and railways blocked; Homes flooded/damaged;
damaged; consumers and bridges damaged or washed buildings destroyed; sediment
deliveries unable to reach away; schools closed; health deposited in houses; people —
businesses; emergency costs. service disrupted; power cuts. evacuated; deaths.

Environmental impacts of flooding

* Ecosystems: Small floods can benefit ecosystems, by replenishing water levels, creating wetland
habitats and replacing nutrients. However, extreme floods increase soil and river channel erosion; then
a lot of sediment, organic particles and pollutants get into rivers and lakes, damaging aquatic and
floodplain ecosystems. Plant biomass, invertebrates and fish in rivers are reduced.
* Soils may become waterlogged on level ground or scoured away on slopes by increased surface flow.
Flood events reduce the microbial biomass in soil, but in the long term, more nutrient-rich sediments,
especially on floodplains, are provided.

Explain how human actions may make river flooding worse.

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Many processes (such as precipitation and evaporation), flows (inputs and outputs) and stores are
changing as the global climate warms.

Climate change data

| The most reliable source of data on climate change is the latest reports of the IPCC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). They are produced by scientists from around the world
and are peer reviewed (checked by other scientists). There may be some changes in evidence in
between the reports, so you should always look at the most recent.

Climate change effects

The table below contains generalisations; the hydrological cycle in different regions of the world may be
affected in different ways. For example, northern hemisphere tundra and boreal areas will be wetter, as
will India, most of Indonesia and parts of East Africa. However, much of the rest of the world will be drier,
especially where there are Mediterranean climates. Over 70% of the world land area will experience more
runoff, with flooding more frequent in tropical and subtropical areas (for example, South and South East
Asia, East Africa) due to increased evaporation and intense precipitation.

|Climate change effect

Snow pack The amount of snow collecting and surviving from one winter to the next is decreasing
as air temperatures increase. Snow depths have been decreasing and early melting has
been observed.
Glacier mass Most glaciers around the world are in retreat, shrinking towards their ice cap sources,
due to warmer temperatures causing ablation (melting), especially at lower altitudes.
Even glaciers in Antarctica are thinning as ice shelves on the warmer sea melt and
break up, allowing the glaciers to move faster.
Lakes and Higher evaporation rates from open water surfaces due to warmer air temperatures
reservoirs have decreased water heights, and lower precipitation means that they are not refilled
in times of drought. aa
Permafrost Tundra areas are experiencing the greatest degree of warming; therefore all forms of
permafrost are experiencing melting. This is changing the surface and soils of these areas.
Soil moisture A great contrast around the world — some moisture levels have increased, others have
decreased. But higher air temperatures have drawn more water from soils by evaporation.
| Climate change effect
Evaporation This has increased a lot, especially over oceans but also over land. This has increased
the amount of moisture in the atmosphere.
Precipitation Higher humidity in the atmosphere creates a greater potential for condensation and
precipitation, but patterns will be variable. Often rainfall is likely to be heavier and
more intense.
| Runoff and Where precipitation is in heavy, short bursts or is prolonged, due to higher humidity
streamflow levels, or where snow and ice are melting, more water will run off the surface and enter
ci streams, increasing flood risk.

1. Explain how climate change is affecting the link between evaporation and precipitation.
2. Explain the impact of climate change on hydrological stores.

153
 There is concern about security of water supplies because climate changes are changing patterns and _
creating uncertainty.

Short-term climate change and water security

Some world regions are
affected by climate changes
every decade or less,
Water insecurity during La Nifia Waterinsecurity during El Nifio
brought about by changes in = \ \

atmospheric circulation that —Water security during El Nifio © \ Water security during La Nifia
also affect cold and warm East Africa (Nov—Mar); — : \
| Sahel (Jul-Sep); Southern”
ocean currents. Afghanistan (Jan—May); | Africa (Nov—Mar);Northern
One of these is ENSO (El Nifio- - Pacific Islands (Jun—Apr); —— | India (Jun—Sep); Indonesia —s |
Southern Oscillation), which Southern USA (Oct—Apr); (Jun—Jan); Australia (Jul—Jan);
-Ecuvador (Jun—Apr); Uruguay Northern Brazil (Jun—Mar); —
creates uncertainty in the water
(Aug—Dec); Chile (Jun—Sep); North-east USA (Dec—Mar)
supplies of Oceania, South East
Sri Lanka (Oct—Dec).
Asia, the Americas and even
further from the Pacific.

Long-term climate change and water security

° Global warming has increased the variability of precipitation, with periods of unusually low rainfall and
then periods of very intense rainfall.
° Some regions may become drier (for example, those with Mediterranean climates) and others wetter
(for example, those with monsoon climates).
° There is increasing uncertainty over water levels in rivers and the ground, as there may be more runoff
and less water going into stores such as the ground.
° Also, there may be increasing contamination due to concentrations of naturally occurring and human
inputs of chemicals (such as salts).
° Higher temperatures have increased evaporation and transpiration, reducing effective precipitation,
which makes it difficult to store water.

Water security concerns Synoptic Theme: F&U &

Although the world’s population increase is slowing : -
down, there are going to be over a billion more Future drought and flood risk :
people to find water for by the middle of the
century. This will be a difficult task in some areas, The future of water security in many places
especially those in which short-term and long-term around the world, including developed,
climate changes create drier conditions, reducing emerging and developing countries, is at risk
the effective precipitation input. from medium-term and long-term climate change.
Projecting what may happen is an important
part of reducing vulnerability and increasing
preparedness as, by 2025, 1.8 billion people
could be facing water scarcity.

1. Explain how the ENSO cycle creates uncertainty about future water security.
2. Explain how global warming creates uncertainty about future water security.

154
 Water supply and
There is an increasing gap between water supply and demand, which is creating water scarcity and
water stress.

Definitions supply and demand balance

a * Generally countries with a large area (big
Water supply — the amount of accessible catchment areas) or a small population are more
freshwater, from precipitation and surface and able to balance water supply and demand, such
ground stores. as Russia and Canada.
Water demand -— the amount needed by people However, even within large countries, regions may
for consumption or activities such as farming experience difficulties without transferring water
and industry. (for example, China).
Water stress — where annual water resources Arid and semi-arid countries have the smallest
are only between 1000 and 1700 m° per supplies (such as Sudan, Saudi Arabia); while
person. There will be supply restrictions tropical and temperate ones have the largest
and tensions. supplies (such as Brazil, Ireland).
Water scarcity — where annual Poe EON CCS.) Countries with large or dense or very urbanised
are only between 500 and 1000m*" per person. —_ populations, such as India, Bangladesh and the
People will go without water and there will be Netherlands, have greater difficulty finding
conflict and overuse of reserves. a balance.
Water insecurity — when people do not have _* As populations have grown and more countries
enough quality water to sustain livelinoods, human | develop economically, the demands for water
wellbeing and socio-economic development. are increasing for domestic, farming and
industrial use.

Global map showing pattern of water stress by 2040

You need to be able to use a global map to analyse water stress or scarcity.

Ratio of withdrawals to supply wel

Low (<10%)
SF) Low to medium (10-20%)
; ~ EB Medium to high (20-40%) }
(i High (40-80%) 1000 2000 3000 km
BB etremely high (>80%)

1. Explain why there is a growing mismatch between water supply and demand.
2. Describe and explain the pattern of water stress shown in the map.

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 Had alook | | Nearly there [ | Nailed it! | |

Causes of water insecurity

Increasing population: Global population continues to increase, albeit at a slower rate.
Water is an essential resource for everyone. The UN estimates that there will be a 557%
increase in demand between 2015 and 2050.

Economic development: World Farming: Uses the most water

GDP increased by an average of | Pressures on (70% globally). As demand for
3.5% per year from 1960 to finite |
— food increases, so does use of ,
2012; more water used by vai freshwater water for irrigation (often
industries, businesses and | resources inefficient) and livestock farming.
energy use.

Better living standards: As more countries have emerged piesa their populations
have gained more wealth, so they consume more water directly (for example, washing
machines) and indirectly (for example, food choices, house building, energy use).

Physical and human causes of water insecurity

Physical Climate variability: The Earth has different climate zones, some of which are humid and
others arid. Some climates have a wet and dry season. Global warming is changing the water
budget within these climate zones — effective precipitation may decrease, or warmer water
may host more harmful bacteria.
Salt water encroachment: In some coastal areas, seawater is able to intrude into
groundwater and up rivers, contaminating these water sources with salts. This is becoming
more common as sea levels rise.
Over-abstraction from surface and groundwater: The demand for water and lack of controls
has led to more water being taken. This reduces local supplies, and near coasts allows
greater salt water intrusion.
Contamination by farming and industry: Chemicals and other wastes (for example,
pesticides, nitrates) may enter water sources, causing pollution and an increase in organisms
that are harmful to human health.
Climate change: Enhanced warming has accelerated sea level rise and salt encroachment, and
reduced water quality with bacterial growth in warmer waters.

ynoptic Theme: F&U y

CES Places Jaca orange Future water scarcity

¢ Climate variability: UK (wetter winters
but drier summers). * Countries and regions at risk of water
scarcity and stress need accurate
° Salt water encroachment: Pacitic Islands,
predictions of what will happen in future.
such as Samoa (over-abstraction from aquifer
Globalisation, development and urbanisation
and sea level rise).
are all increasing the demand for water, and
° Over-abstraction of groundwater: North | the UN predicts that by 2030, 40% of the
China plain (by farming and urban uses). world may experience a water deficit.
¢ Contamination from farming or industry: * Ona world scale the biggest demand
Animas River, Colorado, USA (in 2015, increases are expected from electricity
1.35 million m? of contaminated water production and manufacturing, and a doubling
released during mine clean-up operations). of domestic demand. Farming demand is
eee but still makes aatheieee share.

| Now try this

Explain two pressures on the finite freshwater resource.

156
 Had a look | Nearly there ee Nailed it! ae

Water scarcity issues

Water and economic development
Physical and economic scarcity Problem
Physical water scarcity: The lack of available Energy Directly in Power cuts and
clean freshwater resources (surface and production HEF, indirectly shortages if
groundwater), as in semi-arid climates. Water is to produce water supplies
also scarce in any climatic area where over 75% steam are low
of supply is withdrawn for human uses. Manufacturing | Directly in Can't increase
Economic water scarcity: Access to water production, production if
resources may be limited by: indirectly to shortages of
Cf poor management of supply and use cool machines water
Ww lack of financial ability to develop them Economic Water resource Unsustainable

of affordability. confidence availability aids economy;

investment in water costs
businesses encen conflict.
Water for human wellbeing Farming Irrigation Can’t increase
SS Health (clean water for drinking avoids disease,
water to production if
increases life expectancy) increase yields |shortages

Cleanliness (improves social dignity) Control Contaminated Cannot be used if

pollution water not clean
Food (watering crops and animals provides more
food to eat, avoiding malnutrition)
Role of the environment
SS Ecosystems (maintain environmental health so
services and resources available) ° Freshwater ecosystem services control flooding,
& Human rights (disadvantaged groups require store clean water, provide fisheries and recreation.
sate drinking water, sanitation) * Forest ecosystem services control flows in
the hydrological cycle, enable recharging of
groundwater and filter water to clean it.
‘<) ithe Water Poverty Index ° Degraded ecosystems are less productive, have
skills
disrupted food webs, and higher concentrations
Resources of salts and contaminants.

Water price
CG Costs of supplying water vary a lot around
Environment the world and costs are increasing.
WY Supplying clean water needs construction
of infrastructure to abstract, move, clean
and deliver water to consumers.
CG Waste water must also be collected and |
treated after use, to remove harmful
Capacity substances and bacteria, before returning
<u === Egypt 61.7 it to the natural environment.
ramen ry:* em Ethiopia 34.0 C4 Developed countries are more able to
provide expensive infrastructure and people —
ou must be able to interpret the water poverty
can afford water rates. But developing
_index for different countries by using radar
countries with unchecked urbanisation and
_graphs. The lower the WPI score, the greater
widespread poverty have difficulty.
~ _the amount of water poverty.

eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee ee

Describe and explain the differences in the water poverty index for the two countries shown in the radar graph.

157
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Water conflicts
There are conflicts within countries and between countries over water resources.

Potential conflicts
° Freshwater is an essential resource. In some ¢ Environmental concerns have arisen due to water
countries and world regions, water resources shortages (for example, the shrinking of Salton Sea).
are shared because a lake, river or groundwaters __« international tensions arise when major rivers
cross political boundaries. flow through several countries or large aquifers
* For example, in the south-west USA there is a extend under international boundaries.
long-term internal tension over the sharing of ° The UN estimates that 40% of the world’s
the Colorado River's water, especially as there population depend on transboundary water supplies,
is population growth and a drier climate (due to including 2 billion people relying on transboundary
climate change). groundwater supplies. In over half of these
situations there is no international agreement.

S) Case
case .
Nile :
River s
Basin opus
e Contexts |
River Nile waters are shared by 11 African countries, many of which have semi-arid climates in
the Sahel zone. Supplies are under increasing pressure from economic development, population
growth and climate change.
° Egypt is the last country that the river flows through, and being a desert country, it depends on the
Nile waters for 95% of its needs.
* Historically, agreements (in 1929) favoured Egypt and Sudan, but countries upstream have recently
been pushing for amendments that would allow them to build dams, just as Egypt has done, to help
their water supply and generate HEP for economic development.
¢ In 2010, six countries signed a new agreement; Egypt and Sudan were strongly opposed it.
° In 2015, a separate agreement was reached between Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt, which enabled
Ethiopia to start building the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam.
° However, there is no modern aorcement between all Nile countries so future conflict is ee

Synoptic Theme: P
skills
Nile River regimes
You should be able to interpret river regimes to Reducing water conflict
help assess the impact of building dams. 4 wy
=—— Before There are many different players within a water <
=== After connect situation. These include: eet aka :
° the general population fi
© minority groups
- © local and national governments a :
e TNCs oS
ae RRR Tere ee eT ester read re aa a PE ee TART
° international savecnmenes groups —
Si Met AR Meee
Om Nee D
° international etter) es (WaterAid, a
se Water, and piri
erecreiatenrree
iee sempamenermnanaie em mame em hier enn aon Be

feo
EEE
EE
EE
eer
EOE

Explain why international conflicts may develop over water resources.

158
 Hadalook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

engineering an
Hard
sustainable water schen les
Ways of obtaining more water or conserving water have benefits and problems.

Sustainable schemes Hard engineering schemes

* Restoring water supplies: Restoring or * Water transfer: Moving water from one
enhancing the natural hydrological cycle in a drainage basin to another, by diverting rivers or
local area, for example by forest conservation, building pipelines: directs water to where it is
reconnecting rivers with their floodplains, needed but needs expensive infrastructure.
water harvesting, or creating green spaces and ° Mega-dams: Large dams across a river, where
permeable surfaces. there are deep gorges or valleys (and suitable
Water conservation: Smart irrigation involves geology), trap water in a large reservoir: a new
giving crops just under the amount of water water store is created for local and regional use
that they normally need during growth, or using but natural river flows are altered.
efficient methods such as drip irrigation. Desalination: Taking seawater and separating
Water recycling: Involves collecting used (grey) the water from the salts: the ocean is the world’s
water and using it for non-drinking, washing main store of water so will not run out, but
or food preparation purposes such as flushing the process requires a lot of energy and so
toilets, or treating it to be safe to drink. is expensive.

OF Singapore water supply | OF Water transfer in China

Singapore is a city state with a high North-east China has water scarcity due fe
population density; its small size means to large cities, such as Beijng, and overuse by
that it has difficulty collecting and storing farming and pollution.
precipitation. As a wealthy country it has used Most of China’s water is in the south, so they
several methods to overcome this problem: have devised the world’s largest inter-basin water
* Infrastructure to capture as much of the runoff transfer scheme: 25bn m° of freshwater a year
from the urban areas as possible. is to be transferred from the Yangtze River Basin
* Importing water from neighbouring Malaysia. over a distance of 1000km to the north. However:
* Recycling water in their NEWater scheme, &) it is a very expensive scheme
where grey water is purified through membranes
& water may be too expensive for farmers
and ultraviolet disinfection (in the future this will
provide 55% of the country’s needs). &) 300000 people were displaced
Teen ener mmr n
& it does not tackle overuse or pollution of water
& water scarcity in the south may be created.

ie
Attitudes to water supply
7
In a place there may be contrasting attitudes towards water supply. Some people believe it to be a
4‘free’ resource because there is lots of it, and use it without reducing consumption. Others believe
iwater is a precious resource needed now and in the future, so use less and find ways of conserving it.
Ae

Some national governments encourage or have regulations to encourage water conservation. UN Water
“recommends using the natural hydrological cycle for sustainable water solutions (such as wetland restoration).
a

Explain the importance of managing water supplies in a sustainable way.

159
 level Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |
To pic ]

Drainage basin management

The management of large river basins requires large-scale agreements to enable fair sharing of the
water resource.

Integrated management
Organisations producing water * Drainage basins may be large and involve many
human activities and hydrological processes.
agreements
* To manage all of these efficiently and in
° A large number of groups are involved a sustainable way, all administrators and
in plans to manage a river basin and its stakeholders must agree and coordinate their
water, such as governments, citizens, policies and actions.
farmers, water boards, industries, urban
* This is not easy to achieve, especially when
governments and energy companies.
several countries are involved.
° There are international treaties and
* Geographers and scientists are responsible
frameworks to help consultation and
for collecting and providing information to this
agreement, such as the 1996 Helsinki UN
management process.
Water Convention on the Protection and
Use of Transboundary Watercourses and
International Lakes and the Berlin Water
ORs Colorado drainage iN
Framework Directive (2004). ’ s Contexts |
basin management ey
Players may operate within or outside
these frameworks. The Colorado River is one of the major rivers
of the USA, with a basin size of 637 OOOkm?.
Its source is in the Rocky Mountains north-west
Treaties and frameworks
of Denver and it flows south-westwards to the
The UN Convention on the Law of the Non- Pacific Ocean via Mexico.
Navigational Uses of International Watercourses There are several challenges for managing this
(2014) produced rules for equitable and reasonable basin in an integrated way:
use of water without harming neighbouring countries.
* large size of basin and long length of river
Agreements, such as the Nile River Basin Framework
(1999 — 10 countries), need effective monitoring, *° large water demand and growing population
entorcement, conflict resolution, and water allocations * large part of the basin is desert or semi-arid
matching flow variations and changing needs. ° seven US states and Mexico take water from
The Berlin Water Framework Directive and the Colorado;
Hydropower is a European initiative consisting * climate change is creating drier conditions and
of nine water management principles, enshrined in variable river levels.
international law, including: Agreements date back to 1922; these shared
* management maximising availability and reliability out water based on demand in 1956. Since 1990
of water supplies a néw management agreement has been needed
* river basins managed in an integrated way because (a) the states in the lower basin used
all their share of water for the first time, and (b)
* long-term planning of needs
environmental regulations increased complexity.
* minimising environmental damage
In recent years there has not been enough water
* cooperation of countries or regions to supply demand, leading to disputes and
* everyone receiving their fair share. no agreement, especially between US states.
These rules are difficult to implement, especially States have started making alternative plans as
in transboundary situations; since the 1960s, much as they can, such as Arizona recharging its
150 treaties have been signed but there have been aquifer in higher discharge years.
37 violent disputes.
ee
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pr

Now (try this

Suggest the effectiveness of managing water supply through treaties and frameworks.

160
 Had a look | Nearly there a Nailed it! je

Exam skills l
These A level exam-style questions and worked examples below will help you to prepare for Topic 5 in
Paper 1 Section C.

1. Explain one possible human activity that may _ AL)

cause drought. — (3 marks)
Over-abstraction of water from natural stores
such as groundwater or rivers and lakes reduces
the amount available. Often this is due to farmers
- using water for irrigation; farming is the major user
of water in the world. By reducing water levels
there may not be enough water available to meet
demand and people and economic activities may
have to go without, so causing a drought.

_ 2. Explain the differences between the water budgets @

of temperate and tropical areas. (6 marks)
f Temperate areas have differences based on
temperature, while tropical areas have a difference
based on precipitation. In temperate areas the
temperature causes higher evaporation rates
_ in summer due to slightly higher temperatures,
~which correspond with greater plant growth and
transpiration, both of which remove moisture
from soils leading to a deficit by the end of
the summer. In tropical areas the wet and dry
seasons determine that there is recharge between
November and January and even though the
summer is drier, the soil moisture deficit is not
reached until October.
ere ee
3. Explain the main annual global fluxes of the AL)
hydrological cycle. (8 marks)
The largest fluxes are between the atmosphere and
_ ocean; this is because about 67% of the surface
of the planet is water. Therefore there is a
large surface area from which evaporation can take
place and this is the largest flux (413 x 102km?/ year) Numerical facts
especially in areas where the Sun’s heat energy is
_ concentrated (i.e. the tropics). Most precipitation — | If the facts you include are numerical, make
falls on oceans because of their greater surface sure that you know the correct units that |
area, three times more than over land. The Sun’s they are measured in. There is a big
heat energy causes the movement of the air which difference between 10° and 10° and between |
causes the relatively small flow of water in the . km and km%.
atmosphere, and also evaporation from land and
the transpiration of plants. Biological activity is
_ therefore another influencing factor.
_ The third largest flux is the combination of rivers,
_ throughflow
and groundwater flow, which acts
under the influence of gravity.
4 as Ser line (aoe iia

16]
 Had a look Poa Nearly there ay Nailed it! El

Exam skills 2
The exam-style questions and worked examples below will help you prepare for Paper 1 Section C.

Worked example
4. Assess the role of physical factors in determining AL)
the shape of storm hydrographs. (12 marks) There are a large number of factors
affecting the shape of a storm
Rock and soil type help to determine stream
hydrograph. At any one time some
density, relief of the land, land uses and
of these may combine to change
vegetation cover. If the rock is impermeable (e.g.
granite), soils are likely to be thin and unable to
the discharge of'a riven For example,
store rainfall, slopes are likely to be steep, which impermeable rocks may combine with
encourages runoff, land use may be moorland intense heavy rainfall to cause a rapid
and rough pasture with low evapotranspiration increase in river discharge and a steep
and absorption leading to more runoff — these rising limb in the storm hydrograph.
combine to create a ‘flashy’ hydrograph because . re RAE
of the shortened lag times after precipitation. ... (as To complete this answer comparisons to
However, the major input is precipitation: without
the points made would be needed, such
this there would be no water to move to the main
as the role of permeable rock, sandy soils,
river, so the nature of this precipitation is also
natural forest, gentle precipitation over a
important — if it is intense over a short period
longer period of time and gentle slopes.
then regardless of other factors there is a greater
A concluding comment should also suggest
chance that a hydrograph will be ‘flashy’. ...
which has the most important role.
5. Evaluate the view that ‘hard engineering’ schemes are wane er eee
most important to achieving water security. (20 marks)
Hard engineering water schemes create benefits, Structuring your essay
but also problems. Transferring water from a A sound essay structure has a concise
drainage basin where there is a surplus to one with introduction, short paragraphs and a
a deficit can greatly benefit the people, farmers concluding paragraph in which you clearly
and industries in the area receiving water; however, summarise your arguments: this will focus
it does greatly alter the hydrological cycle in both your answer on the question. Quality, not
basins — such as depriving the providing river of quantity, is what is required — see the
discharge and reducing the water supply there. examiners’ levels within the Mark Schemes
It is also a very expensive solution (the south—north to help you understand this.
water transfer in China will cost at least $50
billion), as are most hard engineering schemes.
Mega-dams completely control water flow and In all of your answers to the higher mark
create a reservoir that artificially stores water, questions, you must have a range of
adding to the natural stores in an area (e.g. examples (or case studies) to gain the
Aswan High Dam in Egypt). However, a river is marks for recall of geographical facts or
completely changed so that discharge downstream information. In evaluation questions, there
is reduced and controlled; this may prevent should also be a comparison that allows a
flooding damage but it also stops the supply of
new sediments to floodplains, which are important
for farming (e.g. lower Nile valley). Desalination is
only possible in countries with access to the sea Here, part of the student's complete
and lots of wealth as it is a very energy intensive answer is shown. The answer could go on to
process which makes the water expensive. But to describe sustainable schemes that may use
arid and semi-arid countries this does provide a aa more appropriate technology, such as hand
water supply, which they otherwise would not have, pumps (e.g. Malawi) or water storage barrels
which enables improvements to quality of life and (e.g. Uganda), which are less expensive and
economic development... easier to repair and so can help poorer
communities in developing countries achieve
water security at a local level.
ae my ie DSS SNP

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oe Exam practice I
The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 1 Section C of your A level exam.
Suggested answers are on page 306. You need to answer all questions in Section C.
4

1. Explain one way in which NGOs can help

‘ You must offer a valid explanation and
improve the water supply in a local area
extend it well with a couple of different
; ea nue country. OS) ) points. Remember that NGOs are non-
2. Study Figure 1. AL) governmental organisations, such as
Explain how urbanisation changes the WaterAid or Practical Action and not |GOs
. hydrological cycle in the local area. (6 marks) | (intergovernmental organisations) such
as the World Bank or UN Water If you
choose the wrong organisation type, you
will get no marks. See pages 156-160.

lf a resource is given then you must use

it within your answer — but remember not
ay to just use the resource: you must also
make sure that your answers go further
and include information or data that
you have learned from your studies.
See pages 143, 144 and 146 (5.1, 5.2).

25% Deep
infiltration
Natural ground cover

In many questions it will be important

for you to think about different scales.
A river basin can be a large area,
covering several regions of a country
(for example, the River Colorado in the
USA) or several countries (for example,
the River Nile). Therefore in this question |
contlicts may exist in a small locality or
ee internationally between countries.
pee pages 192,154,155, 156. and 156
(NIE eh Alesney hae ees)
5% Deep
infiltration
75-100% Impervious cover

Figure 1: How urbanisation changes the

hydrological cycle 8-mark questions
3. Explain why conflicts
eel : may arise
: between An &-mark question will expect you to be
ns
water users within a river basin. (8 marks) able to think at different scales or link
ae a ee A 1m, ao
different processes or cycles.

163
 level Had a look Pin Nearly there gw Nailed it! |_|
Topic )

practice 2
The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 1 Section C of your A level exam.
Suggested answers are on page 306. You need to answer all questions in Section C.

1. Assess the role of higher average global AL) You will need to recall how higher
temperatures in changing the
temperatures change parts of the
hydrological cycle. (12 marks)
hydrological cycle, but also remember that
2. Study Figure 2. processes are linked together so when
one part changes so will another See page
149 to 146 (Qe5o.0):

Answers that are descriptive will not meet

the mark scheme criteria, so make sure
that your answer sticks to the question

h
and fully explores the links between higher
temperatures and specific changes to the
hydrological cycle. Use a conclusion with
© 1000 2000 3000 km {@
a Se ee x
key evidence to give a summary answer to:
MM Little or no water scarcity the role of higher temperatures.
@ Physical water scarcity caN i j
™) Approaching physical water scarcity
HM Economic water scarcity
Not estimated There are physical and human factors that
Figure 2: Global patterns of physical and economic ( may cause water insecurity. Mention all
water scarci of these to ensure you write a balanced
Evaluate the extent to which world population answer. Also occasionally compare the
growth is the most important factor causing factors with the influence of population
water insecurity. (20 marks) growth. Remember that population growth
itself influences other factors. Making this
type of connection should help you to
achieve a higher level answer See pages
e IDB to 1SGXKS.7,. 2.0)

In Figure 2 it is clear that most of Africa

has economic water scarcity (not enough
money to develop water resources), while | Maps
northern China, most of India and Pakistan,
south-west USA and Middle East and You should take a little time to study any
North Africa (MENA) have physical water | maps provided, Be ready to circle patterns
scarcity (most water available is used). that you see and make notes on the
Use this information in your answer. reaourogias ideas COCUn tO mel

‘Evaluate’ questions
‘Evaluate’ questions must have answers that include accurate and relevant geographical knowledge
and understanding. You must also use geographical information to make connections in your
answer and organise these points in a logical order, try to cover everything that is relevant to the
question, use evidence (examples, data), and reach a logical supported conclusion consisting of a
balanced argument.

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Carbon cycle
The biogeochemical carbon cycle has carbon stores of different sizes and annual fluxes between them.

The biogeochemical carbon cycle

Carbon is a common element of Earth and exists in a gas,
liquid or solid form. The way in which carbon is stored and
moved around the planet involves:
Ww biological processes (living plants and animals)
geological processes (erosion, deposition, rock formation)
chemical processes (reactions under heat and pressure). |
Carbon pathways interlink these between stores (or sinks).

Carbon stores
Terrestrial carbon Igneous and metamorphic rocks do not contain much carbon; however,
store sedimentary rocks do have high concentrations; for example, limestone contains
about 42% calcium carbonate by weight.
* Geological processes have also trapped carbon in the form of coal, oil (65%
carbon) and natural gas. So the terrestrial store is the largest.
* Today calcareous oozes are found under the southern Pacific, Atlantic and
western Indian Oceans, ready to be turned into limestone rocks.
Atmospheric carbon ° Volcanic activity, respiration, wildfires and outgassing emit carbon dioxide
store into the atmospheric store. This store is very small compared with other
stores (only 0.03% of natural unpolluted air is CO,).
¢ However, small changes in concentration affect global temperature and
between 2012 and 2017 the average CO, concentration increased by 3%
(mostly due to human emissions).
Ocean carbon store * Carbon dioxide is dissolved by oceans from the atmosphere, but it only makes
up a tiny proportion of the seawater mass.
° Most CO, is stored in intermediate and deep water, with only about 2.5% in
surface waters.

9 Geographical
skills

You must be able to use proportional a

Key to annual fluxes:
— > 0 to 1Paelyr
5
flow diagrams showing carbon fluxes.
N\ 5 a3 tito 2P
ie
=P 50 to 100Pgchyr

ry slow geochemical
processes

1. Describe the annual pattern of global carbon fluxes.

2. Explain the relative sizes of the carbon stores within the biogeochemical cycles.

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Carbon stores an processes

Geological processes form sedimentary carbonate rocks and release carbon to the atmosphere. _

sedimentary carbonate rocks Biologically derived carbon rocks

° These are formed from calcareous ooze and shells ° These are formed from the remains of living _
and skeletons (e.g. foraminifera) that collect at the organisms deposited in layers within sedimentary
bottom of oceans. rocks (such as shale).
Marine creatures such as corals and phytoplankton Organic carbon from tropical coastal swamps is
absorb carbon from seawater, and when their buried to produce coal, the hardness of which
remains collect on the seabed the calcium depends on the amount of pressure and heat when
carbonate is compacted by the weight of new squashed during rock formation.
layers above them and cemented together to form Anaerobic reactions may convert organic carbon
an organic limestone rock. into a liquid (oil) that moves within rock layers
Calcareous oozes are not found where the until trapped. e
ocean is too deep (below about GOOO metres), A by-product of coal and oil formation is natural
because the pressure causes calcium carbonate gas (e.g. methane), which is also trapped within
to dissolve. layers of sedimentary rocks.

Carbon release
The geochemical processes
Volcanic out-gassing
forming limestone rock
* Tectonic forces may bring limestone rocks into
contact with extreme heat; this causes chemical and crude oil
changes and releases CO, into the atmosphere.
Crude oil Limestone rock
Volcanic activity at plate boundaries or intra-plate CO,
hot spots may release CO, into the atmosphere |
(for example, nearly 12% of all the volcanic gas
emissions in Hawaii).
Geothermal areas also release CO, through hot
springs or oversaturated pools.
Degassing occurs because CO, is not dissolved
easily and so is released early in eruptions, such
as at Mt Etna.
Chemical weathering of rocks
100 eee
Limestone rocks are very easily weathered by rain
because it becomes a weak carbonic acid as it falls
Depth
in
metres
through the air and absorbs some carbon dioxide fs) fe}fo)
(H,CO,). This acid then dissolves the calcium
carbonate (CaCO,,) of the rock, and dissolved
carbon is then carried by water for deposition on
the seabed (CaCO,) or released as a gas (CO,).

Now {ry this

1. Explain the formation of sedimentary carbonate rocks.

2. Explain the release of carbon into the atmosphere and oceans by chemical weathering.

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Biological and eceanic

processes
You need to understand the role of phytoplankton and carbonate pumps.

Phytoplankton The marine carbonate pump

¢ Phytoplankton are mostly microscopic The marine food web extends from phytoplankton
single-celled plants found in the warmer surface to zooplankton and then to other organisms such
waters of oceans and seas. as corals, oysters and crabs, which not only
* They consume carbon dioxide from the atmosphere consume carbon but absorb it to make their shells
during the process of photosynthesis, storing it in and skeletons.
their bodies as a carbohydrate; this makes them an While some carbon dioxide is returned to the
important part of the biological carbon cycle. atmosphere through respiration, these marine
° When they die, the phytoplankton transfer carbon creatures collectively use enough carbon to
to deeper ocean areas (forming calcium carbonate create room for the sea to absorb more from
when they sink to the seabed), or shallower layers the atmosphere.
if eaten by zooplankton (which then transfer carbon In a relatively short time carbon is taken from the
to deeper waters when they die). This can be atmosphere into the ocean and then chemically
described as a biological carbon pump. transferred to the seabed to become fixed
in sedimentary rocks — this is the marine
carbonate pump.
Also cold, denser seawater sinks to deep ocean
areas where slow-moving currents enable CO, gas
to be stored.

The thermohaline circulation

Warm, salty ocean currents transfer heat energy from tropical areas towards the poles and cold, less
salty currents transfer colder water towards the equator. The temperature and Salinity differences
cause the large-scale circulation of seawater.

Warmer waters tend to travel near the surface, while large volumes of cold water tend to move at
depths below 3km. This makes a large-scale global circulation of interlinked surface warm currents
and deep cold currents moving seawater around the world between the oceans: in this way the
_ Pacific, Indian, Southern and Atlantic Oceans are linked together by the thermohaline circulation.

Part of the thermohaline circulation helps to transfer CO, from equatorial ocean source areas (such
as the Atlantic between Brazil and West Africa) to polar ocean sink areas (such as the Nordic Sea
_. between Iceland and Norway, and the Weddell Sea near the Antarctic Peninsula). Upwelling and |
downwelling currents move dissolved CO, in what has been called a physical carbon pump.

1. Explain how phytoplankton obtain and store carbon from the atmosphere.
2. Explain how carbonate deposits are moved within oceans.

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 Had a look |_| Nearly there on Nailed it! Gi

Terrestrial and biological

processes
You need to know the roles of terrestrial primary producers and consumers, soils and decomposition.

Terrestrial primary producers

° Plants (autotrophs) in land-based ecosystems sequester (use and store) the Sun’s energy to change
CO, and water into carbohydrates through the process of photosynthesis, which allow the plants to
grow. Primary producers absorb CO, from the atmosphere, especially during-the growing season and
daylight hours.
° During conversion of carbohydrates into energy, respiration also takes place and some water and CO,
is released back into the atmosphere. However, overall plants absorb more CO, than they release.
° There is a clear pattern of CO, concentration in the atmosphere. During the northern hemisphere
growing season, in spring and summer months, there are lower atmospheric CO, concentrations and
during winter, concentrations increase because plants are dormant.
° Tropical rainforests have a much higher global productivity than any other biome, with one-third of all
global productivity (Gross Primary Production — the total amount of CO, fixed by plants in one year)
or Net Primary Production (GPP minus losses due to respiration); this biome takes four times more
CO, from the atmosphere than the next most productive biome.

Terrestrial consumers The role of soil processes in the

° Animals (heterotrophs) are known as carbon cycle
consumers, because they use oxygen
produced by plants during aerobic Some COp ee nae! Some methane
respiration and eat plant carbohydrates. emitted to siepesi te rine! emitted ps
As part of this process they return carbon gota g ee eee atmosphere
dioxide to the atmosphere.
Soil biota digest dead plant ae 5
Respiration: material and release nutrients Anaerobic
glucose + oxygen = (including carbon) decomposition
eae (methanogenesis)
carbon dioxide + water + energy
Herbivorous animals also emit methane as a
by-product, which is another greenhouse gas.
Energy is passed from one consumer to Higher humus content means ‘
another through food chains, such as from ‘more carbon
is stored
herbivore to carnivore. In this way carbon
is passed up the trophic levels throughout
a food web.

1. Explain the role of terrestrial primary producers in the carbon cycle.

2. Explain the role of biological decomposition in soils in storing carbon.

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Natural greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect depends on concentrations of atmospheric carbon and creates temperature and
precipitation patterns.

Greenhouse gases
There are three major biogeochemical greenhouse gases:
CO two linked to the carbon cycle (carbon dioxide
and methane) |
Cf one linked to the nitrogen cycle (nitrous oxide). Open sky Emitted by
window atmosphere
40 195
Greenhouse gases
Natural greenhouse effect trap heat energy
and recycle it
* Scientific research of ice core samples in Absorbed and
Antarctica shows that, over geological time, the emitted by clouds
and aerosols
Earth’s average temperature has changed with 350 Thermals and
the changes in concentration of atmospheric 4 oe erie
carbon (especially CO,). de

i
* Heat energy from the Sun warms the planet, but radiation
without the atmospheric greenhouse gases, this
would not be enough to support life.
* The heat energy that is reflected back towards
space from the Earth’s surface and lower Longwave flux (Wm?)
atmosphere has a relatively long wavelength, so it
has difficulty travelling through denser gases and
is absorbed by them (see longwave flux).
* Without this effect, the average temperature of
the Earth would be 21°C cooler.
Precipitation
kill ° : °
| saad distribution
\ Geographical
skills Tem perature | You must be able to use maps to show global
q distribution patterns of precipitation.

venmust be able to use maps to show global

patterns of temperature.
f
Dis
a

oO : : X fe
© Less than 100 SN
™ 100-499. * Ni
m= 500-1000 >
™ More than 1000 ‘s
aee ees

——

Now try this

Explain how the concentration of atmospheric

carbon influences the Earth’s temperature.

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A level Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! ||
To pic )

Natural carbon pathways

Balanced natural systems requlate the atmosphere and soils but human interference via the release of
carbon from the fossil fuel store is altering this.

Ocean and terrestrial Soil health :

photosynthesis * Some carbon is returned to soils by dead plant |
material being decomposed (see page 168), In this
* Photosynthesis takes place on land (terrestrial) and
way carbon is stored in organic matter (humus) that
in the ocean wherever there are plants, for example )
is mixed in soil.
trees in a rainforest or phytoplankton in a sea.
* This is important for soil health, as organic matter
* Photosynthesis regulates the composition of the
helps retain soil moisture and nutrients, which in
atmosphere by balancing oxygen (20.94%) and
turn improves the productivity of an ecosystem |
carbon dioxide (0.03%).
by providing water and dissolved nutrients for
plants to absorb through their roots to grow
(increase biomass). |

Implications of fossil fuel combustion

Fossil fuel consumption

Since the industrial revolutions in Europe, coal, oil and natural gas have been taken from the ground and used by indus-
tries, power stations and machinery. Compared to the natural carbon cycle this happened very fast. Atmospheric CO2 7
levels are now higher than at any time in the past 600 OOO years (over 400 ppm), so temperatures are increasing more. |

Implications for climate

* Temperate and tropical areas may have stronger storms because of more heat energy and moisture in the atmosphere.
* Fewer extreme cold events but more extreme hot events due to average temperature increase.
* Biggest increase in average temperatures will be in the Arctic as more heat is transferred from the tropics.
* Precipitation patterns will change, higher near the poles and decreasing in the subtropics as warmer air can hold
more moisture.

Implications for ecosystems

* 10% of land species face extinction due to an inability to adapt or move when climate conditions change. Highest risk
in polar areas.
* 80% of coral reefs could be ‘bleached’ by warmer seawater and suffer chemical weathering as oceans become
more acidic.
* Disease and pests will increase as they thrive in warmer conditions and are not killed by cold winters.
* Biodiversity will reduce as habitats shift towards poles or into deeper ocean waters, changing food webs.

Implications for hydrological cycle |

° Shift of subtropical high pressure areas towards poles will increase drought conditions in Mediterranean climate zones. |
° Permafrost will melt, adding more water to Arctic rivers and streams. |
* River discharges will decrease in areas with lower precipitation and lower effective precipitation (where evaporation
rates increase).
* Cryosphere store will decrease as glaciers retreat or ice sheets have surface ablation; this will also increase river
discharges at first and then decrease them. }

Now try this

Explain the link between the soil carbon store and ecosystem productivity.

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 Had a look a Nearly there | | Nailed it! ie

Energy cons
Energy security — a constant supply of energy at an affordable price — is a key goal, but most countries
continue to rely on fossil fuels.

Energy consumption patterns

Primary and secondary energy
a) World average use of energy per capita (0e/c) Cf Primary energy: natural energy resources
increased by 17.5% between 2000 and 2014. that have not been converted into another
It is highest in developed countries form of energy; this is most types of energy,
(USA 6956 kg of oil equivalent per capita in from fossil fuels to renewables. |
2014) and those with large oil reserves
CO Secondary energy: a form of energy that has
(Saudi Arabia). It is lowest in developing
been created from a primary resource; this is
countries (DR Congo 390kg oe/c in 2014).
usually electricity.
It is increasing fastest in economically
emerging countries (China +149% 2000 to
2014; India +52%). It is decreasing quickest Energy mixes
in developed countries (UK —27% 2000
The energy mix of a country is the proportion of each
to 2014; Japan —15%).
primary energy resource used per year.
& In terms of GDP wealth (PPP) generated per * The world energy mix is dominated by non-renewable
~ unit of energy, the world average shows an fossil fuels, although most developed countries are
increase in efficiency of about 22% between reducing their use (decarbonisation) and
2000 and 2014 (i.e. it is taking less energy increasing renewables.
to create wealth). In terms of country type Renewable energy technologies are still developing and
there is a mixed world pattern, but generally so poorer countries mostly have small proportions of
developed and economically emerging countries their energy mix of this type — although China is moving
have a higher efficiency and are improving the towards a cleaner energy mix.
most (UK +57% between 2000 and 2014;
Other recent trends include: oil use is slowing
USA and Japan about +30%; China and India
(—61% by 2040), coal is being replaced (—-72% by
about +40%). Developing countries have
2040), nuclear is uncertain, renewables are growing
lower efficiency and have only improved a
(+95% by 2040) as costs decline, and electrical
little (DR Congo and Argentina about +4%
energy use is increasing.
between 2000 and 2014). It is notable that
Saudi Arabia became less efficient between Many countries depend on imported (foreign) energy
2000 and 2014 (by over —20%) because of supplies as well as their own domestic supplies, for
economic expansion, including a broadening of example in 2014 China imported 15% of the energy
its economic base. it used, and in 2015 Belgium imported 60% (World
Bank data).

(6 a Geographical
» W skills Analysis of energy
mix graphs
You need to be able to analyse graphs showing
energy mixes and change over time.
1. Explain recent changes in
EU Energy mix: 2000 _-—EU Energy mix: 2016
energy consumption.
a Coal
w Oil
2. Describe and explain the changing
Natural gas energy mix of the European Union
mw Nuclear between 2000 and 2016.
w HEP
2 Wind
» Solar
« Biomass/waste
» Geothermal
w Other non-renewable

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Access and consumption

Access to and consumption of energy resources depends on physical and human factors, such as cost.

Physical availability Cost and public perception

Long-term geological processes determine where * Costs of developing energy resources are high
fossil fuel resources are found (for example, there at all stages, from extraction to production to
are large reserves of oil in the Middle East and consumer provision. Costs are passed on to the
Canada). Exporting makes fossil fuels available to consumer, who may not be able to afford them or
other countries. consider using less energy. Wealthier people in
Climate affects availability of some renewable developed countries consume more energy.
energy resources — clear skies for solar, constant People have different perceptions of their energy
winds for wind power, precipitation to grow biofuel needs based on lifestyle — such as travel patterns
crops (which also needs fertile soils). quality of home life, or needs linked to climate —
HEP needs rivers and deep valleys for reservoirs. such as air conditioning or heating.

Level of economic development Environmental priorities

While a country may have geological or climatic Cultures view the natural environment differently:
conditions that provide an energy resource, it also * Some see nature as a provider of resources
needs the technological ability to extract and develop it. (such as Russia, the USA, Nigeria).
Many developing countries lack the necessary * Others are concerned about the serious damage
levels of technology without external assistance: that can be caused by extracting energy
in Ghana, electricity grids and economic challenges resources, such as fracking.
inhibit the use of solar energy.
Climate change concerns have led to
If a country’s level of development is lower, there decarbonisation, using less oil and coal.
may not be demand for energy and so no incentive
Fears over nuclear radiation have led to a
to develop the resources.
re-evaluation of this energy resource in Japan,
Germany, Belgium and France.

ynoptic Theme: P

Roles of energy players USA's energy targets

TNCs — such as ExxonMobil, provide
investment for exploration and extraction
[Denmark the sa
of resources. YW Half of electricity WY Achieve energy
from wind power independence
OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting by 2020 (no imports)
Countries) — 14 members including UAE and
CA No power from CA Expand production
Nigeria. It influences the supply and price
coal by 2030 and develop
of world oil by controlling production.
Ww All electricity unconventional
Consumers influence supply through the demand
and heat from __ hatural gas
they create, but may also influence energy mix
through voicing environmental concerns. renewables (Vi Increase
by 2035 renewable
Governments — provide legislation on
emissions levels and costs for consumers, gain
Ww Fossil-fuel-free gy energy sources
society by 2050 Minimise
taxes and also act to protect energy pathways emissions
to and from the country. reduction targets

1. Explain how different environmental priorities influence energy production and use.
2. Explain how energy TNCs influence the availability of energy supplies.

1z2
 Hadalook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Fossil fuel reserves

Fossil fuel supply and demand areas are not in the same place, and energy pathways may not be secure.

Supply and demand locations for conventional fossil fuels

* Fossil fuel locations result from long-term geological processes — 48% of the world’s oil reserves are in the Middle
East (for example, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait and UAE).
* Consumption is greatest where there is most industrial activity: the USA, China and Europe.
* Therefore the location of fossil fuel supply and areas of highest consumption do not always match.

Energy pathways and their 6)

Case :
potential for disruption stay Meck fgg naa 2
Russia is a big producer and exporter
Oil and natural gas can be transported easily in bulk of fossil fuel eneray.
by pipeline or tanker ships. However, these pathways
are not always secure as political decisions may In 2016 Russia and countries bordering the
reduce or stop supplies, such as: Caspian Sea agreed to divide up its seabed,
providing more oil and gas production within
* internal problems (such as in Venezuela) ieee ;
pipeline reach of Europe. Russia has several
* wars between countries natural gas pipelines to Europe:
* OPEC reducing global production * Yamal—Europe via Belarus and Poland
* sanctions against a country * South Stream via Bulgaria
* a country stopping supplies to another * Nord Stream (1 and 2) under the Baltic Sea.
fsuch a2 Russia.to Ukraine). Since Russia invaded Ukraine in 2014,
Other disruptions include: international sanctions have been in place,
* piracy: in 2017, pirates attacked 42 tankers in the but such is the demand for natural gas that
Indian Ocean, Gulf of Guinea or South China Sea countries such as Germany have wanted to
* leaking pipelines (flows stop during repairs), secure supplies, as energy mix is changing.
resources running out (e.g. North Sea gas) This means the pipelines are controversial, as they:
* a sudden increase in demand from a country so * increase dependence on Russian supplies
that supplies are diverted (e.g. to China). (giving Russia political influence)
* threaten the national security of Baltic countries
* affect supplies to Ukraine
* overlook Russian policy to destabilise Europe.

) Geographical |Analysing
skills

global oil
trade and
flows (2017)
You must be able to analyse maps
showing global energy trade and flows.

as
@ USA Canada Mexico
fi South and Central America
!® Evrope and Eurasia
fi Middle East ml Africa
+ Asia Pacific

1. Describe and explain the pattern of global oil trade and flows in 2017 shown in the map.
2. Explain how energy insecurity may result in some world regions from the disruption of energy pathways.
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\
)

Unconventional fossil fuels

Unconventional fossil fuels have benefits and problems associated with their development.

Unconventional fossil fuels

These are energy resources that are not easily accessible, such as:
* oil from rocks underneath deep water (Brazil)
* oil and gas trapped in the pore spaces within rocks rather than in a large reservoir, such as oil shale
(USA), oil (or tar) sands (Canada) and shale gas (China).

aa
Costs
OF Brazil deep water oil 4
There are high financial costs for new - Contexts
* Drilling started in 2006, 250km -
technologies to extract these resources.
off the shores of south-east Brazil, |
Many of these resources are in fragile in waters 2000 metres deep. The first oil was
environmental areas (e.g. Arctic and deep extracted in 2010.
ocean) and spills will damage them.
Costs were initially high, as a special fleet
There’ are uncertainties about the safety of ships was needed for different tasks,
for people and the environment of new and getting the oil from a salt layer was
technologies and methods of extraction. technologically difficult.
Greenhouse gas emissions will continue, The oil will help diversify Brazil’s energy mix,
releasing stored carbon into the atmosphere. provide better energy security in electricity,
Extraction of oil requires a huge amount of create jobs, provide income from exports and
energy, leaves open scars in the landscape, investment from foreign oil TNCs ($170 billion).
removes natural vegetation, causes water There were initial concerns about Petrobras
contamination, and infringes the rights of local company debt and political corruption, and
people (oil sands in Alberta, Canada). longer-term concerns about spoiling the
Extraction of gas by fracking lowers local environment in Guanabara Bay and local
water levels, contaminates water with fishing, oil spills and worker safety. However,
chemicals and causes ground movements. production costs are falling and profits rising.
Reece
eS Production was estimated as 2.4 million
barrels/day in 2016 and may reach 3.5 million

Synoptic Theme: ig

Development of reserves Benefits

& As conventional fossil fuel resources run out,
The search for new fossil fuels involves key
these resources can replace them where uses
players with contrasting points of view, such as:
currently need fossil fuels.
* companies searching for and developing & There are very large reserves that could be
unconventional resources developed, so extending the possibility of a
° local communities diversified energy mix.
* environmental groups. SS They are valuable resources providing jobs
and money, especially to some remote
In the UK the Shale Environmental Regulator
communities, and tax money for governments.
Group (SERG) has been set up to oversee
gas and oil shale developments, enabling
coordination of government departments,
business, environmental and health and safety
concerns, and giving local communities a voice.

State two environmental costs of developing

unconventional fossil fuel resources.

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Renewable and recyclable energy

‘Definitions
Of Renewable energy — an energy resource that CO Decoupling of fossil fuels from economic
is replaced rapidly from an existing constant growth — coal and then oil supported the
natural process, such as energy from the Sun economic development of industrialised
or the wind. countries, and as use increased so did wealth.
VY Recyclable energy — an energy resource that Recently fossil fuels have been used more
can be reused once people or nature have efficiently but wealth has continued to increase.
processed it, such as HEP. There are also early signs that, as fossil fuels
are replaced, economic development continues. |

Costs and benefits of renewable and recyclable energy

Benefits

| : & Needs investment in new technologies. & Can be used at scales suitable for
Electricity costs per unit may be higher developing countries and households.
than from conventional sources. Low maintenance costs once running.

Dependence on fossil fuels is only Cheap costs once economies of

reduced if they are directly substituted scale reached.
(e.g. difficult for transport). & Reduces dependence on fossil fuels for
electricity production.
Solar and wind:
SS are sate and clean resources
Solar may take up farmland, reducing
food production. & can be used by individual households.
al

Solar and wind need large areas, Ss No greenhouse gas emissions

spoil scenery. once operational.
i & Nuclear produces radioactivity. & No air pollution.

: & Difficult to store for later use. Ss Electricity produced can be used or
. | & Solar and wind are climate dependent. transmitted by existing systems.

| S)ce |Changing energy mix of UK, 1977-2017

|
250
1997 2017 200
m Coal
awOil § 150
m= Natural gas v
mw Nuclear = 100
m=Wind, solar, HEP a=» GDP per capita index
m Bioenergy 5O 3 i
exe Fossil fuel share index
Other
aay

1977 1987 1997 2007 2017

ey NEY a TEE

————

Now {ry this

Explain how renewable and recyclable energies can help future economic growth.

eee

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Alternative energy
Alternative energy sources have been developed or proposed, but they are not always positive.

Radical technologies Biofuels

«> Carbon capture and storage (CCS) In 2014 the IPCC identified biofuels as an important
way of managing climate change, as they can replace
* Suitable for fixed points (e.g. power stations). some fossil fuels while also absorbing carbon from
* CO, emissions are collected and pumped the atmosphere during growth. Examples of biofuel
into long-term storage in rocks, reducing crops include:
emissions by 75%, * sugar cane to make ethanol
* Does not solve the issue of * miscanthus grass to create heat energy
transport emissions,
* rapeseed oil to make biodiesel
* Concerns exist about the pressure in rocks
* jatropha seed oil to make biodiesel.
causing small earthquakes and leakages
affecting human or ecosystem health. However, there are issues:
* Large-scale cultivation could change carbon fluxes
12) Hydrogen fuel cells
between soil, vegetation and atmosphere and
° It is not a primary energy source but a reduce food production (plus increase food prices)
method of storing energy. and water availability for people if irrigation used.
* The only by-product is water. * In some countries there may be forced changes in
* Hydrogen is available from several sources, land ownership, taking land away from small farmers
and fuel cells can be used in vehicles, and reducing incomes for disadvantaged groups.
* A lot. of energy is needed to extract * Deforestation may take place to make room for
hydrogen from its sources (e.g. water) and biofuel crops, so decreasing CO, absorption.
this emits greenhouse gases, but on average Cultivation in marginal farming areas could stress
there is a 57% reduction, the natural environment.

& Electric vehicles

* Emissions depend on vehicle manufacturing ‘S)Case

R study Biofuels in Brazil Place
processes and how the electricity for the Contexts )

vehicles is produced, Brazil is the world’s largest producer of

ethanol from sugar cane. Most cars and light
* On average there is a 70% reduction in
vehicles in Brazil run on ethanol mixed with
emissions compared with petrol vehicles.
petrol. This is big business (650bn a year) with
1.34 million direct jobs. Ethanol production
is expanding despite changes in government
policy and economic conditions. In addition, the
Geographical
Lifecycle
.
emissions waste from processing sugar cane is used to
You must be able to compare emissions from generate electricity. Nine million vehicles run
different energy sources, on hydrous ethanol, and biodiesel from soybean

400, <a
oil is being developed. Sugar cane provides
much more energy than is input and reduces
Coal greenhouse gas emissions by 90%.

Natural gas

Geothermal
HEP
Explain why biofuels may not be as
important as the IPCC has stated.
Hydrogen

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Environmental health
Growing demand from humans for resources has changed land uses and affected the Earth’s cycles.

Impacts of land-use change

_ | Farming efficiency improves due to technology, reducing the area of farmland needed (e.g. EU land area has steadily decreased since 1960s).

Natural areas converted Clearance of land Bare soils are

to farmland and poorer by burning eroded and
people use biomass for releases carbon. runoff increases,
| More people in More resources energy (sub-Saharan Overuse of so soils get
the world needed — fuels and farmland area still grassland creates drier with
| (population timber. Greater increasing and forest desertification, reduced organic -
| increased by demand for meat. area decreasing). reduces matter and are Trees die,
| 36% between Food consumption photosynthesis, unable to store reducing litter for
1990 and 2015). increased by carbon, decomposition
More economic about 9% between and organic
| development and 1990 and 2015, Deforestation to obtain Tropical rainforest carbon store.
greater wealth, More machinery to resources and farmland is most effective Soils become
(tropical rainforest area biome at absorbing Reduced Te
| with higher extract resources. drier and less able
decreased 10% between | and storing evapotranspiration
| consumption to store carbon,
carbon, Livestock creates drier
levels. 1990 and 2015).
Livestock farming and farming increases climate, stressing
fodder crops production methane emissions. trees.
increase.

Environmental concerns lead to reforestation and afforestation (temperate forest area increased 11% between 1990 and 201 5).

Impacts of climate change

Reduction in carbon
Deforestation is storage: tropical and
responsible for 8% of Savannah grasslands subtropical forests
annual anthropogenic invade tropical store twice as much
CO, emissions, and rainforest areas: as tropical and
Climate tipping forest degradation change to sub-tropical grasslands.
| World climate points reached where for 9%, photosynthesis and
zones and biomes regional climate In forested areas soil carbon
; 4 storage. Tropical rainforest
| shift towards change is permanent: there will be dieback, Tropical rainforest carbon store: 50% in
the poles or to some regions with tree deaths sequesters biomass, 32% in soil
| higher altitudes; | | become permanently (disease, pests, lack 1.3 GtC/yr and 12% in litter, So
or expand or drier and experience of water) and forest but Savannah only change in soil organic
| shrink. mega-droughts. ailenrest 0.39 GtC/y. carbon store as well,

Regional trends in percentage

land-use cover change (1994 to 2014) Amazonia droughts Place
Contexts
Droughts are predicted to become more
frequent due to climate change. There were
severe droughts in 2005, 2010 and 2016.
* Prior to 2005 the climate was drier and
trees showed signs of stress, so the 2005
drought had a major impact, damaging 30%
of the forest. Moisture levels and biomass
were reduced.
* By 2010 many areas were still vulnerable and
50% of the forest was affected.
° During the drought: less CO, was absorbed
and trees were weakened by reduced
photosynthesis; wildfires and greater
decomposition of dead biomass increased
CO, emissions (estimated 13 billion tonnes
Explain how global warming is affecting the during the 2005 and 2010 droughts).
ability of forests to sequester (store) carbon.

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Topic 6

Ocean acidification
Ocean acidification as a result of human activity is increasing and creating risks for marine environments.

Ocean acidification
Ww There is diffusion between the sea surface and the atmosphere. Within this process oceans
absorb more CO, from the atmosphere than they give to it.
Ww As CO, levels in the atmosphere have increased due to emissions from the combustion of fossil
fuels, the ocean has absorbed more; the IPCC estimate that oceans have absorbed about 30%
_ of all anthropogenic emissions. =~
WY Water and carbon dioxide create a weak carbonic acid, which has the ability to dissolve calcium
carbonate, the mineral forming limestone rocks and shells of sea creatures, including coral reefs.
Ww Ocean acidity has increased by 26% since the 19th century, especially the North Atlantic.

Coral reefs Other marine environments

q) The world’s coral reefs are being stressed by ° Higher acidity levels in oceans may affect the
several changes linked to global warming, such ability of marine organisms to build shells and
as sea level rise, changing salinity and warmer skeletons, so creating thinner or smaller shells.
waters, It is therefore difficult to completely * Increased acidity may also decrease the
separate the impacts of these processes from availability of minerals for marine life, and CO,
those of increased acidification. concentrations in fish, squid and mussels
‘ may increase.
(2) Coral reefs are very productive ecosystems y
in shallow water with a living layer ona * The size of Atlantic cod may greatly reduce, larval
hard reef made of calcium carbonate. oysters in the NE Pacific have died, and algae
They are important for their biodiversity and and barnacles have taken over mussel habitats.
ecosystem services and resources, such as * Acidification is so fast that larger marine life may
protecting coastlines from storms, fish for not be able to cope, while phytoplankton should
food and tourism, These could all reduce due be able to adapt as long as it is not stressed
to ocean acidification, (for example, by pollution).
&) Carbonic aciel may dissolve the calcium * Young marine life will be affected the most,
especially if other stresses are present (such as
carbonate that makes up the base of a reef,
warmer water or plastic pollution) and pH does
breaking it up and reducing the rate of reef
affect physiological processes such as respiration
building so that coral polyps have nowhere
and neural functioning.
to live. Biodiversity would then be lost due
to disruption of food chains and the delicate
balance within the ecosystem. The number of
before the industrial revolutions
reef building corals is in decline worldwide
(reef building stops at pH below 7.7).

Now try this

1, Define what is meant by ocean acidification.

2. Describe four impacts of ocean acidification on marine environments.

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Threats to human wellbeing

Countries and the Kuznets curve Implications for people
Forests are still slowly disappearing around the Forests are important for:
world (rate of O.08% a year). & storing carbon
* Highest losses are in sub-Saharan Africa
Ss providing oxygen
(Nigeria lost 5% of its forest between 2010
and 2015 and Zimbabwe 2.1%). & balancing the water cycle through interception
* Largest gains are in parts of Asia (Philippines gained and absorption
3.3% between 2010 and 2015 and Laos 1%). Sy influencing local climates through
* Some developed countries have expanded their evapotranspiration (i.e. water availability)
forest area between 1990 and 2016 (UAE by SS nutrient cycling, maintaining soil health
32%, France by 18.5%).
SS supporting the greatest terrestrial biodiversity.
TURNING POINT Forests provide resources:
Uganda -59.3% ° Wood fuel in developing and emerging countries
Cambodia —27 .9%y Nae - Indonesia —23.8% (India: 68.6% of all wood removed in 2011).

Burundi —2.8% . Brazil -9.9% * Timber (forestry) in all types of country

NG Portugal —-7.6%
contributes $6OObn to global GDP, important
Bangladesh 4.5% \ in developing countries for employment
UNSUSTAINABLE \, Canada -0.4% (such as Asia).
~ 7 7 SUSTAINABLE X USA +2.8% * Non-wood forest products (e.g. foods) are
UK +13.9%
important in countries with rural economies.
* Plantations provide commercial forest products
% \oss or gain of forest
(fruits, palm oil and cocoa), which provide income
Environmental
degradation
loss
and between 1990 and 2016
to developing and emerging countries.
Level of overall development

Forest loss, protection and reforestation

HDI 2017 Deforestation Protected land Reforestation
(annual % 2OOO change (% 1996 € afforestation
/to 2015: forest to 2014) rate (% change/yr
>,
gain/loss) 2000-05)

E. Asia € Pacific
South Asia
Ocean health threats
* Oceans are warming, becoming more acidic and
changing salinity threatening important food supplies,
Global attitudes
especially for people in developing countries.
* Coral reefs are the most productive marine Attitudes of people around the world to
ecosystems but are threatened, so people may environmental issues vary depending on
lose food supplies (fish stocks), incomes from their needs:
tourism and protection from storms. * Some are totally dependent on forests and
* There is evidence that fish species are slowly oceans for survival, and others for jobs
moving from tropical areas towards the poles, so and income.
fishing grounds are changing. * Some recognise that long-term damage will
have a detrimental effect on everyone.
oe

Suggest how economic development of countries may reduce forest loss.

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Ty pacts of climate change

Changes to the hydrological cycle caused by global warming

| PRECIPITATION PATTERNS HIGHER TEMPERATURES

HIGHER EVAPORATION RATES
Precipitation in northern hemisphere of atmosphere and oceans.
HIGHER HUMIDITY Evaporation from all surfaces is
has increased since 1901, as have Atmosphere warmed by 0.85°C
Humidity in the increasing. Greatest increase in
the frequency and intensity of heavy between 1660 and 2012. Ocean:
atmosphere has been tundra and boreal areas of
precipitation events since the warmed by O.44°C in top 75
increasing since the northern hemisphere. Greatest
second half of the 20th century, metres between 1971 and 2010.
1970s. decrease in southern Africa, NW
especially in North America and Most warming is stored in oceans
Africa and \berian peninsula, SW
Europe. Storms are more intense. The future: at least another
USA, Australia and Amazonia.
The future: extreme precipitation is +0.3°C by 2035.
expected over mid-latitude wet land
regions and wet tropical regions,
and monsoon areas spread. FRESHWATER STORES
Mid-latitude and subtropical dry Cryosphere: Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets, and glaciers worldwide,
areas become drier. are melting, reducing this water store (e.g. Himalayan glaciers). Permafros
and spring snow cover melt releases water into surface stores and rivers.
Lakes (and reservoirs): Decrease in size in drier areas (e.g. Lake Foopo in
Bolivia, Lake Powell in USA); subtropical dry regions have less surface
RIVER DISCHARGES
water. Surface water increase where there is more surface runoff in higher
Local hydrographs become ‘flashier’ due to more heavy and intense rainfall
latitudes (e.g, Canada, Scandinavia and Russia).
within storm events, creating higher discharges (and floods). River
Soil and groundwater: Higher evaporation rates remove moisture from
regimes change with higher discharges in wetter areas and in certain
soil, affecting plant growth and crop yields. Increased runoff in wetter
seasons, such as monsoon, wet and earlier snow melt in spring. Drier
areas reduces the amount of infiltration and percolation, so groundwater
areas, or those where glaciers have completely melted, have lower
may not be replenished.
discharges and experience drought.

Uncertain global projections 19)case|Arctic ae

Contexts |
The Arctic will have the greatest increase
The IPCC are responsible for collating all
in temperature of any global location,
scientific evidence related to climate change.
especially in winter.
Within their reports they recognise that there are
levels of uncertainty with predictions. They rate ° This will reduce the amount and duration of snow
evidence of change with a confidence level: cover each year, and melt ice and permafrost.
° high confidence (oceans stored 90% of heat ° Extra melting will increase river discharges
energy between 1971 and 2010) earlier in spring and create river-ice floods.
* medium confidence (glacial melting affects * Arctic sea ice will decline in extent (3.6% per
water resources downstream) decade), creating habitat changes for polar
* low confidence (anthropogenic warming
bears and seals.
has affected size and frequency of global * Feople in the Arctic may experience more
flood events). building collapses (as the permafrost thaws),
more flooding, and increased wildlife stress may
The interaction between Earth systems are very
lead to food insecurity as hunting areas change.
complex, and even computer modelling gives
* Infrastructure may be damaged, causing pollution
different predictions because data has only been
(e.g. pipelines) and cutting transport connections.
collected for a relatively short time, and Earth
systems operate over a very long timescale. ° As Arctic ice disappears, there is likely to be
Any projections can therefore not be completely an increase in exploration for oil and natural
certain and the future is not totally clear. gas and shipping routes through the ocean.

Geographical low 6
Go to page 270 for more on climate model maps.

Explain how and why freshwater stores may change in the future.

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Uncertain future
Emissions, carbon concentrations and warming rate are uncertain.

Natural factors causing uncertainty Tipping points

Role of carbon sinks: If greenhouse gas emissions A tipping point is a sudden large-scale change
stopped, it would still take a long time for natural within a few decades, probably irreversible.
systems to restore pre-industrialisation levels. In 2014 the IPCC identified seven possible
ad About 20% of co, will remain in the atmosphere tipping points, including:

for hundreds of years.

* long-term droughts
* Oceans will reach saturation point, and won’t * collapse of monsoon climate system
absorb any more CO, from the atmosphere. = :
° Arctic Ocean becoming ice free.
° Methane storage would take about 100 years to a
return to normal.
Slower changes may also take place, such as
the collapse of the Greenland ice sheet.

Human factors causing uncertainty Feedback mechanisms

* Economic growth: More developing countries
have emerged economically in the last
30 years, so use more energy and higher
emissions (e.g. China). There are still many
countries to develop and so global emissions * Carbon from peatlands and permafrost: Boreal
may continue to increase. Economic recessions, and tundra biome and climate areas will shift
however, do reduce emissions. northwards as temperatures increase.
* Population: More people with higher levels Peatlands and permafrost within these will
of wealth use more energy and cause more release methane with drying or melting, which
emissions, especially when a lifestyle uses more traps more heat, causing further drying/melting.
machinery and electricity. Education makes These organic layers are a large carbon store,
people more aware of issues (see Kuznets curve, with faster decomposition in a warmer climate
page 179). that releases more CO, to the atmosphere.
* Energy sources: Global agreements (such as More soil carbon is also released into rivers.
Paris, 2016) on emissions reductions have * Forest dieback: Tropical rainforest areas could
made countries review their energy mixes. become drier and change to less productive
Renewable technologies are being developed and grasslands, so absorb less CO, from the
used more, but also unconventional fossil fuel atmosphere — warming will increase, causing more
resources are being exploited. dieback. Drought stress in boreal forests, with
more disease, pests and wildfires, could change
it to grassland and shrubs.
Thermohaline circulation changes: More
freshwater (for example, from melting of the
Greenland ice sheet), changes seawater density,
which changes ocean currents. For example, in
the North Atlantic this may cause the Gulf Stream
not to flow as far north. Such circulation changes
could change how the oceans and atmosphere
transfer heat energy, causing greater warming
and more ice melt.

Now try this

1. Explain how permafrost changes can lead to
o|e top lot graptgraphsSee
of carbon feedback into climate change.
a calculate means and rates ofpevaras: .
és Ss . 2. Draw a best-fit line on a copy of the graph.

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Adaptation strategies
There are costs and risks associated with adaptation strategies.

Adaptation strategies
Water * Low-cost appropriate technology possibilities exist (e.g. water harvesting, using
conservation grey water) but these work best when everyone participates.
and ° In areas that are getting drier, expensive large-scale schemes may be required
management to transfer water. These schemes have problems, such as getting international or
internal agreement, tensions and conflict, or moving water ey help one area but
reduce supplies in the source area. Re
Resilient * Changing farming cycles or crops to match a new climate may secure food
agricultural production. However, this takes time and may not be effective if climate change
systems is severe.
° Diversification must be targeted and backed by policy makers, markets
and farmers.
=e farming changes must not increase greenhouse gas emissions.
Land-use Land-use zoning keeps vulnerable human activity away from risky areas such as Te
| planning coast or floodplains.
* Building regulations can get structures to resist changes such as more
intense storms.
° However, these measures require strong local administration, enforcement and
wealth to afford them — which is not always possible in developing countries.
° It is almost impossible to move existing land uses in risky areas
(e.g. land ownership and compensation).
Flood risk ° This involves identifying areas with increased flood risk (rivers and coast) and
management adapting the structures within them, such as raising buildings above predicted
flood levels or relocating housing.
* Rivers and floodplains can be managed with afforestation and wetlands to control
river discharges, or mangroves at coasts to impede storm surges.
° However, the costs may be too high, even for developed countries, and there may
be too many people to move.
° Local people may object to leaving their home area.
° Predicting actual flood levels is uncertain, and so adaptation methods may
be ineffective.
Solar radiation ° Involves reducing the amount of heat energy reaching the Earth’s surface.
management * Most of this geoengineering is expensive, involves unproven technologies and
requires international agreement.
° One example is adding sulphur or seawater into the atmosphere to reflect solar
energy back into space, so cooling the Earth, but pollution and unpredictable
weather changes may occur.

nm me mH Ee mR ne Ee He Re A eee eee eee Ore eee Cee Cel ee eel

Now try this

Explain the problems associated with using water conservation and management to reduce the impacts of
global warming.

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Mitigation strategies
_ Rebalancing the carbon cycle needs mitigation and global agreement.

‘Mitigation strategies
Renewable switching
Moving from mostly fossil fuels to using renewables would greatly reduce carbon emissions, especially in
electricity generation. Renewable technologies are more widespread in developed and emerging countries
but are not always available in developing countries. The UK policy is to move to a low carbon future, but
it will take a long time for renewables to be the main source of primary energy.
Carbon capture and storage Afforestation
Fower stations and large factories Forests are an important carbon store (average
that use fossil fuels can be made of O.73 tonnes of carbon a year per ha);
to capture and store emissions by planting more forests would increase storage
laws and regulations. However, and reduce atmospheric concentrations.
suitable geologic sites may not Mitigation However, many countries are deforesting for
be available and the technologies strategies commercial or subsistence purposes, especially
involved may be too expensive for tropical developing and emerging countries.
developing countries. It also In boreal forest areas, the forest gain is only
reduces profits of the companies slightly more than the forest loss due to the
and economic priorities may be forestry industry. It is difficult to get
put first. international agreement because forest
resources are economically important.

Energy efficiency Carbon taxation

All types of machinery and appliances Governments can impose taxes on carbon emissions, reducing
have become more energy efficient, profits of businesses and industries and so encouraging them to
partly because of government change to low-carbon alternatives. People may pay for emissions
regulations (e.g. EU directives) which through taxes on vehicle types, based on how much carbon they
have forced manufacturers to improve emit, which encourages people to purchase eco-friendly cars.
efficiency. People can change their The Kyoto protocol and Paris agreement brought widespread
lifestyles to use less energy. However, international action on reduction targets and governments
as average global wealth increases more introduced regulations and laws to bring change within their
energy countries. However, alternatives and new technologies are
is being used, so the biggest savings for expensive, and businesses and people may be slow to adopt
this mitigation measure are in developed these mitigation strategies or be willing to accept extra
countries. : | taxation costs.

Attitudes in different countries, peoples and ° Indonesia has 22 adaptation projects,

organisations (such as TNCs) mean that actions including participation in global and regional
to adapt to or mitigate climate change vary from actions such as ‘Asian Cities Climate Change
place to place. Examples: Resilience Network’. It works with universities
_and receives international aid, such as AusAID,
° Mexico has 15 adaptation projects working
and financing from the Asian Development Bank.
with some external agencies such as the World
An assessment of progress shows that it had a
Bank, universities and UNDP. An assessment of
strong commitment to mitigation and recently
progress shows that while it is working towards
to adaptation, but more is needed to address
_ putting policies into action, they are only
human health and adaptations within forestry.
meeting part of the country’s needs.
i Be “

“oe {try this

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skills 1
The A level exam-style questions and worked examples below will help you to prepare for Topic 6 ih
The Carbon Cycle and Energy Security in Paper 1 Section C. Look back at pages 165 to 163 to remind
yourself of the content.

Worked example
1. Study Figure 1. Resources
Explain the trends in UK GDP per capita and @
In the exam, you may be advised to
fossil fuel share. (3 marks)
use the resource booklet provided.
This means there will be marks allocated
for doing this. Figures are likely to be
unfamiliar: be prepared for this and do
not panic. Look carefully at the resource
for evidence of links to the question. _
== GDP per capita index
=== Fossil fuel share index

1977 1987 1997 2007 2017

Make sure you use the scales provided in
Figure 1: Trends in UK GDP per capita and fossil fuel share
the resource in your answer.
Between 1977 and 2007 GDP doubled without
any change in fossil fuel use. After 2007 fossil
fuel use declined by 25% while the rate of GDP This is a strong answer because it is
growth slowed dramatically. Reasons for this not just descriptive, it also uses data
include more energy-efficient machinery and to support points and gives reasons,
technology, which used less energy but made which is essential in ‘explain’ questions.
transport and industries more efficient. An alternative point could have been
Fossil fuels are also being substituted by to mention GDP change after 2007
renewables, especially noticeable since 2007. affected by world economic recession,

2. Explain how sedimentary carbonate rocks

are formed.
©
(8 marks)
which reduced energy demands.

All marks in this question are for recall

There is diffusion of CO, from the atmosphere into
the ocean, and also plankton store carbon.
The organic and marine carbon pumps move calcium
a of knowledge and understanding, so you
should demonstrate this by using linked
points, correct terminology and any
carbonate to the ocean floor, forming calcareous
ooze. Limestone rocks have a high calcium relevant facts that you have learned.
carbonate concentration, formed from calcareous
ooze with shells and skeletons of marine creatures
(e.g. coral and phytoplankton) that have settled on This is a stong answer because it is
the seabed. Over a very long time period the ooze concise and to the point. The student
is buried on the seabed, cemented and compacted uses terminology correctly to explain the
together at a depth of about 100 metres, below mm processes involved. There is a sequence
which recrystallisation takes place, and by 1000 to coverage of the processes which
metres there are very few spaces left in the newly greatly helps the explanation. Answers do
formed carbonate rock. Sometimes concentrations not have to be long to get into the
of carbon compounds occur, and these turn into top level of marks; quality is what
fossil fuels. For example, coal was formed from is important.
land-based plants (mostly 300 million years ago),
which are buried and compressed by rock layers
above, perhaps in the presence of heat... To complete the answer you should
discuss the role of plankton, the marine
carbon pump and perhaps also the
different sedimentary rocks formed.
 Had a look iz Nearly there iz Nailed it! ir |

skills 2

3. Evaluate the extent to which human factors are AL)

Timing
causing uncertainty about future global warming. Aim to spend around 25 minutes on the
(20 marks) 20-mark ‘evaluation’ question.
Enhanced warming due to human activities will
continue into the future, but for how long and
_ to what extent is uncertain. The UN target of a
maximum of 1.5°C increase may not be met due to
a variety of human factors. Economic development Read widely!
and industrial revolutions have increased the use of
fossil fuels, and some countries remain big emitters During your course of study you need
of greenhouse gases (such as the USA). This is the to read widely and stay up to date
main reason for enhanced global warming. There are with what is happening in the world,
still many developing countries that could follow so as to expand your knowledge and
Rostow’s stages of development. If they use understanding of each topic.
fossil fuels to provide energy for their industrial
development, more emissions of greenhouse gases
may occur (such as China taking over from USA as
the largest emitter of CO,). However, as countries
develop, economic progress could be linked to
the development of renewable technologies (such
as biofuels in Brazil), perhaps encouraged by high
oil and gas prices or reserves running out. In this
case emissions will decrease..
The UK’s energy consumption has decreased since
2005 but the primary energy share of fossil fuels
is only decreasing very slowly. It is difficult to
predict how long it would take atmospheric CO,
concentrations to decrease (currently around
410 ppm). Government targets'and actions are
important to determining future emissions and the
rate of warming. Investment in renewable energy,
nuclear, carbon capture and storage and bio-
energy can help to reduce carbon emissions (for
example, Germany’s Energiewende). But not all
countries have followed international agreements
such as the 2015 Paris agreement, and some do
poorly on the Climate Change Performance Index
(for example, Saudi Arabia and Australia), which
adds to uncertainty...
In conclusion, human factors are most important in
causing uncertainty about future global warming.
Natural factors are known and operate over a long
time period, although natural feedback loops, such
as melting permafrost releasing methane, are part
of the uncertainty. However there are still many
_ human factors to fully evolve: the extent of using
renewable and efficient energy technologies, the
growth of bottom-up pressures on governments,
the rate of population change, afforestation
rates, and the commitment of national governments
to UN recommendations.
ay eeer

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Exam practice l
. The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 1 Section C of your A level exam.
Suggested answers are on page 308. You need to answer all questions in Section C. —

1. Explain one link between oceans and the

atmosphere in the carbon cycle. (3 marks)

2. (a) Study Table 1.

ae
Photosynthesis
Respiration (and wildfires) RSs

Calculate the net carbon flux involving plants. : dl

You must show your working. (1 mark) Cc °
alculations
(b) Study Table 2.
Do calculations quickly. Use a calculator
but do show your workings on the exam
paper in the space provided. If you are
not sure how to do a calculation, do”
as much as you can. You should always
attempt all questions.

Ocean diffusion
Respiration (and wildfires)

Calculate the mean of the carbon fluxes into

the atmosphere. Show your working. (1 mark)

3. Explain how ocean currents transfer carbon.

(6 marks)

4. Study Figure 1.
Global monthly mean CO,
cd SBON ES FF OS eT
[Ee aay | | |
[ett es SN SS Cs a
elaine | i a ee Peete |
i ae a
400 [ aca] Nie

2 erates | -
E alle eos” \ i | | ea
v 395
oo eae El Ci be
itct
2 {
a Ftd) Wl -+ Sia es) TES
390 pee el wie a i
|| gia n\value [ |
& I €asonall ‘correct alves| moving average)
365
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Year

Figure 1: Global monthly mean CO, levels

Explain the global trends in CO,

concentration since 2012. (8 marks)

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practice 2
_ The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 1 Section C of your A level exam.
See suggested answers on page 308.

1. Study Figure 2.
Assess the role of energy
pathways in establishing
energy security. (12 marks)

| 2. Evaluate the view that it is

. more important to develop
unconventional fossil fuel
a resources than renewable AL)
energy. (20 marks) mi USA & Canada Mexico
i ‘ Gi South and Central America
' li Europe and Eurasia
i Middle East Mi Africa
Asia Pacific

| Figure 2: World oil trade, 2017 (million tonnes)

_
a
For question 1, think about what the
% There are several themes that could feature
__ amount of trade (movement) of oil around in your answer to question 2, and you do not
the world suggests. Which areas are necessarily need to cover them all. For example,
importing? Which are exporting? Why these economic purposes may influence TNCs and
areas — what does it suggest about energy governments to want to keep the situation
security in these places? Which other as it is because transport and industries are
factors are affecting energy security and based on fossil fuel energy resources (e.g. the
are these more important? oil age); or environmental purposes may
Se ee
influence environmental pressure groups and
some governments to move towards renewable
energy resources to reduce carbon emissions;
or technological considerations may, on the one
Data sources — hand, suggest that sticking to fuels we know
how to use and improving efficiency is best
If data or information are provided to use
or conversely suggest that developing new
with a question, there are likely to be
several ways in which they can be used.
technologies can promote further economic
When you study any resource provided, development. Examples to use include: deep
such as Figure 2, look for several water oil, tar (oil) sands, oil shale, and shale gas
significant patterns — these may be large versus solar, biofuels, CCS and electric vehicles.
scale or small. During the exam, make
| sure that you have the relevant resource
for a question open in front of you.
‘Assess questions
In ‘assess’ questions, make sure that
you focus on answering the question —
perhaps take a minute to make a plan.
Avoid explaining or defining basic terms |
that appear in the question, and make
sure that you are not just describing.
Use data and information as evidence to
support every point that you make.

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superpowers
Superpowers have particular economic, political, military, cultural and demographic characteristics.

(|
= L na 1

What is a superpower? | €) Geographical

skills ~
| i
Ww A superpower is a nation, or group of nations, with a :
leading position in international politics. Constructing a power
A superpower is not only a leading nation, it also has the :
ability to use its dominant power and influence anywhere index \ (art
around the world. An example is the USA. A power index assigns a rank to |
Ww Emerging superpowers are nations with a significant each nation being compared
influence that is growing: China, for example. ; for a range of characteristics: >
They may not yet have dominance in all the key areas of such as GDP, size of army, }
superpower status — economic, political, military, cultural, | | number of countries for which '
demographic and resource access. the nation is the most important
Regional powers have strong influence within their region | trading partner. ; 1
but are less powerful outside that region, e.g. Nigeria.

Superpower characteristics
Economic ° High GDP and high levels of trade, including influence over global trade
* Home to many TNCs
¢ Hard currency held in reserve by other countries
Political ° Permanent seat on UN Security Council, together with powerful allies
* Many multilateral agreements
Military ° High expenditure, largest amount of hardware and personnel, including nuclear weapons
* Could command global military control
¢ Unparalleled intelligence networks
° Exporters of military technology
° Long-standing tradition and rich cultural history or way of life voluntarily enjoyed by
many around the world, for example music, fashion, film and fast food
Demographic | ° Significant percentage of global population
° Attracts skilled migrants and other workers
Access to ° Able to export and control the supply of valuable commodities, for example oil, or be
resources able to secure the resources it needs
° Multiple resources make a country less dependent on others (energy security)
° Occupying a world location that enables it to command influence

OF superpower USA (2015)

* Economic: GDP per capita: $53 000; natural Now try this
resources; global trade links.
* Military: US military spending accounts for
Which d think are the three k
37% of all military spending in the world. nance taairmaptee te!
characteristics of a superpower? i
* Demographic: 45 million migrants live in USA. Why those three? |
° Cultural: 16 of the world’s top 20 universities , tienes
are in the United States. Rich culture: music,
film, fast food.

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Hard and soft power

Hard power is when a country achieves its objectives by using force. Soft power is about a country’s
political influence — it is the power to achieve objectives through persuasion.

Spectrum of power

Mechanisms of maintaining
power sit on a spectrum from
ee deals combine |
hard to soft power. These vary
elements of both soft
|power and hard power. in their effectiveness.
For example, military For example, respected diplomats,
power, economic sanctions film industries like Hollywood or

| Hard power Soft power

“Hard power has two main components: Professor Joseph Nye developed soft power as
i Military power — for example, the USA a concept in 1990. The UK's global influence is
dependent on soft power:
responded to the 2001 terrorist attack
on the USA with a military invasion of Vw History: Britain’s history of high-quality
Afghanistan, against the Taliban who were education, fair legal system and reputation
supporters of the terrorists. for financial trustworthiness.
Cf Culture: English is widely used as a second
® Economic power — for example, the use language around the world, and the BBC is
~ of economic sanctions by the USA against widely trusted as an unbiased news source; |
countries it considers a threat to its high-quality British TV drama is exported to
interests, such as Iran. | many countries.
WY Diplomacy: the UK has one of the
Hard power was how countries (e.g. Britain) gained | largest networks of embassies and high
dominance in the past, but it is increasingly difficult | commissions. UK objectives are often
to achieve global influence through hard power
today, as it leads to a loss of global influence. | achieved through diplomatic influence.

Criticising the policies of close allies such as

Canada, the UK and Germany, may have weakened
the soft power influence that the USA has with
these countries.

The use of economic sanctions against Iran went

against a soft power approach by the Evropean
Union and other leading nations.

The use of trade wars to improve the USA's trading

position with countries such as China is closer to a
hard power than to a soft power approach.
President Trump downgraded the USA's use of soft
| power, arguing for American home interests first.
:

1. Consider an iconic US brand. How has this brand been important as a type of soft power for the USA?
2. Is soft power effective? Use at least two examples to back up your answer.

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Geo-strategy
Geo-strategy sees geographical factors as the most important aspect of strategy ~ so a country
that has lots of geographical advantages, such as resources, is likely to be a powerful country.

Mackinder's ‘Heartland’ Theory

WY Halford Mackinder’s geo-strategic location
theory is an example of an old-fashioned idea
about what makes countries globally powerful.
Ww Mackinder saw the centre of the Eurasian land
mass as a key geo-strategic location: if one nation
controlled this ‘Heartland’, it would become
globally dominant as, for one thing, it would control
50% of the world’s resources.
CO Mackinder’s view was that other countries should
work together to balance this ‘Heartland’ power
and make sure it did not become too dominant.

Containment
° Mackinder’s theory influenced the policy of
containment. This was the idea that emerging
powers, such as Germany, after the First World
War should be ‘contained’ — not allowed
to expand.
Containment also became the USA's strategy
against the USSR. The USSR gained superpower
status after the Second World War. The USA
feared that the USSR would expand its ideology
and control through Evrope and Asia.
The Truman Doctrine committed the USA to
support those fighting Communism around the
world. This policy led the USA and some of its
allies into military conflicts in Korea and Vietnam.

Geo-strategic location theory today

The interconnectedness of all countries through globalisation has made geo-strategic Policies a.
less
important. For example:
* superpower countries may be more at threat from cyber-warfare than from invasion by other nations
° some TNCs have become more powerful than most nations through their control of global trade.
* superpowers may get involved with proxy conflicts, supporting opposite sides of conflicts in world
regions such as the Middle East

1. Explain why Halford Mackinder thought that control over the ‘Heartland’ would mean control over the
whole world. Eo ‘
|
2. Suggest reasons why control over Mackinder’s ‘Heartland’ is no longer thought to be the route to
superpower status.
\ iia
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Uni-polar power
_ The British Empire is. example of uni-polar power, which means that there was a single superpower.
As British control began to crumble after the First World War, the world became more multipolar, with
several competing global powers.

The British Empire at its height

_How the Em pire was controlled The end of the Empire

At its height, the British Empire extended over It became impossible for the British to continue
about a quarter of the world’s land area and ruled a having direct rule over other countries because of
_ fifth of the world’s population. four key reasons:
Nineteenth-century Britain was the world’s leading
Running an empire was very expensive and
trading country and the world’s first industrialised
after the expense of the First World War,
country, which made it very wealthy.
Britain could no longer afford it.
Britain invested in its navy until it was the most
powerful in the world. Maintaining British sea After the First World War the right of any
power was important in keeping countries under country to control another country came under
British control... - a sustained attack. Independence movements
British colonies often started as trading posts in Ireland and India were eventually successful
_ in foreign countries. British forces took direct in forcing the British to abandon control.
control over the countries and ran them to
__Global trade changed: new industrial powers
- protect their trade and make Britain richer.
such as Germany and the USA created new
British control involved soft power as well as hard markets and more competition. Trading with
power. For example, there were jobs for colonised African colonies and India were no longer the
- people in the British administration of their route to economic superpower.
countries. The British introduced sports such as
~ cricket
to many colonies, and held tournaments 2 Military technology changed. By the end of
like the Empire Games. British missionaries the 1940s, British naval power was no longer
_ converted people to Christianity, and especially capable of defending British colonies all over
_to the Church of England. the world from the new superpower of the
USSR, or from nuclear weapons.

Now try th is
Was British control of its Empire achieved through hard power, soft power or a mixture?
a

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i- and multi-polar power

As the uni-polar power of the British Empire faded, the Cold War saw two superpowers — the USA
and the USSR - facing each other (bi-polar power). Since the end of the Cold War, emerging eee
have created more of a multi-polar global situation, challenging the USA's dominance.

Superpowers in the Cold War

The development of nuclear weapons changed how
\ Geographical | Using sphere of |ca

power was maintained in the Cold War between the influence maps
USA and the USSR.
° While only the USA had nuclear weapons, it
had ultimate global power (uni-polar). With the
detonation of atomic bombs in 1945, the USA
ended the war in the Pacific against Japan.
* When the USSR developed nuclear weapons
(in 1949), a stalemate quickly developed: if either
superpower used them, the other would use them
too; both would be destroyed.
° The superpowers developed indirect control over
countries instead. B® US sphere of influence Indian sphere an
@ USSR + Chinese spheres No overall control = |

Mechanisms of indirect control

* Political: When a superpower influences how
A superpower’s Sones of tamuence is the
another country is governed through ideology.
geographical area that a power considers to
For example, the communist countries of Eastern
be under its influence. You can use sphere of
Europe followed the policies decided for them by
influence world maps from different time periods
the USSR.
toes ee in thees balance.
Economic: When a superpower uses its economic ena
E
n
R
N
a
E
e
e
e

power to influence how another country acts.

For example, trade or aid deals have strings
Neo-colonialism
attached: another country gets a loan but has to |
S

spend it on the superpower’s products. VY Colonialism used direct control backed by

Military: A superpower can influence another military force. British colonies were tied
country by stationing its troops in the country, into trading relationships with Britain that
by selling it weapons that only use parts and made Britain richer at their expense.
ammunition sold by the superpower and by WY Neo-colonialism does not have actual empires
military alliances. For example, the USA currently and colonies: instead, the richest capitalist
has 800 military bases around the world. countries use their control of aid to keep
Cultural: The USA's Radio Free Europe transmitted developing countries indebted to them, and
western news and information into Eastern Europe their control of trade to restrict developing _
and the USSR during the Cold War. countries to delivering cheap raw materials.

Multi-polar power and risk

Now try this * Uni-polar and bi-polar power create a relatively
stable geopolitical status, as one country has
Which do you think is the most effective form of more power than all the rest, or two countries
indirect control: political, military, economic or are locked in stalemate.
cultural? Explain your thinking. Multi-polar power creates instability when
emerging powers compete with each other. _
For example, China is an emerging power. It has
built military bases on South China Sea islands, _
which other powers claim as theirs.

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Emerging powers
_A number of emerging countries are increasingly globally important.

Which are the emerging powers? How are they influential?

¢ The BRIC countries are Brazil, Russia, India ° Economically: Their economic growth has powered
and China. BRICS is also used: this includes the world economy. Collectively, the G2O countries
South Africa. make up 85% of global trade. Large populations
° Another grouping is the MINT countries: Mexico, also mean big markets for global commodities.
Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey. Politically: Their economic importance enables them
* The G2O is the 20 most successful economies in to form alliances and act as an influence group
the world. They meet to discuss how to keep the (e.g. New Development Bank), and join global
global economy working at its best. All the BRICS decision-making organisations such as the G2O.
and the MINT countries are members, together Environmentally: Climate change is a global
with leading economies like the EU, USA and Japan. problem and the emerging powers have a crucial
role to play in tackling it both individually and
as part of global governance initiatives
(e.g. UN climate change conferences).

Strengths and weaknesses of the BRIC countries

E |
Ns ¢ te? i Strengths Weaknesses

Economic: economy reached Economic: an economic crisis 2014-17

US$ 2.6 trillion in 2010 saw Brazil’s GDP fall by nearly 4%
SS Economic and demographic: 40 million Political: serious political corruption
Brazilians is a big market involving state energy company
& Environmental: environmentally important — Environmental: some politicians want to cut
Amazon rainforest down rainforest to boost development
Russia SS Military: very strong military, both for Economic: GDP dependent on oil price:
conventional and nuclear arms Russia’s GDP shrank from US$2.2 to
1.2 trillion between 2013 and 2018
Economic and political: rich in resources,
especially oil and gas & Economic and political: very high inequality
Cultural: effective soft power through Political: hostility against Russia, including
manipulation of social media economic sanctions from EU, USA

& Economic and demographic: huge labour Economic and political: more than 70% of
market of 500 million rural population still live in poverty
& Economic: effective training of highly &) Economic: weak infrastructure (roads, rail)
skilled workers, e.g. in IT, finance Environmental and demographic: rapid
dS Demographic: youthful population — 54% population growth is causing major
of Indians are under 25 environmental damage
China Economic: world’s second largest economy & Economic: growth has slowed from 14%
in 2016 per year in 2007 to around 6%
SS Economic and political: growth in China Economic and political: inequality between
lifted 800 million people out of poverty, urban and rural China, and developed east
creating a huge market and less developed west

Economic and demographic: educated & Environmental: air and water pollution
population, skilled workforce

Now try th 1S
Explain the importance of emerging powers to global efforts
to tackle climate change.

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Development Theory
Three theories — Modernisation Theory, Dependency Theory and World Systems Theory — help to
-explain how development relates to changing patterns of power.

Modernisation Theory:
Rostow’s model (1960)
* Based on the historical development of the UK and
the USA.
° Assumes that if enough investment is made in a
developing country, industrialisation (‘take-off’)
will inevitably occur, giving good returns on the
original investment. Take-off: The introduction and rapid growth of manufacturing
industries, better infrastructure, financial investment, and culture
Explains why some people support TNC investment change as part of an industrial revolution.
in developing countries: it should provide the Conditions for take-off: Conditions for development include profits
from farming and improving infrastructure such as the transport
stimulus for ‘take-off’. network, power supplies and communications networks. Extractive
Criticisms: assumed all countries follow the same industries also develop.

path to development even though the economic

conditions for the UK and the USA's development
were different.

Dependency Theory
° Frank (1971) described the “development
of underdevelopment’.
° TNC investment in developing countries led to the
exploitation of workers (low pay), the manipulation
of global trade and environmental damage, keeping
a periphery of developing countries dependent on
a core of developed countries.
* Criticisms: does not explain how some developing
countries have grown rapidly while others have not;
it does not deal easily with changing patterns
of power.

World Systems Theory

° World Systems Theory (developed by Wallerstein in 1976 from Frank’s Dependency Theory)
does factor in change over time, and accepts a more complex system than a single path to
development or a core/periphery divide.
° It recognises the importance of the global economy, which has long-term cycles of booms and
recessions. Both create opportunities for countries to become emerging powers or for their
power and influence to decline, and for countries to move from the periphery to the core —
or the other way round — over long periods of time.
* A criticism is: it describes rather than explains.

Which of the three models on this page do you find most useful in explaining changing global patterns of
power? Explain your answer.

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Global econon
Superpowers influence the global economy — for example, by promoting free trade and capitalism.
IGOs (intergovernmental organisations) are important in achieving this.

IGOs and global economic growth

The rise of the IGOs
Post-war reconstruction and international
Intergovernmental organisations (IGOs) were set development boosted global trade.
up as a way of countries coming together to
make international decisions.
Of Our current |GOs developed as a result of
the Bretton Woods conference in 1944.
Bretton Woods was based on the idea that
the best way to avoid future wars was to LINEAR.

increase economic cooperation between

countries, because countries doing well
economically did not need to fight wars. 1650 1200 1950 2000 2014

w Bretton Woods also needed to find a way

to raise the huge sums of money needed to
1000
reconstruct countries damaged by war.
Ww The conference set up two international |
100
organisations: the International Monetary
Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. | LOG

IGOs and their roles 1600 1650 1900 1950 2000 *. 2014

* World Bank: Provides financial and technical

assistance to developing countries.
¢ IMF: Works to ensure the stability of the
international monetary system, facilitates
international trade and high employment.
* World Trade Organization (WTO): Regulates world
Geographical
Graph scales
trade, helps solve trade disputes and promotes You need to be able to interpret both linear and
free trade. | logarithmic graph scales of world trade growth.
* World Economic Forum (WEF): Brings leaders * Linear scales show the difference between
together to try to solve international problems. values: a change from 1 to 2 is the same
increase as a change from 6 to 7.
IGOs and superpower influence * Log scales work differently using ratios.
The IGOs on this page promote free trade and On a log scale a change from 1 to 2 is the same
capitalism. Free trade is seen as the best way amount of increase as a change from 6 to 12.
of achieving global growth: countries should not * Linear scales are good at showing year-to-year
protect their own products from foreign competition detail (such as the impact of the 2006 crash
but should open their economies up to get the most on exports).
competitive price on the international market for * Log scales are good for showing data with
what they sell and what they want to buy. a large range of values. On a linear graph
the high export values after 1950 mean all
the lower values before 1950 get squashed
together: compare this with the log scale.
However they are harder to analyse and you
can’t plot a value of zero.
To what extent do IGOs help superpowers to
influence the global economy?

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Cs: global influencers

TNCs influence the global economy in two significant ways: through their economic dominance and
‘through their role in cultural globalisation.

TNCs and the global economy TNC geography

The size of TNCs gives them significant ° Every year a list of the 500 top-performing
advantages in global trade. companies according to revenue is produced
* TNCs locate production in low-wage countries by Fortune magazine.
and sales in high-profit markets, making them * In 2001, 215 of the top 500 companies were
very successful. American. In 2017 this fell to 143. Of the
* TNCs are involved in around 80% of all global 500, 109 were from China and 51 from Japan.
trade. 30% of this is between TNCs. * In 2017, the top five companies were: ;
* TNCs are important for research and
development (R#D): around 50% of all global Rank |Company | Country Country
R&D happens in TNCs. This is important for
innovation, and helps TNCs to reduce their
costs still further. 1 [Walmart |USA
2 | State Grid | China
ynoptic Theme: id 3. | Sinopec China
4 | CNPC China
TNCs, power and wealth 5 | Toyota Japan
The advantages that TNCs have over non-TNCs * 65% of the top 500 companies were from
have enabled them to grow rapidly. just 10 countries: two in North America, five in
The global shift in manufacturing away from Western Europe, three in east Asia.
developed countries has, however, also e Around 500 TNCs are state-owned (SO):
contributed to new powers emerging. most of China’s top TNCs are SO-TNCs.

TNCs and patents Global cultural influence

* Innovation is protected by the patents system, TNCs help to spread innovation as they share
which registers ideas and allows their inventors new techniques with their foreign affiliates.
to make profits from them for a set period. Because most patents have historically been
* China is now responsible for 40% of all patent filed in the USA and the EU, this has been mainly
applications worldwide. a West-—East cultural transfer, although Japanese
and Korean innovation has also had major impacts
° Patents protect the large amount of research and
on western TNCs.
development (R&D) done by TNCs.
Media TNCs have a significant cultural influence
° Pharmaceutical TNCs rely on payments to use
through the movies, films and adverts they
their drug discoveries. The high cost of pharma
produce. The top five biggest media companies ~
R&D means high fees are charged to use their
in 2016 were all US TNCs: Google, Walt Disney —
products. The fees for some drugs are too high
Company, Comcast (cable TV), 21st Century Fox
for developing countries to afford.
and Facebook.
¢ The USA has complained about some emerging
The USA's dominance in cultural influence is a
powers stealing ideas from US-owned TNCs.
major form of soft power. However, US TNCs
This was one of the reasons for a US-China trade
have to customise products to meet foreign
war starting in 2018.
cultural expectations (glocalisation).

Now (try this

1. Suggest reasons why the majority of patent holders are currently in the USA and the EU.
2. Why might IGOs have helped TNCs become dominant in the global economy?

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Decision-making
@ @ @

_ Powerful countries take a leading role in international decision-making.

Global action
1] Conflict prevention: Superpowers can:
° lead international efforts to prevent conflict
(e.g. the USA led the creation of the United
Nations after the Second World War)
* work with allies or alone to intervene in
conflicts (e.g. the USA acted without UN
support in its Second lraq War).
Crisis response: Superpowers like the USA
have the funds and skills to help countries
in crisis: this is often a form of soft power,
for example the USA's response to the 2010
Haiti earthquake.

P
Climate change mitigation: Superpowers Synoptic Theme:
are essential to this because of their:
_ * high contributionsto greenhouse Global police
gas emissions. oe
The UN Security Council has the role of keeping
* wealth (ability to fund mitigation)
peace between countries, e.g. it can arrange
* research capabilities. economic sanctions to stop countries trading
Without them, mitigation is much harder. with a state that is causing problems. It also
decides when and where UN peacekeeping
Alliances (a sort of global police force) is deployed.
Alliances increase interdependence between
ee 2 Sopertant in geo-strategy and Global geopolitical stability
global influence. Examples include:
_* Military: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation The UN was set up to maintain global peace and
(NATO) — an alliance of 29 countries: if one
security by encouraging nations to cooperate in
— member is threatened, the others will come to solving international problems.
its aid. Protects the USA’s European allies from * The International Court of Justice settles legal
Russia. Other examples: ANZUS (Australia, New disputes between nations.
Zealand and United States Security Treaty). * The Security Council makes decisions on how to
* Economic: EU — a huge single market of 500 deal with threats to global peace.
_million people through which most goods, ° UN peacekeeping missions send troops to
services, money and people can move freely, conflict regions to help achieve peace.
-integrating 27 member countries in an economic * UN climate change conferences are held yearly to
union that has a core of common cultural values, assess progress in tackling climate change and to
e.g. human rights, rule of law. Also: NAFTA negotiate agreements.
(North Atlantic Free Trade Agreement); ASEAN
(Association of South East Asian Nations).
Environmental: IPCC; part of the UN. It reviews
the research of hundreds of climate change
__ scientists, after which representatives of 194
governments meet to agree the wording of a 1. In what ways do powerful countries take a lead in
report.In 2016 the IPCC released a report on international decision-making?
the global impacts of a rise in temperature of 2. Why is the United Nations important to global
about 1.5°C. geopolitical stability?

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Resource cemands
Superpower resource demands (food, fossil fuels and minerals) lead to environmental degradation,
and their carbon emissions are much larger than other countries’ emissions.

Superpower resource demands Environmental degradation

The large economies and populations of As a result of their high resource demands,
superpowers means their demand for resources is superpowers are major contributors to
very high. For example, in 2017: environmental degradation, such as:
* the USA was the world’s largest consumer of oil, * landscape scarring from mining
wood, cocoa powder and beef * air pollution from industrial pollution and
* China was the largest consumer of coal, iron ore, electricity generation through burning coal
palm oil, wheat and rice and fresh water and the * water pollution from industry, agriculture and
largest importer of steel and polythene polymer. energy extraction (such as oil spills)
Dec 21 | Vietnam
* deforestation for crops and livestock.
High resource demand makes superpowers leading
E \\\drama contributors to carbon emissions. China and the
a Ws
SS
oesSZ Y
: States
FB Mar 15 | United
USA are the main contributors.

ta
AlLb aM . Proportional
Al
\\\\ ‘33 skills
symbols
You need to know how to interpret maps of
emissions and resource consumption using
proportional symbols.

Growing consumption
A middle class is expanding in emerging powers
as people get wealthier. The middle classes
consume more because they buy more products:
they do not grow their own food or make their
own clothes, they use mopeds and cars rather
than bicycles, they buy fridges, microwaves and
TVs, phones and computers, heating and air
conditioning, etc.

Consequences of increased
consumption
* As demand increases for key resources (such
1. Explain why China (30% of global CO, emissions)
as water, oil, grain crops and rare earth
and the USA (15% of global CO, emissions) are
metals used in smartphones), they will be less
the leading contributors to CO, emissions.
available and prices for them will rise.
2. How useful is the concept of an Earth Overshoot
° As demand increases and prices rise,
Day as a measure of superpower resource demands?
degradation of the environment will increase
as new areas become profitable to exploit, for \ | \

example the Arctic.

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Willingness to act

The USA, the EU, China and Russia can appear reluctant to act together (or to act at all in some
cases) to reduce carbon emissions and reach global agreements on environmental issues. It is
important to consider the attitudes and actions of different countries.

Carbon emission responsibility

° The superpowers are disproportionately [4 Evropean Union (28)
responsible for the world’s CO, emissions. China
[3 Russian Federation
¢ It is therefore imperative that superpowers
and emerging powers take leading positions in
reducing carbon emissions.
* However, some countries fear that reducing
emissions and environmental degradation may
slow their economic growth.

China
China is the world’s largest emitter of
CO, and has committed to reaching
peak CO, emissions by 2030, with its economic The United States
growth still planned to continue after that. China is The USA is the world’s second largest
a signatory to the Paris Agreement (2015), which emitter of CO,.
aims to achieve global action to reduce global
In June 2017, President Trump pulled the USA out
warming to below 1.5 °C. To achieve its goals,
of the Paris Agreement, saying that it would be
China is investing billions into renewable power
bad for the US economy and for US jobs.
generation with the aim of making renewable energy
Although President Trump stated his belief
20% of all energy production. It is also offsetting
that climate change was happening, he was not
carbon emissions with an enormous programme of
convinced that human activity is responsible or
tree planting.
that the change will not naturally reverse itself.
Widespread international criticism followed the
Russia president’s decision, and several US states formed
Russia contributes approximately 5% their own US Climate Alliance to commit individual
of global CO, emissions. It signed the states to meeting Paris Agreement objectives.
Paris Agreement in 2015, pledging to
cut emissions by 30% by 2030. However, by The EU
2018 Russia had not yet ratified its agreement — a The EU has already reduced CO,
second step that commits governments to meeting emissions by 22% between 1990
the targets they agreed in 2015. Unlike Russia, and 2016. This put the EU’s member countries
nearly 200 countries have ratified their agreements; on track to meet their 2030 Paris Agreement
Russia’s very powerful oil and gas companies may be target of a 40% reduction in emissions from
part of the reason for Russia’s delay here. 1990 levels. The EU has passed laws to increase
the share of energy production from renewable
sources and has set its member countries targets
to increase energy efficiency (for example, home
insulation). New cars and vans made in the EU must
also hit new targets for lower CO, emissions.
Which is the greater threat to the environment:
future growth in middle-class consumption in emerging
superpowers, or the USA’s reluctance to reduce
carbon emissions? \

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Resources and rights

imme : R&A y

\ r , ig
There are tensions over physical resources (such as Arctic oil and gas) where powers dieagena about
who owns them and who can use them. Another source of tension is counterfeiting. You need to
consider attitudes and actions in relation to resources.

Disputes over Arctic resources

* It is estimated that 25% of the world’s remaining
undiscovered oil and gas may be located under
the Arctic Ocean.
Receding polar ice is making exploitation of
Arctic resources more logistically and
economically viable.
Under the United Nations Convention on the Law
of the Sea (UNCLOS), countries can claim the
right to exploit resources in an area up to 200
nautical miles beyond their coastline (an Exclusive
Economic Zone).
Russia, the USA, Canada, Denmark (which owns
Greenland), lceland, Finland and Norway have
competing Arctic EEZs. 1 US Continental Shelf: in 2018 most of this area —
Tensions have increased: Canada conducts annual was opened up for offshore drilling —
military exercises in the Arctic; Denmark has built | 2 Chukchi Sea: shared between Russia and USA
new frigates to patrol their waters; Russia has 3 Beaufort Sea: claimed by Canada and USA
more military bases in the Arctic than all other 4 Lomonosov Ridge: claimed by Russia and USA
countries combined.
5 North Fole: Russia planted its flag here by
submarine in 2007
Counterfeiting and intellectual property rights
Tensions between powers have increased because of counterfeit products undermining the global
system of intellectual property rights, which protects patents.
Counterfeit (fake) products are Pharmaceuticals, music, electronics,
sold online and in markets movies and software are popular fakes.
around the world.
Most fakes are made in
In 2011, 32 countries signed China, Taiwan, Singapore,
the Anti-Counterfeiting Trade ‘ 1 Malaysia, the Philippines,
Agreement, including the USA stig = Thailand, the UAE, Russia
and the EU. However, China did £ and India.
not sign it. Counterfeiting costs G20
countries $85 billion a year.
Counterfeiting is an
international crime against IPR | Counterfeiting damages brands, reduces TNC profits
(intellectual property rights). and also increases tensions between powers.

1. What connection can you make between the countries that produce the majority of counterfeit goods
and the global shift in manufacturing from developed to developing countries?
2. Do you think it is likely that China will start to take international law on intellectual property (IP)
more seriously as economic development in China continues?
\ \

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spheres of influence
_ Tensions over territory and physical resources can also result from challenges over spheres of influence
between powers. Sometimes these tensions can escalate into open conflict.

Oe
&
Tensions in the
South China Sea
Place
Contexts
|

Paracel islands / °
Claimed by Vietnam;
* China has set up a military base on the China and Taiwad
Spratly Islands, which are claimed by six South Chinas
ea 1
different countries. The Philippines pays some
of its citizens to live on the islands. °
i2 Searborough
aS)
iG
13 Shoal Claimed Y \) 7S
° There are large reserves of fossil fuels around VIETNA 4 by China,Taiwan
and Philjayines
&
oy
©
.
“PRILIPP

the Spratly Islands, and this is also a key !

uy
3 SI
OF
strategic location: 30% of the world’s trade bs Poe Islands
! Claimed by wl 7
$y

passes through this region. Vietnam, China, .</ +

; Laiwan, Malaysia,”
Philippines and+
* China has also installed surface-to-air , Brunei e pe
missiles in the Paracel archipelago, possibly
in response to US military presence in the
Philippines. The US Navy sees this area as in
its sphere of influence and contests
China’s claims.
Fe np

Oe
e
Tensions in the East
China Sea
Place
Contexts
Wi
@

China and Japan are in dispute over the Environmental impacts

Senkakus. There are oil and gas reserves under
Tension and conflicts have environmental as well
the seabed in this region, as well as rich fishing
as human consequences. For example, China has
grounds. Japanese and Chinese fishing boats
poured sand onto coral reefs in the Spratlys to
have clashed in this area. construct bases on, killing the coral.

Oe
e
Russia and conflict
in the Ukraine
Place
Contexts

° After the USSR collapsed in 1991, Ukraine

became independent and factions within it
made moves towards closer ties with the EU.
This was humiliating for Russia, which had
always seen Ukraine as being within its sphere
of influence.
Following the overthrow of a pro-Russian
president in Ukraine in 2014, Russia staged a
military intervention there. There was conflict
between western Ukraine (EU-supporting) and
eastern Ukraine (Russian-supporting).
Russian troops took control of the Crimea in
Ukraine. The Crimea is now treated by Russia
as being an independent state within the
Russian federation.
Many of the tensions and conflicts on this page involve
one power building structures on spaces disputed by
other countries. Why are these buildings flash points
for conflict? nse

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Changing relationships
P
Synoptic Theme:

Economic ties are increasing between emerging powers and developing nations. These ties bring ‘i
opportunities and challenges.
ot

Economic ties Opportunities

Between 2000 and 2014, China invested $86 & Infrastructure projects create jobs for local
billion in 3000 projects in African nations. people, develop skills and transfer new
Three reasons for Chinese investment are: technology from China to African nations,
& Chinese investment in new ports and other
To secure raw materials for Chinese
infrastructure increases trade.
industries: Africa is resource-rich (for
example, 90% of global platinum and cobalt ds Chinese money does not have ‘strings
attached’, unlike the IMF or World Bank
supplies and 75% of coltan, which is
used in mobile phones). A third of China’s that often require corruption controls or
investments are in mining.
environmental safequards,

To develop African countries as a market for Challenges

Chinese products. Many African nations are
seeing rapid economic growth. Interdependence risks becoming
dependent on China: debt, trade and supply
3) To increase China’s global political influence. of services could all be with China,
Investments in military technology and (see page 193).
infrastructure gives China significant influence Chinese investment through top-down loans
over these African countries. to national governments risks money not
reaching local people and businesses,
& Some Chinese projects have caused
Chinese investment excessive environmental degradation,
projects in Africa

Cement plants e — @ Standard-gauge railway

Cameroon, Ethiopia, Chad $5.63 bn
Kenya, Mali, Niger,
Nigeria, Senegal #
Zambia $4.34 bn
Standard-gauge railway
Cement plants
Sudan $1.45 br
+ other

Hydropower dam e Stardard-gauge railway

Guinea $1.4 bn Kenya $13.8 bn
© Staridard-qavge railway
Coastal railway $12 bn e& Uganda $1.6 bn
Oil refinery $6.4 bn
Nigeria Hydropower dam
Angola $2.8 bn Copper mining
DR Congo $2.65 br

Copper mining Offshore LNG praject

South Africa $1.36 bn Mozambique $4.21 bn

China was once called the ‘world’s factory’. Why might China be interested in turning African nations into
the next ‘world’s factory’?

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Changes in influence
The importance of emerging Asian powers like China or India to the global economy increases the
geopolitical influence of Asia but also creates economic and political tensions within Asia.

‘A) Geographical | Plot

skills ting the
pnomic centre of gravity
|The world’s economic centre of
lier gravity calculation shows that the Se ee a
iaeconomic centre has been moving eee 1970 196 P22
i a
ieast since the 1950s driven by rapid | a 2 194 —
industrialisation, urbanisation and
_ economic growth in Asia.

SY She Te 2 pn a ER Nn EE en en

| OF China's influence Te, | Oe India’s influence lace

> Contexts | Contexts |i
* China’s ‘Belt and Road’ initiative is a | ere between China and east Asia, y
: $1 trillion infrastructure project to improve | central Asia and the Middle East, India has
trade routes between China and 7O other . a strategic geopolitical location.
countries in Asia, Africa and Europe. ¢ It is by some measures the world’s third
The initiative increases China’s soft power largest economy, overtaking Japan.
ee eo nese three’regions. ¢ The USA has found India a useful ally in its
* China's investment
in its military also long war against the Taliban in Afghanistan,
increases its influence in Asia and globally.
Both China and Japan are also keen to
China is now second only to the USA in its
strengthen links with India, whose rate of
military spending.
economic growth is faster than China’s.
* However, China has not taken up leading
* However, India’s political focus is most often
roles in military interventions or peace-
fixed on its own internal divisions. This may
keeping missions, for example in Syria.
limit its geopolitical influence.
Regional tensions
Regional tensions
* China has internal tensions with regional .
¢ India and Pakistan have a hostile relationship,
connections: there are independence |
which has escalated into war four times,
movements in Tibet and Xinjiang.
* India is strengthening relations with
Z # the Re co ise Jali neighbouring countries (such as Bangladesh)
ensions with its artificial islands and claims | in response to China’s growing
over r dispute
di d areas. . regional
i influence.
i

1. Explain why the location of the world’s economic centre is moving east.
2. How might China’s ‘Belt and Road’ project create regional economic and political tensions?
Ph PED, An. ter aR, Mes oI NAS, Bem wae Ams

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Middle East tensions

H I, & VN

The combination of vital energy resources and complex geopolitical relationships makes the Middle —
East a difficult problem for superpowers and emerging powers to deal with. You need to understand
the influence of these contrasting cultural ideologies.
re

Historical tension and conflict US support Russian US involvement

for |srael involvement in lraq
* After the fall of the Ottoman Empire (1918-20), in Syria
Britain and France aimed to divide the Middle
US support for US hostility
East between them, Political
he Saudi regime towards Iran
The UN set up semi-independent countries
instead, but the borders (based on British—
French plans) cut through ethnic groups.
|Envinan rent Cultural
US support for Israel (created in 1948) alienated ——! Tensions in the
some Arab nations against the USA, Some allied Middle East
|Water stress ‘| Tensions within
with the USSR, Islam (Sunni
lraq’s invasion of Kuwait, an oil-rich US ally, in vs Shia)
| aa
1990 led to the USA leading an international
coalition, including Saudi Arabia, against the Iraqi Arab-Israeli
| Toxic waste tensions
army in Kuwait, | Economic |
The USA's invasion of Iraq in the Second Gulf
War (2003-11) caused more anti-American
resentment, and contributed to the situation in
Saudi Aravia || The Middle Oil-rich
langest oll East has 45% nations are
which ISIS became powerful in Iraq, adasrien: dik of the world’s investors in
li al d's oil and 40% of other
largest reserves its natural gas countries
Economic tensions
The Middle East’s supplies of energy resources are
vital for the world economy. Political tensions
* In 2017, China overtook the USA as the world’s The USA‘s interventions in Kuwait and lraq in 1990
leading importer of crude oil, and 2003-11 had significant consequences for
* The USA has reduced its dependence on Middle relations between the USA and the Middle East.
Eastern oil (due to use of shale gas), yet is still a * Hard-power attempts by the USA to free Iraq
major importer, as are key US allies, such as Japan. from its dictator Saddam Hussein and rebuild
* Top oil-exporting countries collectively influence it as a reliable and loyal ally failed. Instead, US
global oil prices by increasing/decreasing supply. forces became entangled in a brutal Iraqi civil war.

* Part of the reason for the USA entering the First * |raq’s weakness allowed Iran to become much
and Second Gulf Wars was to secure oil supplies more powerful in the region. Iran is strongly
from the Middle East for the USA and its allies. opposed to the USA.

* Recently, the USA increased tensions in the * The heavy cost in money and soldiers’ lives
region by imposing trade sanctions on Iran. turned US opinion against military intervention in
the Middle East. This limited the USA's options
Tensions over water in intervening in the Syrian civil war increasing
Russian political influence in Syria.
Some countries in the Middle East, such as Jordan,
are facing severe water shortages due to their
desert locations, Tension is highest when countries
share a water source (such as Syria and Iraq and
the Tigris-Euphrates River) and overuse of water
resources in one threatens water security in Explain three reasons why the Middle East is a
the other, challenge for superpowers and emerging powers.

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 Had a look a Nearly there x Nailed it! ||

Economic challenges
The USA and the European Union (EU) face economic problems of debt, unemployment, economic
restructuring and social costs. These economic problems challenge their power.

Economic problems in the USA and the EU

Debt Unemployment Economic restructuring
The global recession of 2006 Economic restructuring has caused The global shift in
created higher public debt in widespread loss of secondary manufacturing stripped out
rich countries as governments sector jobs. | much of the manufacturing base
borrowed money to keep their of the USA and rich EU
economies working. Economic challenges countries.
This created debt crises in Although job losses were
some EU countries (e.g.
to the USA and replaced by service sector
Greece) and forced countries the European Union jobs, some communities have
like the UK to reduce public felt ‘left behind’. This has had
Social costs
spending to try to cut public political consequences,
Cuts in public spending to cut debt
debt, which could otherwise including the rise of populist
have been linked to increased crime
reach levels that would worry politicians (e.g. Trump) and
and reduced social cohesion. Loss of
investors, cutting off foreign pressures on the European
global influence is reflected in growing
investment into the UK. Union (e.g. Brexit).
nationalism in the USA, the UK and
many EU countries.

The 2008 financial crisis The challenge of increasing

* The 2008 financial crisis began in the USA. inequality
Complex techniques of packaging debt meant
¢ Around the world, the gap is increasing between
that when poorer families began to default on
the richest and poorest.
mortgages, debt problems spread through the
global banking system. * TNCs have a role to play in this, since it is in the
interests of TNCs to maximise profits by paying as
Governments were forced to pump money into
low wages as possible and as little tax as possible.
their national banking system to stop banks
from collapsing. President Trump’s policies in the USA have
increased inequality by providing tax breaks for
Companies that were already vulnerable to
the richest people while making conditions more
competition from online suppliers closed.
difficult for the poorest.
Other companies survived by reducing output
and investment. In China, inequality is increasing between rich
people and poor people (Asia now has more
Instead of investing in more productive
billionaires than the USA), and also between urban
machinery, companies employed more people on
areas and rural areas.
low-wage, zero-hour contracts.
Inequality is increasing as the social costs of
Falling consumption in the USA and the EU
the 2006 financial crisis continue to be felt.
meant lower demand for production in the emerging
For example, in the UK local councils have had major
powers. Economic growth in China slowed.
funding cuts, reducing their ability to provide social
* Some EU countries had built up large debts care, health care and to fund community projects.
using EU finance. When the 2008 crisis exposed Inequality is a challenge for powers because it
these debts, the countries had to be bailed out makes politics more radical and divisive. This is
by IGOs. placing significant strain on the European Union.

1. In 2018 the USA’s debt was around $21 000000000000 USD ($21 trillion). What challenges does this pose to the USA?
2. Explain why economic restructuring has created challenges in the USA.

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Glebal military power

Maintaining global military power and undertaking space exploration have advantages for superpowers,
‘but the disadvantages — including huge costs — mean both are often questioned.

Maintaining global military power USA

Traditional forms of military power (naval and air) China*
are expensive. If new technology makes them less Saudi Arabia*
effective, are they worth it?
India
Naval power:
France
SS Allows countries to project military dominance
Russia
almost anywhere.
Advances in land-based missile technology have —_United Kingdom
made aircraft carriers vulnerable to attack. Germany
Air power: Japan
Allows a superpower to dominate airspace and
South Korea
win wars from the air.
ey Drones are increasingly used to search for and O Military
100 spending
200 300 in 400
billion 500 GOO 700°
U.S,.eelane
destroy precise targets.
Drones are more affordable than planes, making
air dominance harder because poorer countries
can afford them too.

Space exploration
<
Superpower rivalry between the USA and the USSR 45 rip)
=)
included a space race.
35
&S Innovation in computing, science and technology 236
was massively accelerated. 2 25
US spending on space exploration has been a 20
around $900 billion since 1958: money that Os
could have been spent lifting millions out of 10
poverty or reducing environmental degradation. 5
South
Korea United
Kingdom

Nuclear deterrence Intelligence: costs and benefits

Ss Other powers, nuclear and non-nuclear, should In 2018 the USA's 16 Piet agencies had a
be deterred from attacking a nuclear power budget of $58 billion.
because of ine potential consequence of a SS Intelligence helps protect powers from threats,
nuclear retaliation. including terrorist threats. The UK’s MI5
It is estimated the UK’s Trident system would prevented nine terrorist attacks in 2017.
cost £100 billion to replace. The volume of intelligence data intercepted
is more than can be processed. For example,
plans for the 9/11 terror attacks were not
picked up in time.

1. Are economic costs of maintaining global military power worth it for the USA, in your view?
2. Has the USA’s expenditure on space exploration of $900 billion since 1958 been worth the money?

206
 future power structures
__The future balance of global power in 2030 and 2050 is uncertain.

Future trends?
| Economic experts do not agree on future projections, but some predict that:
: VW China will overtake the USA and become the world’s largest economy by 2020.
Ww India will become the third-placed power late in the 2020s.
: Ww India may overtake China by the end of the century. |

heme: F&U ;

Possible outcomes
- There is uncertainty over future power structures, but three possible outcomes are shown below.

i® Continued US & A bi-polar world? A multi-polar

dominance? ° A bi-polar power structure world?
would see the return of a
¢ Japan’s rapid economic ° President Trump’s call to
superpower balance between
growth after the Second ‘Make America Great Again’
the USA and China initially,
World War led many experts is based on the view that the
to predict that Japan would pare between USA has lost power in
overtake the USA in China and India. the world.
* The close economic ties F
the 1980s. At the same time, emerging
between the USA and China
° However, a deep recession powers such as China
would make this a very
in the 1990s slowed Japan's face challenges in moving
different bi-polar situation
growth and led to the world’s from regional powers to
from the Cold War.
largest national debt. superpowers. For example,
e However, China’s claims to China faces challenges of an
¢ An economic crisis in China or
territories in the South China aging population, managing
all Asia would slow the growth
Sea on the one hand, and the the transition from a low-wage
of emerging powers and keep
USA‘s trade war with China on to a high-wage economy, and
a uni-polar power. situation: a
the other, increase the risk of reducing inequality.
dominant USA.
bi-polar conflict.
mop nt

22.35
WagsSE|
BH o4
cork Dp EU GDP
. $18.8
$19.4
trillion Lone

$2.6
_ Superpower statusis more than economic power: to triton:> ae
South Africa
F challenge the USA’s uni-polar status, countries would GDP
$349.4
| need political, military, cultural and demographic billion ,
- power, as well as access to natural resources.
SS eee

—EEeE

Explain which is the most likely future global power structure: uni-, bi- or multi-polar.

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Exam skills l
These A level exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for the Superpowers topic in Paper 2.
Look back at pages 188 to 207 to remind yourself of the content.

1. Explain one reason why growth in consumption

in emerging superpowers may have implications
for the cost of key resources. (4 marks)
Middle-class consumption is increasing rapidly
in emerging superpowers such as China, where _
millions of people now have money left over
from essentials (for example, food) to spend
on consumer goods. As this trend continues, it
will put more demand on the availability of key
resources such as rare earths (important for
electronics), water (used by washing machines,
showers, ‘air conditioning) and grain (fed to animals 12-mark questions
to meet demand for more meat). As availability
Marks for these 12-mark questions
reduces, prices will increase.
are split into 3 marks for AO1 (which
2. Assess the view that ‘hard’ power is more effective AL) is about demonstrating knowledge and —
than ‘soft’ power in maintaining a superpower’s understanding), and 9 marks for AO2
geopolitical position. (12 marks) (which is about applying knowledge
Hard power is when a superpower aims to achieve enciunte
(otaaa)
its objectives by using military or economic force.
Soft power is when it aims to achieve objectives
through persuasion. Both are effective but soft
power can also be deflected or ignored and when
this happens, a superpower will resort to hard power,
suggesting that hard power is more effective.
In the past, superpowers were built on hard
power. For example, the British Empire was able to
project its military power through its dominance of
the seas, which meant gunships could be sent to
different colonies. Because no other nations were
as powertul as Britain, its use of hard power was
very effective...

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 Had a look P| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|

skills
|
|
||
pa

}_ Thisis a continuation of the answer on page 208. Look back at page 208 to remind yourself of
the question.

Worked example
te
i
...Over time, however, hard power was increasingly The student makes their judgement about
= challenged by other nations and by the colonies effectiveness here, which is good.
| themselves, questioning one country’s right to force
another to do what it wanted. This suggests one
major limitation of hard power: international opinion. The section of the answer about Britain
and sott power is effective AO2: the
Soft power has been much more widely used since
interpretation is relevant to the question
the decline of the European empires. The UK's
and it is supported by evidence.
global influence in the 21st century, for example,
is all soft power: the BBC is listened to around
The answer is also structured in a
the world and has a reputation for being unbiased; logical way, making relevant connections
_ Britain is a financial centre partly because of between hard power and soft power.
Britain’s reputation for trustworthiness. The fact
that Britain still has significant global influence
despite its relative lack of military power suggests The student makes another judgement
that soft power is effective. point at the end of the paragraph about
British use of soft power It is a good
The USA, as the world’s only superpower, has idea to keep making these throughout
used soft power extensively, for example its your answer, as they help to give your
cultural influence is global through Hollywood, answer a balanced structure.
Disney and domination of western pop and rock
music. However, the USA has sometimes turned
to hard power when its objectives were not being
met through soft power measures. For example, The point about the USA using hard
the USA used hard power in its invasion of Iraq at power at times when it was dissatistied
the start of the Second Gulf War of 2003-2011, with the effectiveness of soft power is
when its soft power influence had been unable to good because it gives the answer depth.
convince other nations to agree to its demands Instead of arguing ‘on the one hand...’,
over lraq. : ‘on the other hand... and ending with
To conclude, hard power can be limited by a ‘sitting on the fence’ judgement,
international criticism, but when a superpower the student has identified a strong
chooses to ignore world opinion, hard power is argument in favour of strong power
seen as the best way to achieve superpower goals under specific circumstances.
without compromise.

Overall, this answer does demonstrate

enough accurate and relevant
geographical knowledge to gain its
AO1 marks. Connections aré made
successfully between the points in the
answer, which is good AO2, and the
examples used are relevant and accurate.
Supported judgements are made
throughout the response, also
good AO2.

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Exam practice
Practice for Paper 2 of your A level exam. Afterwards see suggested answers on page 310.

1. Explain one reason why the Middle East @ ‘Contrasting cultural ideologies is a
is a continuing challenge to superpowers. ay synoptic point in the specification here.
(4 marks) which suggests one aspect of the
challenge is a clash between
American cultural ideologies and
Middle Eastern ideologies.

2. Explain one way in which Development AL)

Theory can be used to help explain changing 4 marks means one point, which is well
patterns of power. (4 marks) A developed with evidence or examples,
or to show depth of understanding,
Don’t be tempted to write more as you
will have less time to spend on the higher
mark questions,
3. Explain one reason why ‘Westernisatiom is an AL, ks
important aspect of global power. (4 marks)
12-mark questions
12-mark questions need to be planned
in advance. This will help you focus
4. Suggest reasons why countries respond on the question and build up a logical
differently to calls to reduce argument that makes connections
carbon emissions. (6 marks) between its points, supports points with
evidence and builds in judgements on the
interpretations throughout the answer.

Remember that examiners will be hoping

to see interpretation of different views
or perspectives. Flag these by saying,
5. Assess to what extent increasing ties with China for example, ‘One view is that...’, or
bring more challenges than opportunities for AL &sss ‘A contrasting view sees X as more
African countries. (12 marks) important because...’.
ae

WM The exam will only refer to specific

countries in stimulus resources or if the
specification refers to them directly as
part of the specific information you need
to know about.

Even if you do not agree with a view,

6. Assess to what extent the rise of the BRICS
remember to consider it fully rather than
states presents a threat to the rest of
the world. (12 marks)
dismissing it as not significant.

Economic, social and environmental are

useful categories to consider for most
human geography questions.

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Wieasuring human development

The links between human wellbeing and wealth are complex and contested.

Traditional measures Alternative measures

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita, PPP: Happy Planet Index (HPI):
The total value of goods and services produced
Combines impacts on the natural environment
by a country in a year divided by total population,
with the wellbeing of people, relating the
adjusted according to Purchasing Power Parity
efficiency of resource use to improving people’s
(PPP) (different costs of living in countries).
lives without harming the environment.
& It reflects the economy and standard of living. Daed nolcover economia or
& Statistics are collected, published and generally socio-political factors.
accurate (some other indicators are based on Freedom Index:
ieee ene el of perceptions data). yy Considers political rights, civil liberties and how
& Hides any disparity between rich and poor. free people are in a country.
& Doesn’t consider social, political or Does not consider economic or environmental
environmental factors. factors; some of the data is difficult to measure.
Human Development Index (HDI): A socio-
economic measure using GDF, years of schooling
and life expectancy.
ey Reliable, as it is produced by the United | i ;
Nations Development Programme (UNDP). nt Peving) WL mt er to 1 means
Does not consider the state of the natural
environment or inequalities.

: © Merl Bolivia — alternative development

In 2009 Bolivia introduced a new constitution that recognised that the Earth is a dynamic, gtis
interconnected living system and put nature first. This was partly a response to the impacts of climate
change but also from the Amerindian spiritual view. However, this type of development has experienced
problems, such as lack of political support to stop impacts of mining, and no economic support for
ecological practices (2010 HDI rank = 95 (0.649); 2017 = 118 (0.693)).
panne

|
;

(% a\ Geographical Usi ked dat

x skills sing ranKke ata
You need to compare different indicators of development and the rank positions of countries.
Freedom Index Happy Planet
2017 Index 2016
Costa Rica
Norway Mexico
Australia Sweden Colombia
Ireland Vanuatu

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Contrasting views
: Economic growth and quality of life
GOAL: Improve environmental quality
Natural systems provide resources or services to keep people healthy, but
economic growth damages the natural environment through pollution and
degradation. A tipping point comes when it is realised that conserving the
natural environment is essential. The wealth from economic growth can be
used to develop eco-friendly lifestyles and technologies, and invest in
protected areas.

GOAL: Improve health of population {

As a country’s economy grows, Developing countries experience higher mortality rates than economically
more money is generated from developed countries because people are more vulnerable to disease and th
industries and businesses. Feople state of the natural environment. Economic growth enables investment in
become wealthier due to regular health care (infrastructure and personnel) and the ability to afford and
employment and wages. provide medicines.
Governments become wealthier
through being able to raise taxes. GOAL: Improve life expectancy
This wealth can be used by people Developing countries usually have shorter life expectancies because of
and governments to improve the hardships (e.g. harsh natural environments, disease). With economic growth
wellbeing of a population. people can afford better housing and amenities, and machinery to reduce
See ete SS eee beDe, physical labour. Governments can afford to provide services (e.g. clean
water).

GOAL: Improve human rights

There are several levels of human rights: the basic is access to life
essentials (clean water, food, shelter). There is also the right to express
ideas without fear of persecution, and the rights of disadvantaged groups.
These rights increase with economic development because greater wealth
provides education and access to decision-making pathways.

Education, economic development and quality of life

7
HUMAN RIGHTS . ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Education improves literacy levels, so Education provides people with
people can learn, understand and EDUCATION knowledge and understanding, which
communicate. People can then understand Education is considered by many to be improves their ability as workers, enabling
their right to a decent standard of living, central to improving lives. People need them to get better paid jobs, so
and become aware of human rights, access to schooling (primary and benefiting businesses and the country as
especially freedoms and equality in secondary) so their standard of work is completed to a higher standard,
democratic countries, and try to assert achievement can benefit themselves generating more wealth. With higher
those rights by communicating with and the country. However, in many levels of education people can develop |
others, e.g. worldwide organisations. developing countries, children often skills, assimilate abilities and pass these
However, in some countries governmental work, either helping with family chores on to others. However, in poorer areas, a
or socio-political pressures limit people’s or in workshops and factories. i family may need their children to work
freedom to follow religious or moral ——_——— | and then they miss school, most notably
beliefs and express views without girls in sub-Saharan Africa (especially the
persecution, and create gender inequality. countries in the Sahel).

UNESCO Sustainable Development

UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific Goals (SDGs)
and Cultural Organization) believes that education United Nations Target 4.1: By 2030, ensure
is the main driver of development, is a fundamental : : a
sureties Meneame hi 4 tit that all girls and boys complete free, equitable an
ng Nubia pride rae elec Aga) quality primary and secondary education.

Explain why economic growth may be the best way of improving socio-political conditions in a country.

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Topic 8a

Health and life expectancy

There are considerable variations in health and life expectancy in both the developing and developed
parts of the world, which can be explained by access to basic needs and lifestyle differences.

Developing world Developed world

_* Food: Population growth in developing countries * Lifestyle: Involves a number of factors that affect
increases pressures on food supply, causing health, such as diet; in some countries people
both starvation and malnutrition. do not eat a healthy balance of foods, becoming
* Water: Climate change, population growth and obese and increasing the risk of heart disease.
economic development have put pressure on * Deprivation levels: Even within rich countries
- freshwater supplies. This creates water insecurity in there are deprived areas often due to economic
some developing countries, which affects human health. change; in these areas people may be unable to
* Sanitation: Urbanisation, due to rural-urban afford a nourishing diet, get involved in crime or
migration and high birth rates, causes rapid urban drugs, or be unable to afford health care.
expansion so that sanitation systems are unable * Medical care: the health service may not be
to keep up. Many people living in slum conditions universal; or too costly for poorer people; or
are exposed to unhealthy conditions. ineffective in meeting everyone’s needs.
There are variations — the worst health levels There are variations — the worst levels are where
are where there is extreme poverty, tensions there is a harsher climate, corruption, slower economy
and armed conflicts, or lots of young or elderly or lower investment in services. Life expectancy is
dependents. Infant and maternal mortality have higher in western and northern Europe and some
improved significantly in Latin America and the western Pacific developed countries, and lower in East
Caribbean, but not much in sub-Saharan Africa. European and Middle East countries.

€) “tiene Scattergraphs and development indicators

a TR ET ee atari, e Singapore

i a sa erase he uns * Japan

; Saudi Arabia Spain
m
Lia Deit ————
rea 5 ras 2
aoa oe
wae Se one I
3 ee Russia _ sola
> ae a @ © China
& . Libya" @ Peru
S |
: Se a3 ® Jordan
2= laos @
® ,
@ Ukraine
mC
5 St = BeswaGaE SECRET== = = sree ZR
es :S :
he NE: SUeET = @ ® Cambodia

2 ee eee @ es *® developed countries

Somalia @ ® ® Afghanistan @ developing countries
Sees ‘oe : :
Niger

. 200:
* ; 50 55 60 65 70 2 60 65 90
Life expectancy at birth in years

1. Suggest how differential access to clean water supplies affects life expectancy in developing countries.
2. On a copy of the graph, draw a best-fit line and interpret the correlation shown.

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Ethnicity and
poverty variations
There are significant variations in health and life expectancy within countries created Place
Contexts
by inequalities.
aetna

UK: variation due to income levels Australia: variation due to ethnicity

* There is an approximate UK north/south divide ° A survey by the Australian government found
in terms of life expectancy: longest in southern the health of the Aboriginal people has declined
counties of England (e.g. Dorset) and shortest in because of a change in lifestyle, away from
parts of Scotland (e.g. Glasgow) — there is over traditional connections with the land and family.
a 10-year difference for males. But within England Many live in remote areas and do not have access
the old industrial regions (e.g. North East) and to health care, and even when health care is
cities (e.g. Liverpool) have lower life expectancy available it is too expensive and often does not
than rural areas (e.g. East Anglia). incorporate Aboriginal values.
These differences are linked to health, which is Life expectancies are about 10 years shorter, for |
affected by living conditions such as types of both indigenous males and females, than for non- |
work, air pollution, and lifestyle factors such as indigenous Australians. Infant mortality is double,
stress, diet, drinking alcohol and smoking. there is more Type 2 diabetes, suicide and cancer
So, someone that has a low-paid manual job or rates are higher, as are other diseases such as TE
is unemployed, smokes and drinks alcohol every and childhood obesity.
day and is obese, is likely to have the shortest Lifestyles are part of the reason for these |
life expectancy. differences: compared to non-indigenous
Small variations in health spending do not seem to Australians, the Aboriginal people have a poorer
make a significant difference, but natural factors diet and smoking rates are twice as high. |
such as climate may play a role (cold, wet, fewer Educational achievement and incomes are low, so
sunshine hours are linked to lower life expectancy), there may be a lack of understanding of how healt!
as do, indirectly, level of education (knowledge, links to lifestyle; incomes are nearly 40% lower | |
understanding of health and seeking medical care than for non-indigenous Australians, so affording —
sooner) and income (ability to afford health care) health care is an issue. |
(e.g. Kesgrave, Suffolk).

Brazil: life expectancy and health discrimination

* Life expectancy is highest (around 77 years) in the south-east of Brazil, from the capital
district (Brasilia) to the Atlantic coast and southwards to Rio Grande do Sul. It is lowest
(around 7O years) in the north-east (e.g. Maranhao), and some of the remoter border regions |
to the west, such as Rond@6nia.
* People in remoter regions feel that there is more discrimination in the health service, while people in
regions with big cities in the south-east (e.g. Sdo Paulo) feel least discrimination. It is more economic
to provide health services where there are many people, and more difficult in remote areas, so there is :
disparity in provision.
* Climate also has an influence, because the north-east of Brazil is semi-arid, creating difficult living
conditions, while the south-east is subtropical.
;

Now {ry this

1. Suggest how ethnicity may be linked to variations in health and life expectancy.
2. Suggest how lifestyles may cause health inequalities within a country.
.

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|
:|

‘Secio-economic development
Links between economic and social development are complex, influenced by governments and NGOs.

Positive links: Geographical ©

Proportional circles
°

Greater spending on health, education Use proportional circles to interpret government _

and welfare spending on health, welfare and education.
dS Improved human rights of women and
minority groups
More freedom of expression
yy Better resource supplies such as clean
water and food Russia

Negative links:
& More environmental damage
& Exploitation of the workforce r Defence/security
& Air, water and land pollution | & Education
i Health
& Increasing gap between rich and poor fl Welfare
& Gender inequality Bm Ctlier sale
There is evidence of a lagged effect, with . ae . [ils Catpanasean
economic development first and social
development later.

ene fee"

| with citizens’ wellbeing a top priority, eed in higher government aoe on

| education, health care and welfare. There is usually some form of free health service.
Have a range of government spending priorities, including people’s education
and health, but also many other spending commitments, including on the
_| natural environment.
Some prioritise economic development and spend money on infrastructure for
| businesses and industries; therefore, spending on health and welfare may be
significantly lower, with private contributions required.
uy Also known as totalitarian governments. May only allocate smaller budgets to
| education and health care, and larger budgets to defence/security, also spending
_| more supporting the economy or controlling the population

1Go influences
. Since 1945 the main IGOs have emphasised economic development (for example, IMF, WTO), with
financial systems designed to help countries through stages of economic development and boost world
trade. However, there are problems of debt and lack of fair trade.
'* Since the late 2Oth century there has been increasing emphasis on human welfare. The UNDP emphasises
economic development leading to social development, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)
promotes food security, the WHO promotes the eradication of diseases, and UNICEF promotes the
human rights of children. The UNDP has set targets for health, education and welfare.

Explain the differences in social spending between welfare states and authoritarian regimes.
==

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UN MDGs and SDGs

Development progress has been mixed. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were set by the UN in
* 2015 to expand on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), to be achieved by all countries by 2030

MDGs 2000 to 2015 (final report) SDGs 2015 to 2030 (2018 report)
MDG1: The number of people in extreme poverty SDG2: The proportion of undernourished people
fell to 14%, but there were still over 2OO million increased between 2015 and 2016 by 36 million
in this category. The number of undernourished due to conflicts and climate change impacts.
people fell by about 13%. Targets were not met in SDG3: Cases of malaria increased by 6 million
sub-Saharan Africa and western Asia. between 2013 and 2016, but child mortality and
MDG2: Primary school enrolment reached 91%, incidence of disease continue to decrease. _
but 57 million were still not attending, with SDG4: In 2016 65% of primary school teachers
inequality for girls. in the world were trained compared with only 71%
MDG3: Equality for women improved but parity in South Asia and 61% in sub-Saharan Africa.
was not reached, especially in Oceania and Only 40% of primary schools in developing
sub-Saharan Africa. countries had basic handwashing facilities.
MDG4: Child mortality halved and vaccinations SDG6E: In 2017 only 59% of transboundary river
were more widespread, but many world regions basins were covered by agreements.
missed their targets. SDG7: In 2016 41% of the world’s population wa
MDGS: Maternal mortality declined by about 36%, using polluting fuels at home, but more people in
and more pre- and antenatal care was available, developing countries had access to electricity.
but no world region met its target. SDG8: Young people were three times more likely
MDG6: Incidence of malaria was reduced by 37% to be unemployed than adults in 2017.
and mortality from TB fell by 45%, but other SDG11: In 2016 91% of the global population
diseases (e.g. Ebola) still posed a threat. experienced air quality below WHO guidelines.
MDG7: Protected land areas increased, SDG16: Over 1000 human rights workers
some pollution types decreased, but greenhouse were killed across 61 countries between 2015
gases and degradation increased. Clean water and and 2018.
sanitation improved, but targets were not met in
Oceania and sub-Saharan Africa.

OF Asia-Pacific world region

13 of 21 MDGs were met by 2015. Key successes:
SS Foverty fell to 12% of the population, with all but
two countries halving their poverty rate.
People without access to clean water fell to 7%.
&S All primary school-aged children completed \
school, with equal parity for boys and girls.
However:
& Infant and child mortality reductions failed to hit targets.
Further improvements are needed in sanitation and
food supply for children.
In the most deprived countries, progress towards
MDGs was rapid in 15 indicators (for example,
health care, safe drinking water) but slow in six
(for example, basic sanitation, child mortality).

1. Explain why some world regions did not meet their MDG targets.
2. Suggest why initial progress towards SDG targets has been slow.

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man rights laws

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, European Convention on Human Rights and the Geneva
Convention provide guidance for international laws and actions.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)

Produced by the UN in 1948, the UDHR sets out the fundamental rights of every person. It has 30
articles and two covenants (1976) specifying people’s rights — including freedom, justice, peace and no
persecution —in all countries. Collectively these are known as the International Bill of Human Rights and
form the basis of international laws and many national constitutions.

Positives Inclusion of human rights in national culture and government policies.

} x if ie: Rie : e . . . . . .

| * National and international protection for cultures and ethnic groups.

| * Promotion of democracy.

!Negatives * Some countries do not agree with all rights and are selective in applying the
articles and covenants for political, religious or economic reasons.
* Some believe that human rights are placed above sovereignty.
| * Sometimes rights are contradictory or difficult to define and open to different
interpretations, which leads to inconsistencies in law courts.
Challenges | © An increase in the number of ‘authoritarian’ countries limits human rights.
| ° Executions still take place, slavery exists and gender issues persist.
| * Not all countries have signed and ratified the UDHR, and in 1990 Islamic countries
devised their own version (Cairo Declaration).
| © Some countries tie development aid to human rights.
* Some countries have used human rights as a reason for military action.

ECHR Geneva Convention (GC)

The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) was The four Geneva Conventions (19492) and protocols
established in 1950 to maintain human rights and (1977, 2005) are international treaties providing
fundamental freedoms across Europe as a whole, rules for armed conflict situations, protecting
and is based on the UDHR. It now has 47 signatory civilians, medical staff, those wounded
countries, which base their own laws on it. It has and prisoners.
‘59 articles and a variety of protocols, on which the Breaches of the GC are investigated and people
ECHR passes judgements on cases brought to it. brought to justice, but the process is very
Positives include the following: complicated and may involve the UN Security
ey It helps national police and juries reach Council and UN peacekeeping forces.
clearer verdicts. There has been controversy because of:
& There are only a small number of cases for most & inconsistencies in dealing with breaches
pee Only 1.4% of total). several countries are still using torture or
& It helps to indicate where human rights causing genocide of minorities
___ improvements are needed (e.g. Eastern Europe). the large numbers of refugees and
Issues include the following: asylum seekers
& It undermines national sovereignty by & few cases actually coming to trial.
overturning national court rulings.
It takes the European Court a long time to
make decisions.

Now try this

1. State two strengths and two weaknesses of the UDHR.
2. Explain why the ECHR is sometimes controversial.

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Differing priorities
‘Different countries have different priorities; some promote human rights while others promote
economic development.

Human rights and Economic development over

international forums human rights
* Usually human rights are promoted strongest by * Developing countries that become democratic
fully democratic countries, who feel economically are expected to promote human rights, but
and culturally secure. These countries use these young democracies are often ‘flawed’ anc
organisations (such as the UN) to raise specific prioritise economic development and internal
human rights issues for debate, which then security, which may infringe the rights of some
get widely discussed and can lead to action people (for example logging in indigenous
(depending on Security Council countries using areas in Brazil).
their veto). Former colony countries (such as Zimbabwe)
Modern communications have increased public may wish to show their political independence
pressure on national governments and the UN to by making their own decisions, rather than
take action, as people receive news about human having international human rights directives
rights situations in other countries (for example, imposed upon them; some (such as India)
about North Korea and Myanmar). may be struggling to eradicate human rights
Sanctions are often used against countries infringements within their own country.
that abuse human rights; this involves severing People within a country may also reluctantly
political, economic and diplomatic links, accept some human rights abuses if they percei
effectively isolating a country (e.g. Myanmar). that economic development is worth it.

Continuum of human rights approaches

There is a continuum of approaches to human rights, from complete acceptance, involvement and
promotion of human rights nationally and internationally to non-acceptance, avoidance and denial of
human rights nationally and internationally.
A single country is also likely to change its position on this continuum over time, depending on
economic circumstances, socio-cultural change and political change.

Oe Canada Place Wie

9) cae|Indonesia Place
Contexts Contexts
A 2017 survey ranked Canada as the 2nd GDP per capita increased from $780 to
most caring of human rights (after Sweden). $3847 between 2000 and 2017, so economic
Human rights are promoted by the government progress has been prioritised. A 2015 US
and all suspicions of human rights abuses are government report showed that alleged human
investigated; the government has its own rights abuses were not being investigated,
human rights sections and recognises and uses there were instances of torture, and laws were
Canadian and international human rights groups. being used to restrict freedom of speech.
Laws protect its indigenous peoples, and it In Aceh province Sharia law exists, where people
has made compensation payments to them. are publicly caned and humiliated. The police
Canada is also generous in taking asylum seekers and army often forcibly break up protests,
(e.g. Chechens facing violence from Russia). and in Papua and West Papua provinces, which
But a balance between using resources and have resources, there are conflicts over
avoiding conflict is difficult to achieve. indigenous rights.
EP LEN LE
I I EE

Suggest why there are differences between countries in term of their approaches to human rights.

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Freedom and corruption

Democracy continuum, human rights and freedom of speech

‘Full democracy Flawed democracy Hybrid regime Authoritarian regime

57 countries 39 countries 52 countries
4.5% of 44.8% of 16.7% of 34.0% of
world population world population world population world population
ARGENTINA KENYA KAZAKHSTAN
People have basic Basic civil liberties Elections problematic, Dictatorship; government
| political freedoms respected; elections legally and poorly institutions have little
| and civil liberties generally free, but some | administered with substance. No free and
with supportive ‘free speech’ restrictions |many irregularities, fair elections.
political culture. and detentions. Legal pressure on opposition | Disregard of civil liberties.
Judiciary and media _| action against some candidates, violence. State control of media
are independent. previous corrupt leaders. |Widespread corruption, | and judiciary; trade unions
Only minor human Government issues weak rule of law and civil |and government criticism
rights issues, with include activities of society. Judiciary and repressed. Journalists
some being taken to | police, violence against media not independent. | attacked, some detainees
the European Court. |women, blocking Country’s human rights tortured. Human rights
Ranked 2/80 for indigenous people’s commission repressed. groups fined and activists
citizenship in 2016 rights. Ranked 28/60 Ranked 59/60 for imprisoned. Ranked 66/60
with a ‘cares about for citizenship in 2016 citizenship in 2016 with | for citizenship in 2016
| human rights’ score | with a ‘cares about human | a ‘cares about human with a ‘cares about human
| of 9.610, and Media rights’ score of 1.6/10, rights’ score of O.5/10, | rights’ score of O.5/10,
Freedom index of Media Freedom index of | Media Freedom index of | and Media Freedom index
9/10 (fully free). &/10 (partly free). 6/10 (largely unfree). 4/10 (unfree).

Links between level of democracy and level of corruption

Greater democracy brings less corruption, as systems are put in place to check everything is done
properly. Public pressure against political corruption can also bring about greater democracy.

Corruption threat to human rights

| Geographical :
* The Corruption Perceptions Index (see map) is a Levels of corruption
qualitative measure; objective data is rare due You can make links to types of government using
to secretive and criminal nature of corruption. global maps.
* Corruption threatens human rights due to loss Kazakhstan 122"4 31/100
of financial investment in education, health and ¥

welfare. The rule of law can be subverted. Switzerind

3°4 85/100
* Corruption provokes public protest (which
authorities suppress) and benefits power elites, to
the detriment of disadvantaged groups. Health and
safety laws, and trade unions, may be ignored.

| Now try this

Kenya 1434 st p
Argentina 85** 39/100
Explain how high levels of corruption are a threat iy, Very
to human rights. Corrupt Clean
0-9 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-79 80-89 90-99

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Differences in rights
_ Within countries, some groups, such as women and ethnic minorities, have fewer rights, as shown by
education and health levels.

Gender inequalities Ethnic inequalities

Most developed countries have laws regarding * In many post-colonial states there are different
gender equality, (e.g. Switzerland best in 2017 ethnic groups because country borders were
Gender Inequality Index (GIl)), although there may not decided on socio-cultural factors.
be differences in pay or political participation. Some of these countries experienced tensions
The largest gender inequalities are found in or armed conflicts (Iraq). In some there are
developing countries, especially where cultural or also indigenous populations as minority groups,
religious traditions favour males (Yemen worst in often in remote areas (Adivasis in India), or
2017 Gll) and these differences are reflected in cultural minority groups (Dalits in India, Rohingy
those countries’ laws. Sub-Saharan Africa has the in Myanmar). These situations have created
worst GIl score (2017); Arab states and South differences in quality of life, such as poor
Asia were below the world average. education and health, and persecution.
Parts of SDG3 and SDG5 highlight the need to * The rights of indigenous groups are recognisec
improve reproductive health (health of women by the UN but there has only been moderate
during pregnancy and childbirth). progress globally, often due to poverty
or isolation.
Parts of SDG4 and SDG5S highlight the need
to improve women’s education, especially Part of SDG10 focuses on reducing inequalities
at secondary school level, to aid female and empowering and promoting the social,
empowerment and workforce participation. economic and political inclusion of all
ethnic groups.

Health and education of indigenous peoples in North America Place

° Canada and the USA have many indigenous groups: 2% of the US population and 4% in a
Many tribal areas are semi-autonomous (have some self-rule), but not all indigenous people live in
these designated areas. There can be problems supplying health and education services because
areas may be physically remote (with difficult physical geography) with a dispersed population, which
increases costs and makes it difficult to provide a quality service.
The USA has an Indian Health Service, but it is underfunded and has problems with equipment,
administration and getting qualified staff. The needs of the indigenous population are greater than the
non-indigenous due to their living conditions and lifestyles, creating higher rates of infant mortality,
diabetes, injuries, suicide and TB. The USA also has a Bureau of Indian Education, but educational
achievement of the indigenous population is about 10% below that of the non-indigenous, and the
curriculum may be inappropriate. There is also poor infrastructure and weak governance of schools.
The Generation Indigenous initiative (2015) did provide increases in funding for health and education.
Similarly in Canada, the country’s 2016 and 2017 budgets allocated C$12 billion over six years,
partly to improve health outcomes, support post-secondary education and skills training, and to
ensure that every First Nations child receives a quality education.

1. Explain why there may be fewer rights for women in some countries.
2. Explain why indigenous populations in North America have inferior health and education levels.

220
 Had a look Z Nearly there | Nailed it! a

Equality
The demand for women’s equality
The EU has many forums and organisations dedicated to gender equality, e.g.
| European Social Fund, ‘Work-Life balance’ initiative, and also helps internationally.
| The EU's Gender Equality Index shows equality has increased (62.0 in 2005 to
66.2 in 2015); the UK is the sixth highest in the EU.
A protocol of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (2003): signatory
countries agree to comprehensive rights for women, including social and political
equality, reproductive health and stopping female genital mutilation. By 2016, 36 out
| of 54 African countries had signed and ratified the protocol, mostly non-Arab nations.
The UDHR (1948) emphasised equal rights of men and women. The UN Convention
| on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (1981) recognised
the fundamental equality of men and women, and the political, economic, social
and cultural freedoms of women. UN Women’s annual report outlines an increase in
movements promoting women’s rights, equality, safety and justice. UN Women (2010)
focuses on the role of indigenous women, and received $369 m in funding in 2017.

OFA Womens rights a Ethnic rights

A long conflict has affected women’s rights - ¢ Australia has ratified most international
_ in Afghanistan: treaties on human rights. State and federal
* In 2014, 14% enrolled for secondary laws protect indigenous people’s rights.
school, but this fell to 11.4% in 2017. e In 2010, the UN Committee on the Elimination
¢ Women in full-time work are slowly increasing of Racial Discrimination (CERD) recommended
(19.5% of the workforce in 2017). recognition of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders
as First Nation Feoples; and also improved
* Women have poor legal protection, and
indigenous contacts with the judicial system.
changing the culture is difficult.
* In 2017 CERD conducted a review and praised
° The laws that exist are not enforced, and
the establishment of a National Congress of
government action is inconsistent.
Australia’s First Peoples (NCAFP) (2010) and
Pressure groups such as Humanitarian a Parliamentary Joint Committee on Human
Assistance for the Women and Children of Rights (2011). However, the imprisonment rate
Afghanistan provide protection, legal aid, and for indigenous Australians is 13 times higher
encourage women to speak out. than for non-indigenous; funding for NCAFP
The UNDP’s Gender Inequality Index shows was inadequate; and constitutional change was
Afghanistan is 153rd in the world and slowly needed to recognise the rights of Aboriginal
improving (0.693 in 2014 to 0.653 in 2017). and Torres Strait Islanders, and provide
reparation for the Stolen Generation.

The demand for ethnic equality

_* Several UN treaties cover ethnic rights, e.g. International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination (CERD) (1966), ratified by Canada (1970), Australia (1975) and the USA (1994).
* Canada has an Assembly of First Nations and a Congress of Aboriginal Peoples.
* ANTaR (1997), an NGO campaigns for justice, rights and respect for Australia’s First Peoples.

Describe the progress of Afghanistan towards gender equality.

 Had alook (| | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Geopolitical interventions
A wide range of geopolitical interventions are available to address development and human rights issues.
including those promoted by IGOs, national governments and NGOs.

Development aid Trade embargoes

¢ “Human rights’ is just one reason why These are a type of sanction imposed on a countr
_ development aid is given. This reason increased as ‘punishment’ or to try to influence change. If a
towards the latter part of the 2Oth century, country infringes the UNDHR, or linked internation
as did humanitarian aid. laws on human rights, then the international
In the 21st century, some aid is politicised — given community, usually through the UN, will not provide
to countries to combat radical extremism or to goods or aid to the country and will not buy gooc
reduce migration. Sometimes this adds to human from it. ;
rights issues, such as the treatment of boat * The EU has used embargoes against Russia,
refugees in the Mediterranean or civilians in Syria. which invaded Ukraine and restricted their
EU development aid is slowly increasing: in 2017 natural gas supplies, thereby restricting
the ©
it was 57% of the world total. Around 17% was Ukrainian people’s freedom and decreasing thei
given for ‘Government and Civil Society’, quality of life.
which includes human rights. ° The EU and the UN used embargoes against —
The UK Department for International DR Congo, because protests against delayed
Development (DFID)) gave over £350 million to elections were repressed and other human righ
Pakistan in 2016/19 for 51 projects, including were abused during a civil war.
Economic Corridors Programme (transport * The EU used embargoes against Venezuela, i
infrastructure to increase trade and economic due to the loss of democracy and poor human
growth) and Education Support Programmes rights there.
(improve primary and secondary education).
In 2018/19 DFID aid worldwide was mostly
‘Disaster Relief’ (11.5%) or ‘Health’ (10.6%).

Military aid Military action

This comes in several forms; it may be ¢ Direct military action has been used to defend
technology and equipment but it is sometimes human rights, but is controversial as issues |
peacekeeping forces (such as the UN or are created.
African Union). ¢ This action is usually backed by the UN, which
The purpose of military aid is to allow a country authorises countries such as the USA and UK |
to defend itself against likely aggressors, and to to get involved, for example by enforcing
help a country remain democratic. ‘no-fly’ zones over lraq (1991) and Libya (2011)
The USA is an active donor and has a foreign using NATO aircraft to protect civilians from
military funding programme for ‘security air attack, or Russia’s involvement in Syria
assistance’ and ‘training’, with Israel ($63.1bn) (2017/18) with supplies of weapons and military
and Egypt ($1.3 bn) being the largest recipients. personnel to run systems and train locals,
and air strikes.
In 2018 the UN had 14 operations with
peacekeeping forces; some observing ¢ Indirect action is usually covert action by
(India/Pakistan), peacekeeping (Cyprus), a country’s armed forces, e.g. Russia’s
security (Sudan), stabilisation (DR Congo) or involvement in eastern Ukraine with interceptior
administration (Kosovo). of ships, and in DR Congo, with motives of
gaining territory or resources.

Now try th is
1. Explain how development aid can help overall development and human rights issues.
2. Suggest why interventions are sometimes controversial.

222
 Interventions and sovereignty
nterventions can be promoted and justified by a variety of organisations. However, sometimes there isn’t
sonsensus about the validity of interventions.

Promotion of interventions
[GOs National governments
* The United Nations set a target of 0.7% of * Russia and China often use their UN Security Council
GNI to be given as aid by developed countries veto to block interventions against their allies.
(the UK is one of only six countries to meet this). ¢ USA promoted UN and NATO intervention in
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) Libya (2011).
has promoted the need to consider protection of
¢ The UK concentrates its Official Development
ecosystem services within aid projects.
Assistance (ODA) on Commonwealth countries.
© In 2014 the EU decided that aid would mostly
be given to the poorest places in the world. NGOs
¢ The IMF attaches conditions to its loans, such ° Amnesty International campaigns to highlight
as deregulation and privatisation, in the belief where it believes action is needed, e.g. Iran for
that these are best for boosting economies. imprisonment of human rights campaigners, and
Germany for failing the victims of racial violence.
* The G77 group of developing countries act
collectively on mutual economic and political ° Oxfam International advocates, campaigns,
interests and have called for more money to be researches and operates development projects
given, especially to help meet the SDGs by 2030. related to poverty and injustice in QO countries.

oer Justification of intervention Place

Contexts | f

Social aid Economic aid

May only be offered to a country May be tied to changes in economic
after negotiations for improvements policies and approaches, such as
to human rights, perhaps including Intervention free-trade agreements, deregulation
new laws to help change a culture justification and privatisation, or austerity
(for example, Egypt). ‘There may be times actions (for example, Greece).
when countries should
respond collectively,
Humanitarian aid Military action
quickly and decisively
Direct intervention may be necessary Direct military action may be taken
when a country has
to help keep citizens alive and healthy to prevent genocide or ethnic
failed to protect its
after a disaster of natural or human cleansing (for example, lraq) or to
citizens.’ UN General
origin (for example, Haiti). prevent an authoritarian state from
Secretary, 2009
abusing the rights of its citizens
Some believe that in
(for example, Libya). This changes
certain situations —
the groups in power.
such as genocide,
ethnic cleansing, war
Sanctions crimes and Military aid
Banning exports to, and imports from, humanitarian crimes International peacekeeping and
a country puts pressures ona (including terrorism) —
monitoring forces may be sent into a
government to change the actions a country gives up its country to try to prevent innocent
and ways in which it governs rights to sovereignty. people from being killed or suffering
(for example, Venezuela). infringements of human rights (for
example, DR Congo).
ee ————————EEEEEEEEee

1. Explain the role of NGOs in interventions.

2. Explain how national sovereignty may be challenged by interventions.
aati tp ee

993
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Development aid
Aid for emerging or developing countries
Aid is administered by NGOs, national governments, |GOs and includes the following:
° Charitable gifts: People in developed countries give these freely to NGOs, often for a specific
purpose, for example, welfare aid to improve children’s health or provide clean water.
° Emergency help: This is given by NGOs or IGOs in response to a natural disaster, such as humanitari
aid after an earthquake, so people can be rescued and provided with life essentials (such as shelter,
clean water and food — Indonesia, 2018).
* Loans of money: Governments or large organisations (IGOs) provide these, but this economic aid ma
have conditions attached. They are usually for specific projects that a country cannot afford; in retur
the country may be expected to meet certain objectives.

International Monetary Fund (IM

G hical ° ;
Global flow-line ° The IMF is an IGO (intergovernmental
maps | organisation). Its loans target
: economic development.
You must be able to use global flow-line maps
showing the direction and level of aid. Note the ; Example: iB 2015 Ghana had ‘a loan of :
direction and level of Australian aid, and the $940 million from the IMF to boost Coen a
location and type of country receiving it. growth. and reduce Govennmnentsel alas
Department for International
Development (DFID)
Over 10% ¢ DFID is the UK government department
6.1 to 10%
2.5 to 6% responsible for allocating aid to
1.7 to 2.4% developing countries.
1 to 1.6%
¢ One of their funds is UK Aid Connect (2017),
which made over £1 million available to NGOs,
companies and local governments. The aim is
to find innovative solutions to development
challenges, especially improving the lives of
poor people.

1) cae|Christian Aid
This is an NGO (non-governmental
organisation). It has worked in Haiti for over
30 years to support communities and provide
people with the ability to help themselves.
After a major earthquake in the country in 2010,
Christian Aid raised £14 million from donations
© Global Fund _ to also provide emergency aid, especially helpinc
_ people in rural areas.
This is an IGO that targets the eradication
of epidemics. Since 2002 it has worked to
eradicate malaria, such as in Ethiopia where, in
2015, over $600 million was spent and nearly
42 million mosquito nets distributed.
Médecins Sans Frontiéres (MSF) ay
1. Describe three differences between aid given by
MSF is an NGO providing medical aid with NGOs and aid given by IGOs.
temporary hospitals, doctors and nurses in 2. Describe and explain the pattern of aid donated
emergency situations. by Australia in 2018-19.

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Impacts of development a
Forms of development aid
Include Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and trade deals between countries, loans and projects from |IGOs
such as the IMF or UN agencies, activities and projects linked to NGOs such as Oxfam and Christian Aid.

Y BN, Benefits Problems

ey Effective response to life-threatening Dependency: Some poor countries may become

situations: Eradication of diseases such reliant on aid, rather than devising ways of
as smallpox, and tackling malaria; providing improving conditions in the country themselves.
humanitarian aid in disaster situations.

dS Human rights improvements: Much aid is given Corruption vs human rights: People in
| to improve people’s lives, including basics government departments may not be trustworthy
such as clean water and farming, health and (Malawi) and aid does not get used to improve
education, gender equality and protecting the human rights but instead supports those causing
rights of minority groups. the problems.

| & Supporting refugees: These people are &) Elites vs minority groups: Money and resources
helped with shelter, food and water until they given may be used to support the elite group in
are able to return to their homes. control and not those that need aid the most.

SS Economic development: Support has enabled & Insufficient funds: Many developing countries claim
countries to economically emerge (South not enough money is given (only five countries
Korea), and these emerging countries are now meet UN target of O.7% of Gross National
becoming major donors themselves (India). Income (GNI)), or it is withdrawn too soon.

& Bottom-up schemes: These target local Poor coordination: There are too many
| communities and their immediate needs, so organisations involved so there are inefficiencies
improving their lives at home and work. in getting maximum benefits.

\)Geographical
Evaluating source materials

to evaluate source materials, to assess the impact of development aid.

SSE Ss Te

Charity for the poor?

Some consider that aid is ‘charity for the poor’, but the arguments for this in some world
regions are decreasing. Instead it may be about reducing threats to stability and creating more
equality through better governance and cooperation. NGO and government aid are different
products but developing countries should not be competing for them — aid and development
cooperation need to be separated, and used and funded according to the needs of the
recipient countries. Aid would then become what the public see it as — humanitarian aid that
is welfare related (often at the local level), while development cooperation would focus on
long-term regional development at the institutional and systems levels.
ae a oy pe

Naw try this

Explain the benefits and problems of development aid.

225
 Had a look & Nearly there i Nailed it! EF)

Lic levelopment impact

- Some economic development impacts on both the environment and human rights.

Impacts on the natural environment Impacts on human rights

Major economic nations, such as the USA, China Land areas that are exploited and used for
or the EU, have looked to developing countries economic development, such as clearing space |
for supplies of resources, and have encouraged deforestation or drilling and extracting oil, may |
these countries to engage in trade in order to in the areas occupied by minority groups, often
develop the economies of all countries involved. indigenous peoples. Ownership of these areas
However, the extraction of natural resources in developing countries is often unclear, even
such as fossil fuels, timber and metals causes though indigenous groups may have lived there f
lasting damage to natural environments, thousands of years before colonisation. The righ
as ecosystems are damaged by deforestation of these minority groups is often infringed and
and open pit mining, or pollution from spills. they can be forced from their home areas.
TNCs, initially from the USA, the EU and Japan, Economic development introduces a different
and then from emerging economies such as way of life, based on working in factories or
India and South Korea, have established offices, or using large-scale machinery to
subsidiaries in developing countries to benefit extract resources. This directly contrasts with
from access to resources and cheaper labour the subsistence lifestyles of most indigenous
and new markets. The factories that they have populations. Contact between the modern
established have sometimes caused air, world and minority groups will result in tension
water and land pollution, especially where and often conflict, with the dominant modern
regulations are not strict. culture subduing traditional cultures.

Interpreting images of economic development impacts

You must be able to interpret images to help evaluate impacts of economic development on the
living spaces of minority groups. 7

Oil pollution in Ogoniland, Nigeria. Oil spills from Deforestation for oil palm plantation, Malaysia.
pipelines have spread oil over the land and into Economic development in Malaysia has included
creeks and the sea where the Ogoni people live. the use of forest products, such as timber and
Many of these spills are due to illegal activities tree crops, but this requires changing the natural
that try to tap into the pipelines to get oil out. ecosystem without consulting indigenous people.
TT TN ET EL TT FO OL RT PEO Mp

1. Explain why economic development may have serious impacts on minority groups.
2. Using the images above, identify the impact of economic development on the areas shown.
 Had a look a Nearly there a Nailed it! Pe |

Military interventions and aid

Justification of military intervention or military aid is problematic.

Justif ying military intervention Justifying military aid

* Acountry may have strategic interests that ° For strategic reasons a military superpower
prompt them to use military intervention in other may provide an allied country with military aid
countries. For example, Russia invading part to maintain an influence in a world region.
of Ukraine to control more of the Black Sea For example, the USA provides military
area, or military involvement in Syria to gain equipment and technology to Israel and Saudi
influence in the Middle East. Similarly, the USA’s Arabia in the Middle East, even though both of
involvement in Afghanistan and Iraq has been these countries have been criticised for poor
so that it can secure oil supplies and combat human rights through their military actions
terrorism at one of its sources. (in Gaza and Yemen respectively).
° However, superpowers state publicly that a However, human rights are often publicly
main reason for their intervention is to prevent mentioned as the reason for donating this aid — to
human rights abuses, and seek United Nations bring about positive regime changes that provide
resolutions to give them permission to intervene. a country with greater democracy in the future.

OF Military intervention | 3) case|Military aid to support

Contexts Jay > Contexts |
(human rights): [rag countries: Jordan
° From 1990 it was known that Saddam Hussein ¢ Jordan has a strategic central position in
was responsible for violating human rights the Middle East; it has borders with Saudi
in Iraq, as well as conducting wars against Arabia, Iraq, Syria and Israel. It has attracted
lran (1960 to 1968) and Kuwait (1990). military aid from the USA — the 3rd highest
Evidence suggests that he killed 250000 of amount of aid in 2015; 43% of the total
his own people, persecuted ethnic minority aid received from the USA in 2016 was for
groups, and allowed torture and executions. military purposes.
° lraq has a strategic position in the However, Jordan had a low Freedom Index
oil-producing Middle East, so countries (such score in 2016, with criminalisation of speech
as the USA) that are dependent on oil supplies critical of rulers, institutions and Islam.
wanted action to bring stability. Some UN The justice system is corrupt, and torture and
resolutions were passed, but were weak. executions take place. The country is under the
* The USA and its allies conducted military close control of the king, who has consolidated
action against Iraq in 1990-91, 1996 and his powers. It has also helped Saudi Arabia
2003-11 to bring about regime change for with its military operations in Yemen, which have
greater democracy. However, there were many been criticised for killing civilians.
civilian deaths, the vast majority caused by Jordan has taken over GOOOO0O refugees but
lragi forces. has refused to grant Syrians asylum (returning
° Data suggest that the health of the population some of them).
improved after the action but that life The USA provided $1.3 billion in economic and
expectancy and corruption levels stayed about military assistance in 2017 but did not publicly
the same. : criticise human rights violations in the country,
saeiieemeenaneennamemaeeed
.
except in the US Department of State Country
|
Report on Human Rights Practices, and in 2016
|
| these reports even cut details of violations.

_— = = = = =e a is ae ee ee oe Oe ee ee ee ae

is

Explain the reasons for military intervention or military aid.

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Wiilitary intervention
‘Military intervention is increasingly part of a ‘war on terror’, but actions can be questionable. —

The ‘war on terror’ Direct military intervention |

e Since 2001, when civilians were attacked in * Direct military intervention is the use of
the USA by terrorists, some countries have force in a region or country where conflict or
taken direct military intervention in the controversy exists. This force may be open _
source countries to try to stop such and clear, such as air strikes, missile strikes or
atrocities happening. use of armed forces on the ground, or covert
¢ Terrorism clearly breaches the UDHR and the operations, such as satellite surveillance or
Geneva Convention. Taliban, al-Qaeda and ISIS commando raids (Spécial Forces). .
are three terrorism groups, but there are smaller * Open intervention has been most noticeable in
ones elsewhere — the USA has identified GO Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria and more covert in-
terrorist organisations. Yemen and Pakistan.
° lraqg, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Syria, Pakistan and ° The aim of direct military intervention is to
Yemen suffer the largest impacts of terrorism, eradicate terrorist groups and their leaders,
with most deaths. Peak deaths linked to so bringing freedom and peace to the areas
terrorism were in 2014; in 2016 deaths fell they occupy and protecting developed countrie
by 22% due to military intervention success from their acts of terrorism (only 1% of terroris
against ISIS. deaths were in developed countries in 2016).

Place
OF Compromising actions 4@
Contexts = ; Contexts
Sometimes countries that have used direct Wj
military intervention to combat terrorism and
Direct military intervention is used to target areas
protect the human rights of minority groups take
or individuals that have been radicalised and pose
actions that also infringe the international laws
a threat to normal human life. These actions can
and codes of the UDHR.
therefore be justified by protecting minority or
disadvantaged groups in the countries where the For example, the USA captured terrorist
terrorism groups are operating. suspects and imprisoned them, for instance in
Guantanamo Bay (Cuba). Most were captured
In northern lraq (2014), ISIS forced Yazidi
in Afghanistan or Iraq. However, detainees
people to flee their homes and take refuge in
were not charged or brought to trial and
mountains, after they abducted people, forced
torture appears to have been used to extract
them to convert to Islam or killed them — a form
intelligence information. US President Bush
of genocide.
said that these people were war criminals while,
The USA and its allies believed that military Amnesty International condemned the treatment
action was an appropriate response and carried of the prisoners. In 2006 US courts ruled that
out air strikes against ISIS. This helped clear the Geneva Convention had been broken, and in
a route from the mountains to a safe Kurdish 2009 President Obama started the process of
area for 50000 Yazidis. Allied air strikes then transferring people back to their home countries.
continued to support the Iraqi army in taking However, about 40 detainees are regarded as
back territory from ISIS. too dangerous to ever release.

ow (ry this

Explain why countries combating terrorism sometimes find their position on human rights compromised.

228
 Had a look ie | Nearly there ial Nailed it! Ei

Measuring success
The success of geopolitical interventions is difficult to judge when several interventions are combined.
It takes a long time for changeto take place, and sometimes the accuracy of data is in doubt.

oe) Health (2) Life expectancy Education

Spending on health care Shows how living School attendance and
and improvements in health conditions and health care attainment, especially by
show improvement to are improving. (Years from girls, shows progress in
people’s lives. (% GDP birth, change 2000 to society. (Female primary
spent on health care, 2016) school completion rate,
2000 to 2015) change 2000 to 2016)

@ Gender equality Freedom of speech

Greater equality for UDHR states that everyone
women demonstrates Geopolitical has the right to freedom of
progress. (Gender “~~~ expression. (Freedom Index
inequality index change, intervention success score change, 2001 to
2000 to 2017) 2018)

@) GDP change Democracy

Economic development is a Better governance through
promoter of democracy democracy brings equality
and a higher standard of and human rights.
living. (GDP per capita \ (Democracy Index change,
change, 2000 to 2017) 2006 to 2007)
Managing refugees
Conflict areas generate refugee movements or internal displacement and these people need shelter
and humanitarian aid. But refugees may die on their journeys or if aid is not received. Around 68.5
million people were forcibly displaced in 2016, 6.3 million from Syria. UNHCR provides assistance
(budget of $7.7 billion in 2017) — one example is cash assistance for Syrian refugees who cannot meet
their daily needs: in 2018 G40 000 received a total of $95 million but 456 OOO were still in need.

aN ee . i i B Pie:
if ttameeen Assessing information about intervention success
Collecting dataon countries requiring interventions is difficult as there may not be government systems for
collecting the accurate information, the government may not wish to collect and publicise the information
or there may be errors in the data, which make it difficult to judge the success of interventions.

Military intervention,| +9.1% | +14.6% +21.4% —16.7% +12.1% | +399.0%

development aid
Sanctions
—=s—— |+196.5% |+19.1% |+105.1%|
0 | -41.7% | +3.1% | +12.9%
Military aid, —topogom! +4.2% | +11.9% [e273% leaio.omwe| to2.0%| +65.9%
development aid

Official Development | +29.0% | +4.1% | +8.7% | +7.7% | +12.0% | +16.3% | +503.5%

Assistance
Military intervention |+44.4% | +7.6% |+70.5%| —18.2% |—30.5%
| —2.5% | +22.5% |
i

Key: green = better than world average; orange = worse than world average; white = about the same as world average

| Now try this

Explain how changes in life expectancy can indicate the success of geopolitical intervention.

229
 ae Nearly there (ea Nailed it! |
Had a look
ic tSh
eTopus

Economic growth as success

_Successful development can be measured in terms of economic growth.

Types of development
¢ The most commonly mentioned type of development is economic, and in developed countries this is_
also taken to mean that political and socio-cultural development has also taken place alongside.
© However, in developing and economically emerging countries, especially those with flawed democraci
or authoritarian regimes, economic development may be a clear priority and other types of
development (such as human welfare) are neglected or even suppressed.
° Very few countries have tried to put socio-cultural development first, as money is needed to develo
services like health and education, which are fundamental to improving human rights.

~ OFFy china
* China is an example of a country using economic progress to measure its success. In recent
a
Context

decades the rulers in the Communist Party have pushed for economic progress, developing China’ a)
industries based on world trade. A reason behind this was to increase its influence as a superpower.
Between 2000 and 2014 China increased its GDP per capita (PPP) by 4.5 times and became the
top economic nation in the world in terms of trade.
° Modern reforms started around 1990, with changes to rural communes that allowed workers to
move eastwards to the main industrial areas and cities. In 2OOO there was an economic liberalisation
movement with a dual approach — a market-orientated economy with a closely controlled socio-
cultural background (no democratisation). The country has used its young adult workforce well and
allowed some local and regional initiatives to encourage entrepreneurs to develop economic growth
poles. With increasing individual wealth the population have generally accepted the dichotomy,
especially as the communist government have allowed some consultation over short-term economic
plans, and action against corruption was taken.
° However, restriction of freedom continues, to the point where electronic surveillance is being used
(with facial recognition) and citizens are to be scored according to their activity on social media
and other websites. Internet access has been restricted, with no access to any criticisms of the
communist state or the disappearance of dissenters. In autonomous Hong Kong the pro-democracy
National Party was banned in 2018. China also carries out executions. The infringements of human
rights are designed to perpetuate the power of the Chinese Communist Party.
° However, with the 2006 economic recession eventually affecting China, there have been some
reforms of the Chinese banking system, but more democratic institutions are required. A number of;
indicators show that China’s progress is faltering (not helped by 2018 trade sanctions by the USA):
between 2000 and 2016 Economic Freedom decreased but the Freedom Index increased (though
still very low); between 2005 and 2015 the Fragile States Index got worse.

‘Now try this

Explain why some countries measure their success in terms of economic growth rather than human wellbeing.

230
 Had a look | Nearly there a Nailed it! at

success and failure of aic

Links between aid, development, health and human rights

The scale of health

problems may be
|beyond the ability of
-aid to help. Access
may be difficult and
dangerous because
| of war or diseases.

| | HEALTH
|

ORAS waiti: failure of aid Place

Contexts
| {
}
‘S) Ebola in West Africa Place
Contexts
'

Haiti is a very poor country with multiple Ebola is a deadly disease. 2

natural hazards. There are many NGOs working The largest outbreak was in West Africa in
in the country: aid money is triple the 2014, affecting six countries. Around 2&8GOO
government budget. were infected and 11300 died, but many more
Aid has helped improve the lives of some infections and deaths would have occurred if the
Haitians, especially after the earthquake of World Health Organization (WHO) and NGOs,
2010, but there are problems: e.g. Médecins Sans Frontiéres (MSF), had not
Aid workers take jobs away from local people acted quickly.
rather than locals helping themselves. S MSF set up 15 Ebola management and transit
Feople and the government have become centres, with specialist equipment and
dependent on aid for health care and education. protective suits for health workers.
Locals are not consulted’on their needs and ey The EU provided $2.25 billion in aid, some
aid workers keep people poor (including using for short-term medical supplies, health
some for prostitution). workers, médical research projects
(e.g. a vaccine), but over GO% on
Most aid does not reach the people who need
development aid to help countries recover.
it, because NGOs use it for administration.
—————————

| | Explain the importance of links between aid, development, health and human rights.
——

231
 Had aleck | | Nearly there [ | Nailed it! | |

Aid and superpowers

. There is uncertainty about development aid reducing economic inequalities, and superpowers may use it
as part of a wider foreign policy.

Aid and economic inequalities Superpower foreign policies

¢ A main purpose of development aid is to improve * Economic and political superpowers often use
the economic and social wellbeing of people development aid as part of a foreign policy
in a developing country. The belief is that if a package, perhaps as part of a trade deal
country develops economically, this provides (illegal now in the UK) or to gain an alliance witt
a range of benefits for people, such as better countries in strategic parts of the world.
education, health and human rights. * As China's wealth has grown it has become more
° Data show a positive correlation between wealth active in providing aid to developing countries,
and better health. most recently in Africa. China, as an authoritarian
° Yet data also show that wealth is not always state, is content to support other authoritarian
spread evenly among a population, with the states without concern about human rights
richest people getting richer and the poorest records, so develops political alliances because
receiving a smaller share of wealth. For example, aid from ‘western’ countries is not received.
Vietnam had an ODA increase of over $2 bn Much of China’s aid is concentrated on
between 2000 and 2014, an increase in life infrastructure projects (e.g. HEP in Zambia), partly
expectancy and decrease in child mortality, but to help the economic development of the countrie
the income share of the lowest decile went down but also to enable China to access resources.
from 3.3% to 2.6% (2000-13).

The Gini coefficient skills

Misuse of data
:

The Gini coefficient is a measure of the Table A: GDP per capita ($) (various years)
distribution of wealth within a population of a 3
country, as a way of demonstrating how much
267 117 586
equality there is. It is measured on a scale of
(1981) (2002) (2017)
O to 100, with 100 being the highest inequality.
(The Gini index uses the same data but uses a 3852 1392 5166
scale of O to 1 instead.) (1990) (2004) (2017)
In 2015 the UK had a Gini coefficient of 33.2; 6514 5606 7996
compared to lraq 30.9 (2013), Syria 35.6 (1990) (2004) (20173
(2013), and USA 41.5 (2016). This shows that
989 1409 2056
there is usually greater wealth inequality within
(1990) (2004) (2007) |
developed countries; this is due to large amounts
being made by the upper quintile and decile. The difference between columns 1 and 3 show
The gap between rich and poor in some the success of intervention; yet column 2 shows
developing countries appears to be smaller, progress has not always been continuous.
but this may be due to more widespread poverty
Table B: Happiness Index: lower score = unhappy (rank)
(Afghanistan had 35.6% of the population living
below the national poverty level in 2011, and |
Country
| 2010-12 | 2014-16 | 2015-17
Syria had 35.2% in 2007).
3.63 (145)
ltraqg | 4.82 (105) |4.50 (117) |4.46 (117)
5.57 (70)
3.46 (150)
= Ee eee ee ee eee lee leet ee eee eee ee eel le

Explain why some development aid does not result in a reduction of economic inequality.

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Military interventions:
1ixed success
The costs involved with military interventions suggest that non-military interventions may be better.

Costs of military interventions Non-military interventions

| Deaths of civilians (including friendly fire) The UN states that military intervention is only one
Destruction of people’s homes, buildings and possible response; others include diplomacy.
infrastructure, including power and water supplies & Humanitarian aid brings short-term benefits of
®&) Internal displacement of people or refugee improving the lives of people, for example in
movements, placing a strain on the host areas relation to refugees (UNHCR), or outbreak of
disease (WHO and MSF with Ebola), or disaster
&, Abuses of human rights during the conflict by
relief (Christian Aid in Haiti).
armed forces or insurgents
&S ODA is often based on short-term plans (e.g.
Disruption of economic processes, so families
five years) and targeted at specific projects,
and countries become poorer
such as infrastructure construction.
&) Loss of sovereignty by a country; foreign armed
dS NGOs have an important role as they
forces control the country and perhaps change
have experience and local knowledge, and
the government or balance of power
transparency of their operations continues to
Divisions within a country may still exist improve. A variety of |IGO and NGO intervention
after intervention within a country is best.
Benefits of military interventions However, developing countries need continuous
help, especially as many have growing
. cy Preventing abuses of human rights
populations and face challenges brought by
Protecting minority groups from persecution climate change. Withdrawal of aid can slow or
dS Protecting resource pathways reverse progress (for example, in Peru).

1s) Keeping the peace (peacekeeping forces)

OFFA Cote dIvoire

© Contexts
In this country both military intervention and non-military intervention have been successful.
* Due to colonial legacy the country has a north-south ethnic division, Muslim north and Christian
south, with those in the north excluded from government.
¢ In 2002 an armed rebellion by the north took place, and they won the right to vote.
* In 2010 presidential elections, supervised by the UN and Electoral Commission, the candidate from
the north, Ouattara, won. The candidate from the south, Gbagbo, rejected the outcome and used
the courts to dispute the vote.
* The situation became an armed disagreement in 2011, with civilians caught in the middle, and random
| mass shootings, human rights abuses and displacement of people.
¢ The UN decided that intervention was needed and French armed forces intervened by attacking
Gbagbo’s forces, helping to capture him and compel the surrender of his forces. Within two months
the country was peaceful again and normal life resumed.
¢ Humanitarian aid was brought in and the FAO provided help for farmers. The new government
investigated human rights abuses and planned disarmament.
° By 2016, the UN mission was nearly complete; economic progress shows total GDP increasing from
$25.38 bn in 2011 to $40.39 bn in 2017; HDI increased from 0.445 to 0.492, although still ‘low’.

Now try this

Compare the costs and benefits of military and non-military intervention.

233
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

No action: impacts
No action may have impacts on the natural environment, political situation or social progress.

Consequences of no action or intervention

Political Social Envi ronmental . :fe
° Lack of peace and security in | ° Increased and prolonged poverty for ° Lack of global treaties,
a world region disadvantaged groups protocols and |
° Lack of agreement over ° Increase in number of IDPs (internally agreements to tackle ,
transboundary water supplies displaced persons) and refugees, environmental problems:
causing strain and tension in host areas (such as climate change)
* Continuing disputes over
political boundaries, such as Disease spreads unchecked, turning Uncontrolled resource —
Western Sahara, South China epidemics into pandemics exploitation in national
Sea, Arctic Ocean and international areas
Reduced spending on welfare,
Fragile states dominated education and health as funds are More widespread
by superpowers or diverted to military spending pressure from
environmental
neighbouring countries ° Persecution of minority groups may
degradation leads
e Democracy does not increase increase, leading to genocide and
to political and
around the world ethnic cleansing
social issues

OF Srebrenica Plas '

e
Contexts |

The Bosnian War (1992-95) was part of the

break-up of Yugoslavia in Europe. It was an ethnic
conflict between Muslims and Serbs.
¢ In 1993 the UN had a small peacekeeping
force in the area and had declared the town
of Srebrenica a ‘safe area’ in order to protect
Muslim civilians who could not be evacuated.
However, instructions to the UN troops were
not clear in terms of the amount of force that
they could use.

° By 1995 Serb forces had reduced the number of aid convoys and reinforcements being let through. |
A minority of Muslims attacked Serb positions to get supplies and it was clear that Serbs would attack
in retaliation. UN forces refused to return weapons to town residents, so they were defenceless when
Serb forces moved into the town and took more than 8OOO men and boys away as UN forces took no
action. All of the males abducted were executed, even though the war was nearly over.
° This incident raised international awareness that there is sometimes the need for active military
intervention. (Issues regarding Kosovo in 2018 show that ethnic tension still exists in the area.)

Explain the consequences of taking no action to resolve human rights issues.

234
 Had a look a Nearly there ia Nailed it! ee|

1. Study Figure 1. Suggest why the number of Abeplicants

asylum applications in the EU is higher by eee
migrants from ‘not free’ countries. (6 marks) . — Nee
ba) Partly free

In countries that are ‘not free’ people are 2 Mb Tree

unable to freely express their views through

| of persecution or even death. These people Saas

_ look towards the nearest ‘free’ countries
_ and move there if they can. MENA countries Portugal)”
have the least freedom (72% not free) bs
_ while the best region is Europe (60% free).
Refugee migration takes place by the shortest Re NS ee ©
route available, especially from countries Figure 1: Asylum applications in 2014
“| experiencing internal conflicts
(e.g. Syria 267428).

| ae ; . ; 8-mark ‘explain’ questions

_ 2. Explain why some people believe that education
is central to successful development. (8 marks) For these questions, alll of the marks
are for demonstrating relevant
Education is an important way of raising quality of accurate geographical knowledge and
| life, enabling greater human rights, and improving understanding and fully developing
| He okie of the worklorce (UNESCO). It enables 3 a broad range of ideas. Some facts
_ effective communication between governments Soulcnbeunclided:
or NGOs and ordinary people, increasing
understanding of how people can improve their lives.
| The economic development of a country partly
|| depends on the workforce having the necessary
skills, so governments and companies see the
benefits of education. But in 2013, 65 million
children of lower secondary school age did not
attend school, mostly girls, restricting overall
development. This is a major factor holding back
the development of Sub-Saharan countries in Africa.
|
An understandingof hygiene and health care,
birth control, rights of disadvantaged groups,
and greater political participation can provide
_ improvements at a local level. Governments see
| the benefits of reduced spending on health care,
| and the WHO and UNDP see progress towards
_ the Sustainable Development Goals (4.1 = Ensure
"all girls and boys complete primary and secondary
- school by 2030). Maternal and infant mortality
_ rates fall about 15 years after female literacy
@ rates have improved, which lowers the birth rate,
| benefitting families and removing an obstacle to
- successful development (overpopulation)...
* Se — fate. Por a
 Had a look oO Nearly there i Nailed it! Ei

skills 2
- The A level exam-style questions and worked examples below will help you to prepare for Topic 6A Healtt
Human Rights and Intervention in Paper 2 Section C. Look back at pages 212 to 235 to remind yourself
of the content. an

Worked example
3. Study Figures 2 and 3. AL) Bi Sea dites
Suggest why life expectancy is higher in Japan sb ¥ ; " i ee
than in the USA. (6 marks)
For one day
5-7 SV Grain dishes
Mortality factor (rice, bread, noodles, and pasta)
A el SV Vegetable dishes
Tuberculosis
SS =—_—.3-5 SV Fish and meat dishes
Circulatory system eed PP (meat, fish, egg, and soy bean dish
Enjoy snacks; a 2S5V _ Fruits
Vehicle accidents confection, and
beverages bed 2S5V_ Milk
Drug poisoning moderately! (milk and milk products)

Life expectancy SV is an abbreviation of ‘serving’ which is a simple countable number

describing estimated amount of each dish or food served to one
person determined by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare and the
GDP health-care spend Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

Figure 2: Comparison of mortality indicators for Japan Figure 3: Diet recommendations by the
and the USA (2016) (mortality factors are given as % Japanese government
of all deaths)

sponse
Worked example re
Life expectancy is five years higher in Japan, even
though there is a lower GDP spend on health
care, so the difference is likely to be unrelated
to wealth, especially as both countries are
economically developed. Japan does less well on
a number of indicators such as disease (TB) and
circulatory deaths, but better on human causes
(vehicle accidents and drugs) so the main reason
is not here. The main reason for the difference
appears to be linked to diet: Figure 3 shows the
Japanese eat and live more healthily. The Japanese
government support and encourage servings of a
balanced diet every day along with exercise.
They say snacking should only be moderate. In the
USA the ‘Americanised’ diet, especially of fast
food, is known to be unhealthy, which leads to
obesity, which shortens life expectancy.

Timing is very important

In shorter answer questions, work to about
one minute per mark.

236
 Had a look ga Nearly there Ue Nailed it! fa

Exam practice I
The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 2 Section C of your A level exam.
Suggested answers are on page 313. You need to answer all questions in Section C.

+
1. Study Figure 4, which shows the level of AL) Visual information
corruption by country in 2017. (4 marks)
Your geography exams will provide plenty of
visual information. Don’t be afraid of making
notes, or circling things or highlighting on the |
resources provided, to help you formulate
your answer to a question.

Ren ececupt With a choropleth map you must study

7 WI 0-10 Cay the key carefully to match the data
ranges with the shading or colours
i MM 20-s° used. Make sure that you take all the
b WM 40-59 stationery and equipment that you may
i need into your exam.
60-79

i as ae < You will need to first briefly describe

the pattern of corruption. Where is it
(a) Using the following data, complete Figure 4. (1 mark) highest? Where is it lowest? Look to make
generalisations rather than describing
Country A: Libya =17 Country B: Germany = 81
\ individual countries. This process will also
j Country C: Turkey = 40 Country D: UAE = 71 help you start thinking about the reasons
#
i (b) Suggest reasons for the pattern of corruption AL) why tne corruption pattern exists.
i shown in Figure 4. (3 marks) Way

e 2. Explain why indigenous populations often have The command word ‘suggest’ means that
different health and education levels to you are not expected to know the exact
f non-indigenous populations. (8 marks) reasons for the differences in the area shown
on the map, but rather you should recall the
, e reasons from your studies. Half of the marks
are for ‘accurate and relevant geographical
In this question you are asked to knowledge and understanding).
consider ‘health’ and ‘education’ and
compare indigenous with non-indigenous
populations. Try to consider the factors
that influence both health and education Be concise
rather than devote half your answer to Make sure that you do not write too much in
one, and half to the other — otherwise lower mark questions. Be concise and make
you will find that you repeat yourself, your key points succinctly, but do include
which wastes time and effort. examples and occasional facts. The answer
, space provided in the exam shows you what
length of answer to write.

231
 ANGaiiy there | | s¥astew Ate | |

Exam practice 2
The exam-style questions below will enable you to practise for Paper 2 Section C of you're A level exam
Suggested answers on page 313, You need to answer all questions in Section C,

I, Explain why life expectancy varies within

In 8-mark ‘explain’ questions, make sure
COUNLIIES, (8 marks) you identify the links within the question:
in this case ‘life expectancy’ and ‘within
countries’, Do not write about variations
in life expectancy between countries, but
choose a country that you have studied
(e.g, the UK) and examine the variations at
different scales within it (such as regional
differences, rural-urban differences, intra-
2. Evaluate the view that ‘Official Development urban differences and gender differences),
Assistance should be avoided because it always @ About 18 lines will be available in the exam.
creates dependency and promotes corruption
lop marks (6-8) are given for reaching
in developing countries’, (20 marks)
Level 3,

You must cover all elements of the question;

here, It means showing understanding
and knowledge of ODA, dependency and
3, Lvaluate the view that the Universal @
corruption, You must also include facts
Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) has about places; in this case, some examples
more weaknesses than strengths, (20 marks) of developing countries where ODA has
been successtul and ones where it has not.

When revising you should think abeut which

parts of the specification could include an ‘Evaluate’ questions
‘Evaluate this statement’ question,
Your answers to an A level ‘evaluate’ question
Learn how to answer such a question, must demonstrate accurate and relevant
Here you have to write about the impact geographical knowledge and understanding, and
of the UDR, giving a balanced judgement apply this to:
based on evidence,Se |dentity the strengths
* geographical ideas/information in a logical
and weaknesses of the UDF and compare
way with relevant connections
with alternatives, Weigh the evidence and
* produce a full, relevant and coherent
inéludé a summary statement at the end
interpretation of the question with support
that provides an answer about the viewpoint
of evidence
stated in the question,
* reach a rational and evidenced conclusion
fully supported by a balanced argument that
supports a judgement.
About 4& lines will be available in the exam for
your answer. Top marks (16-20) are awarded
for reaching Level 4.
————

238
 Had a look | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! bat

Globalisation
Globalisation has caused major changes in the global economic system, altering the pattern of where
there is greatest demand for workers. It has encouraged migration within and between countries.

A global shift
Key terms |
Globalisation has caused changes to the location of
where there is a demand for workers. Economic migrant: someone emigrating for |
better employment opportunities or an improved |
* There has been a shift in manufacturing jobs to
financial position. /
lower-wage countries, especially China. Demand for
manufacturing workers followed this shift. Irregular migrant: a person who enters a
country illegally or remains in a country without
_* The rapid industrialisation that took place in
a valid visa or permit to do so.
these countries created a high demand for
workers, which was met by internal migration:
rural-urban migration.
'* Globalisation also enables capital (money) to flow SB) a |Rural—urban migration Place
freely around the world. Investment has created 3 Contexts
° China’s rapid industrialisation began when
demand in construction and services.
government reforms allowed foreign
_ * Globalisation has encouraged international
investment in Chinese industry.
migration: workers travel to where they can earn
more and send money home.
° It is estimated that more than 200 million
rural migrants are currently working in China’s
cities, with around 20 million people arriving in
Rural—-urban migration cities each year.
-Rural-urban migration is the movement of people ¢ Migrants from the country are usually low
from traditional farming areas to cities, often skilled. Many find work in construction — China
industrial cities. has 40 million construction workers.
S Pull factors are the higher wages of urban * Over the next 30 years, up to 400 million
economies, better working conditions, more people could move to China’s cities.
high provision of services and the wealth
of opportunities.
&) Push factors are the hard work and low wages
of traditional rural economies, the low level of
ORs The EU's Schengen Place
Contexts
services (for example, health, education) and Agreement
the lack of opportunities.
° The Schengen Agreement (1995) ended
internal border checks within 26 EU
International migration
countries. The UK never signed the
* Most of the world’s international migrants reside Schengen Agreement.
(live) in high-income countries: 64% in 2017. * Some have criticised the Agreement for
_* Half of all international migrants in 2017 were making it easy for migrants from outside the
in one of 10 countries. The USA has the most EU to travel to high labour demand countries
(50 million people), followed by Saudi Arabia, such as Germany.
_ Germany and Russia. ¢ In 2015 when more than 1 million migrants,
-* Around 10% of all international migrants are mostly Syrian refugees, travelled into the EU
a refugees or asylum seekers. The majority of these through Hungary, temporary border checks
reside in low-income countries: 64% in 2017. were reintroduced.

No w try this

The EU right of free movement is a basic right of all EU citizens to move to, work in and reside (live) in any
EU country. How is this different from the Schengen Agreement?

239
B level Had a look Ez Nearly there a Nailed it! cE:

Different migration policies

Although 3-4% of the global population live outside their country of birth, the proportion of internatione
_migrants varies a lot between countries because of different migration policies and different levels of
engagement in the global economy.

* 10 million or over
’ 5 million to fewer than 10 million
@ 2.5 million to fewer than 5 million
®@ 1 million to fewer than 2.5 million
@ 500000 to fewer than 1 million —
® 100000 to fewer than 500 000
@ Fewer than 100000
No data

Oe International migration | Ors International migration Place

e Contexts Contexts
|
in Singapore in Japan
* Singapore has a policy of encouraging Japan has an ageing and shrinking population
immigration because its fertility rate is low and (growth rate of minus 0.21% in 2017, with over
it has an ageing population. Population growth 25% of the population aged 65 years or older).
is 1% per year. Experts calculate that Japan needs 200000
° Immigration has helped Singapore’s population immigrants a year, as well as a fertility rate
grow to 5.6 million in 2017. Around 64% of above replacement level (i.e. an average of 2.1
Singapore’s population are foreign-born. children per woman), to maintain its economy
¢ Around 1.6 million people are non-resident and living standards.
(temporary migrant) population. Two-thirds of However, many Japanese people believe
this non-resident workforce is low-skilled increasing immigration would disrupt society
workers. Singapore has recruited these and increase crime. They also feel that
workers from neighbouring countries because restricting immigration has helped Japan to
of high demand in its construction, domestic avoid social issues and conflicts.
labour and manufacturing industries. The proportion of foreign-born people in Japan’s
° Singapore is very strict about the people population has risen (from O.7% in 1990 to
it considers for permanent resident status. 1.8% in 2016), but this proportion is very small
Usually, only skilled workers who should compared to other developed countries.
integrate well are considered. When babies are born to parents who were
° Low-skilled workers are treated more harshly. born abroad, they do not automatically
Immigrants must leave Singapore within become Japanese citizens — to do this
seven days of their contract ending. Nor are involves a naturalisation process.
immigrants allowed to marry Singaporeans After the 2008 financial crisis, Japan offered
foreign-born residents money to leave.

1. Explain why countries such as Singapore and Japan need immigration.

2. Explain why countries such as Singapore and Japan want to control immigration.
_Hadalook| | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | | “4 leve]
| Topic 8B
ligration patterns
The pattern of international migration changes because environmental, economic and political events
affect both the source areas of many migrants and their destinations.
|
i

The Lee model of migration

. In this model, migration occurs when the balance
of push and pull factors is strong enough to
_ overcome intervening obstacles. , :
\ Intervening obstacles
'* Patterns of migration may change in response to
__ environmental, economic or political change in + Positive factors
either the host or the home areas (or both). — Negative factors
O Neutral factors
‘Examples: a Origin (home) Destination (host)
| :
(a) environmental changes = natural hazards
‘(b) economic changes = recession and
~i high unemployment
(c) political changes = a country encouraging or
restricting immigration
Environmental and
economic changes
Change over time ° Environmental changes include impacts of
| Some significant historical migrations are: climate change such as sea level rise.
Vv ot ete eel miaration’ of Africans to Migrants are already leaving low-lying islands such
| She eee he ae as Kiribati to move to New Zealand.
-€.16th-19th centuries) : ° Economic changes influence voluntary migration.
Ww the economic migration of Europeans to For example, migration from Bangladesh, India
eet, feria in the period 18601910 and Pakistan to Qatar has increased because of
P recruitment of workers for the 2022 FIFA World
YY eight million refugees in Europe following Cup construction projects.
the end of the Second World War (1945) |
i Ww the movement of Muslims into Pakistan :
and Hindus and Sikhs into India following | €) mni
skills
e Flow-line maps '
eer Or india in 1947 | You should be able to interpret and extract
|W refugees fleeing war in Afghanistan in information from flow line maps. Here flow lines
the 1960s. show the direction of movement of migrations.
a Often the width of the arrow is drawn to a scale
representing the number of people moving.
Political changes aT DRTORS Re OTN
Political changes can be positive/pull factors
(for example, Canada’s welcoming immigration
policy), but political conflict is the main cause
of migration by refugees and asylum seekers.
An example is the Syrian civil war, which has
created
5 million refugees outside Syria. 1939000
refugees

Now try this )

248 503
refugees
— Se
; eid ( 24055
Suggest how international migration patterns Seine 132 375
— might be affected if the impacts of climate refugees
_ change increase.
a ee Eee ee e eee eee

241
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Causes of migration
Most migrants move for work or to join family members who have already migrated — voluntary migrants.
- Refugees are looking to escape conflict and poverty in their home country. Asylum seekers are people
who have left their own country because of a fear of persecution.

Economic migrants Migration corridors

* Most migrants are economic migrants. * Obstacles to migration are reduced when there
* Most migrants move to high-income countries is an established route for migrants to follow — «
(such as the USA, Saudi Arabia and the UK), migration corridor.
not from the poorest countries but from middle- ¢ An example is migration through Mexico to
income countries (such as India, Mexico, China reach the USA. A network of ‘connectors’ helps
and Russia). immigrants travel the route to where they can
° For example, India is the top country of origin for claim asylum, while people smugglers get others
migrants: 17 million are living abroad (2017). over the border.
* This is because migration is too expensive for * Migration corridors are a cause of migration,
poor people. Economic migrants are usually the as they mean people decide to migrate who
wealthier people in an area. would not otherwise do so. However, they are
also a consequence of the demand for migratior

° ee Place
OF Causes of the European migrant crisis
@ Conflict in Syria: a Other conflicts: Conflict in © Restrictive immigration
combination of civil war African countries such as Libya, policies: Many Syrian refugees
and the actions of the Sudan, South Sudan, Nigeria escaping conflict went first to
terrorist group ISIS led to and Somalia also added to the Turkey, where 2 million were
11 million people leaving migrant numbers. put into refugee camps.
their homes in Syria. Turkey’s immigration policy is
very strict. Immigrants are not
Causes of the allowed to work, so those that
Q Open immigration policies: European have not found a place in the
Following thousands of migrant crisis refugee camps have been
deaths of migrants crossing forced to work illegally,
the Mediterranean in sometimes in unsafe or
overcrowded boats, public unhealthy conditions.
opinion in many EU
countries switched to 4) EU opportunities: Refugees in
feeling sorry for the Turkey then triedto get to the EU,
migrants. Germany where there are more
declared it would take opportunities. They travelled
in 500 000 migrants along migration corridors by land
every year until 2020. (the Balkan corridor) and by sea.

Interpreting oral accounts from migrants

You should be able to use oral accounts from migrants to find out the reasons why they left their home —
area (push factors).

1. Identify three possible causes of migration.

2. What is the difference between an asylum seeker and a refugee?

242
 Hadalook| | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | | level]
Topic ap
Migration and economic theory
Five main theories help explain the economic reasons for migration in the global context.

Neoclassical economic theory Dual labour market The new economics of

The most significant push/pul! theory labour migration
factors are wage differences, which Pull factors in developed This stresses that migration
cause migration flows from countries bring migrant causes are more complex than
low-wage to high-wage areas. workers to fill the lowest- neoclassical theory suggests;
skilled jobs because the for example, a household in the
home population does source country may improve their
not wish to do this work. living conditions by using
World systems theory remittances sent by family
Trade between countries may members who are working abroad.
make one country richer and the
other poorer: e.g. former colonies
may stay dependent on their Relative deprivation theory
former colonial superpower. In Economic theories Awareness of income differences
these cases migration may about migration between neighbours in a source
occur along the trade routes — community is an important factor in
from poorer to richer. Free trade, migration. Successful migrants
with no dependencies, can make serve as examples for others in the
all participating countries richer source community and encourage
and therefore reduce migration. them to move.

Advantages of free movement Ore Regional movement of 4

Ww When there are lots of workers around,
people in the UK a”
wages fall because employers have no
problems filling jobs. This situation is good The UK has free movement of people within
for employers, but bad for workers. its borders.
When employers cannot find enough ¢ Between 2016 and 2017, 3.24 million
workers with the skills they need, they people moved from one part of England and
have to offer higher wages to attract Wales to another.
more people. This situation is bad for * Young adults (from 19 to 30 years) were
employers (their profits are cut), the most likely to move. Many of those aged
but good for workers. 19-22 years moved to attend or
This is why the free movement of labour is leave university.
popular with businesses. People will move to ¢ In England, London had the highest rate of
areas where they can get higher wages for out-migration. Most of the people leaving
the same job. Then wages can rebalance at London moved to other parts of the South
a lower rate. East. A major reason for this was very high
house prices in London.
* The East Midlands of England had the highest
rate of in-migration (movers per 1000
of population).

a a a a at a mr me eee eee eee ee eee ee eee ee

Now t

What impact might reducing numbers of low-skilled migrants entering a country have on:
| (a) wages for low-skilled work?
_ (b) businesses that rely on low-skilled workers?

| S mtn & Aom

th A

243
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Consequences of
international migration —
Migration changes the cultural and ethnic composition of nation states. However, the rate of assimilation
of migrants varies according to factors such as ethnicity and time. :

Ethnic and cultural composition

Diversity in London
Ethnic means relating to a particular group of
people who share common traditions/culture WY According to the 2011 Census:
because of living in the same geographic region. VW 37% of London residents were non-UK
It is not the same as race: race is biological nationals, from nearly 50 different nations
(e.g. being born Asian); ethnicity is cultural CG Of all regions of England and Wales,
(e.g. growing up in France). London had the lowest percentage of
International migration may not increase ethnic White British people: 45%
diversity in terms of race if migrants are from the
same race as the host country. Example: white
Y Eight out of the 10 most ethnically diverse
local authorities were in London.
Australians living in London are not changing its
racial composition.
International migration increases cultural diversity
because migrants bring different traditions and
lifestyles with them. For example, London’s
200000 Australians have influenced the city’s
nightlife, language and entertainment industries.

Assimilation Variations in the rate of assimilatio:

Cultural assimilation is the process by which Factors that affect the rate of assimilation include
immigrants take on the culture of their host time, ethnicity and state support.
country. One measure of it is proficiency in the * The amount of time that migrants are resident
official language of the host country. in the host nation has an impact on assimilation.
For example, the USA has experienced multiple For example, in 2011, 77% of those resident in
waves of immigration, with each wave taking time the UK for more than 30 years reported having
to assimilate but, in each case, developing a a UK identity, compared to only 10% for recent
recognisably American culture. arrivals (arriving 2OO7-11).
However, ‘assimilation’ is a problematic term. Ethnicity: For example, in the UK, English
Arguably, each wave of immigrants has also language proficiency was 69% among
changed what ‘American culture’ is. non-UK born residents, but 70% among
Assimilation of international migrants is seen by Bangladeshi-born residents and 62% among
some as proceeding too slowly. Chinese-born residents.
Assimilation of international migrants varies from State support: For example, where the
country to country and assimilation rates can also government funds translation services for
differ between different ethnic groups. government websites, recent migrants can bette
access information about their host country.
The same is true for state-funded language
training for recent migrants.

ss

ow try thi
Singapore is a multicultural country, with a mix of Chinese, Malay, Indian, Eurasian and Peranakan
ethnicities. While most Singaporeans speak their ethnic first language at home, everyone also speaks
‘Singlish’: a mix of English and local languages. How might ‘Singlish’ help explain assimilation in Singapore?

244
 Had a look : | Nearly there | | Nailed it! ey

Migration and tensions

Differences in perceptions of the impacts of migration

Migrants create economic opportunities Migrants take jobs that could have
by opening new businesses. gone to non-migrants Instead,

| Migrants contribute more taxes to the : Seana & Migrants send money to thelr eriqin
economy than they take in benefits, 3 2 country (remittanees) instead of
spending it in the host country,
| Migrants fill important gaps in the
| labour force, e.g. in health care. Different perceptions \ Migrants may accept lower wages for
of the impacts low-skilled jobs, whieh may mean lawer
Cultural diversity increases, making for wages for nen-migrants,
more interesting and vibrant
of migration
communities. Segregated areas are created that
noen-migrants feel excluded trem,
Local services are improved, e.g. more
shops, restaurants, cafes. More people in an area puts pressure
on health and edueation services,
| Because migrants are young, often
educated and skilled, employers Non-migrants feel the cultural ldentity
| benefit, e.g. the NHS in the UK, of places is under threat,

Ageing, declining populations are People perceive thelr country as

boosted by increased numbers, becoming erowded or ‘full’,

Ors Migration across the on 1) cae Migration between Plage

Contexts | Contexts
Mexico/US border EU states
Economic impact: * Free movement between EU states is a
Mexican immigrants contribute approximately fundamental right of EU citizens,
4% of total US GDP — their work is important In 2017, an average of 3,8% of all EU citizens
to the US economy. of working age were migrants,
@) The USA spent $3.6 billion on border * Opinions about migration between EU states
security in 2015. vary. The UK’s Brexit referendum (2016)
indicated strong differences of opinion about
Social/cultural impact:
the impact of migration,
ds Hispanic/Latino culture has made major
contributions to US cuisine (tacos, burritos),
media, music, religion, language.
By accepting lower wages, Hispanic migrants
have lowered wages for poorly educated,
low-skilled Americans, who resent this.
Demographic impact:
Hispanic migration has added 58 million Professionals Unskilled labourers
people to the USA's population (2016) and from Poland fram Poland

was the main reason for US population growth © Allow none @ Allowa few ® Allow some & Allow mary

since 2000. This offsets the effects of an

ageing US workforce.
Projections suggest white Americans will no
longer be the majority ethnic group by 2065.
This could affect US election results.

/ skills
Interpreting opinions
You need to be able to interpret a range of
opinions from a variety of sources on the
Suggest reasons why people often have different
contribution of migrants to the culture and
perceptions of the impacts of migration.
social life of two contrasting nations,

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Variations in opportunities
There are variations in the ability of people to migrate across national borders. These variations may be —
because of different levels of skill and income, and different opportunities to migrate.

Points-based immigration
* The ability of people to migrate to some
countries is often limited by points-based | Green Card Applicatio
can ncoeenen rent
immigration systems. For example, the UK
regulates migration with a system that prioritises
highly skilled workers who want to live and work
in Britain.
A points-based system awards points for different
skills that a person possesses. For example:
educational qualifications, professional experience,
age, lanquage skills. People may also need to earn
above a certain level in order to apply.

Shortage occupations
Points-based immigration systems often prioritise oe
applications for shortage occupations. These are 9) case|Examples from Australia's
jobs that not enough people in the country have points system
the skills to do. For example, Australia’s points-
based immigration system in 2018 indicated Age at 18-24: 25 points
27 professions for which Australia had a skills time of 25-32: 30 points
shortage, including: application: 33-39: 25 points

1. black toppers (skilled construction) yee: 15 P wnt

Z :
oints
2. milling machinists P
meres a English Score in English Language
S.sMectanle atergiNe i: language © Testing System (ELTS):
4. specialist power engineers ability: 8& or more: 20 points

iy Metal eet 7 or more: 10 points

6. data processing technicians.
6 or less: O points
Migrants with these skills would have a much better Educational | Doctorate (PhD): 20 points
chance of success than those without. |
qualification: |Degree (BA, BSc): 15 points
| Diploma: 10 points
Illegal migration
Some states do not have full control over their
borders. This is often due to:
long borders, especially coastlines (for example,
Greece, which also has many islands)
conflict that reduces central government
control over its country
conflict in neighbouring countries, which
strongly motivates people to migrate, and |
creates a market for people traffickers.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of points-based immigration systems to:
(a) host countries |
(b) origin countries? |

246
 Had a look Z Nearly there we Nailed it! La |

Nation states and their origins

Ration states are varied and have very different histories. Not all are internationally recognised.

| National unity? OF Diversity compared

| Y 5 neon a aad peitical entitygessting : Singapore is ethnically diverse. A key trade.
eas single, complete unit. hub in the British Empire, it brought many
/ A nation state has sovereignty over its different ethnicities together. The British
boundaries: it has complete freedom and divided Singapore into different ethnic areas.
power to govern over its territory. Singapore celebrates its CMIO diversity
A nation state has a collective identity (Chinese-Malay-Indian-Other). It has four
| from a shared history and (often) ethnicity. official languages plus Singlish.
| National unity (when people agree and feel | °® Iceland is ethnically homogenous.
| united) is complex. Factors affecting unity Around 2200km from mainland Europe, it is
| include the nation’s history of population isolated. Proud of their distinctive culture,
growth, the role of migration and the county’s Icelanders try to prevent words from other
geographical and cultural isolation. languages entering Icelandic: tdlva is Icelandic
for ‘computer’ — meaning ‘number’ and ‘seer’.

National borders
|-¢ :
National borders are often linked to physical
' Oe Iraq's colonial borders ,
geography: rivers, coastlines, watersheds in In 1916, the British and French made a
mountains. For example, part of the border between secret agreement to divide up parts of the
the USA and Mexico is the Rio Grande River. Middle East between them, called the Sykes-
|* Some borders are cultural: they mark the divide Picot Agreement. This went on to influence the
__ between ethnic groups or groups that have a borders of nation states, including Iraq.
different cultural identity. The border between
the Czech Republic and Slovakia is partly cultural.
-* Some borders are created to resolve political
crises: the heavily militarised border between
__ North Korea and South Korea was created as part
of the ceasefire in the Korean War (1950-53).
Contested borders LEBANON
Reasons for contested borders include: ISRAEL
. one state wanting to take over another — perhaps
_ because it does not recognise the other as a
legitimate country (North and South Korea)
'* a desire to unite a culturally and ethnically
similar population
:* a desire to gain access to valuable resources.
:

OES The Crimea Place

Contexts i)
* The Crimea was part of Russia for several centuries, before becoming part of Ukraine in 1954.
* When Ukraine’s pro-Russian president was driven out of the country in 2014, Russia annexed the Crimea. |
The Crimea’s population voted to join Russia, but few countries recognise Russia’s claim because all of
Ukraine should have voted on whether the Crimea was part of their
a Quis Y105not etythose in the Crimea.
—Ee——eEeEeEeEeEeEeEeEeeEEEEEE — SSS _

Now try this

Suggest three reasons why national unity may be difficult for a nation state to achieve.
i
: oe
» tate excimer net
B level Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |
Topic 8B

iSth-century nationalism |
Nationalism is the shared feeling for a special, significant geographical area; this may be expressed by
political identification with and a sense of belonging to a nation. Through the 19th century, growing
nationalism was important in the development of empires and a source of conflict.

19th-century nationalism and the development of empires :

™ England/UK
W@ France
B@ Portugal
® Spain
Mi Russia/USSR
—™® Ottoman Empire/Turkey
f@ Denmark
™@ Netherlands
— United States
@ Belgium
@ Italy
B® Germany
® Japan

Nationalism and empire Empires and colonies

* The British Empire began because of trade rather * Empires helped create nationalism in their
than nationalism. colonies. People living in colonies often resentec
* However, over time, pride in British achievements being controlled by another country.
and wealth created national unity. Most British * Independence movements brought people
people believed their huge empire proved the together who might not otherwise have felt
British were a special nation. they had much in common, perhaps because of
* Other European nations also began to form as different ethnicities. They were based on:
war and revolutions overturned Evrope’s dynastic dS recognising and promoting the shared history
elites. Germany became a nation in 1871 after and special qualities of a people
a war with France brought together many small & looking forward to the independent nation stat
states of German-speaking peoples. that the people could build together once they
* As Evropean nations industrialised, were free of colonial control.
their empires expanded. For example, the French
empire included modern Vietnam and Cambodia
and Laos in Asia, much of north, west and central Ps
Africa, and French Polynesia in the South Pacific. @) Case Nationalism in India
* The European nations competed to take over India was part of the British Empire.
more colonies. This created tension and Before it was part of the Empire, what is now
conflicts between nations that added to the India was divided into several kingdoms.
etrabigeascsnatlonslisn; Opposition to British rule helped bring Indians
together despite the many ethnic and cultural
differences between Indian peoples.
$e
——

Naw try this

Explain two ways in which empires increased nationalism in the 19th century.

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New nation states since 1945

Since 1945, many new nation states have emerged as empires disintegrated. This has caused conflicts.

Decolonisation
Independence movements in many colonies gained Oe The ‘wind of change’ Place
Contexts
strength after the Second World War. There were Most British colonies in Africa became
two reasons for this: independent nations in the 19GOs. The Prime
, After the cost of fighting the war, countries Minister, Harold Macmillan, said ‘the wind of
such as Britain and France could no longer change is blowing through this continent’ (Africa).
afford the administrative and security costs The new nations faced serious challenges:
of running an empire. The British left without establishing a secure
The Cold War superpowers — the USA and government. The military often seized power.
the USSR — were both ideologically opposed The economies of former colonies had been
to empires and used their influence to help constructed to supply raw materials to the
oppressed people liberate themselves empire and were not industrialised.
from colonialism.
Ethnic and political differences within and
The support for independence, and the inability between nations produced conflicts.
of colonial powers to stop liberation movements
Superpowers tried to gain influence in new
by force, meant the creation of new independent
nations, which increased corruption.
nation states was rapid.

OF Post-colonial conflict in Vietnam

Place
Contexts

1) In the 1950s, the Vietnamese, led by

the communist Ho Chi Minh, fought
for independence against the French.
2 The French were defeated and leit Vietnam. But the
USA supported an anti-communist regime in South
Vietnam.

A civil war broke out in Vietnam

4) Vietnam was divided into North between north and south. The
Vietnam and South Vietnam in USA aided South Vietnam. The
1954. In 1975 North Vietnam ° USS d China aided th
defeated South Vietnam. The The Vietnam war a
|
Pe
North. The superpowers
ee
country was unified under a ‘fought’ each other without
communist leadership actually going to war.

Compare global maps

pone. main ade with

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New state forms

Globalisation has led to the deregulation of capital markets and the emergence of new state forms,
such as low-tax regimes: tax havens.

The emergence of new state forms

¢ National governments have reduced restrictions
on who can invest in their countries, in order to
encourage more foreign direct investment (FDI).
-* This free movement of money has encouraged
TNCs to move parts of their operations to the
nations charging lower rates of tax.
° Some nations offer very low tax regimes: called
tax havens, people move their homes and money
there to ‘shelter’ it from government taxation.

=
Ways of avoiding tax Os Examples of tax havens
and tax avoidance
* lreland offers companies a rate of 12.5%
corporation tax, compared to 20% in the UK.
Ireland has received over £180 billion of US
FDI over the last 20 years: more than US
Tax havens offer different methods of tax investment in all four BRICSs combined.
avoidance, for example: ¢ Luxembourg has a special tax break that allows”
CO Corporate profit-shifting is when a TNC companies to save millions in tax payments
locates its headquarters in a low-tax in Luxembourg on profits earned in other
country and registers its profits there. countries. More than 40000 TNC holding
companies have located in Luxembourg to
VY Individuals can move to a tax haven and
benefit from this.
live there. This is not always popular, as
people like to live in their home country. * The Cayman Islands have O% personal income
tax and low business taxes. Forty of the
Ww Individuals can remain living in their home
world’s top investment banks have
country but can invest their money in a
Resear crein theorem Islands.
trust in a tax haven. ee SPE

Advantages and disadvantages of tax havens and tax avoidance

Countries that offer tax incentives can Investing abroad reduces the amount of
develop quickly or, like Ireland, recover from money left to invest at home.
severe recessions more quickly.
Tax havens allow individuals to hide
Most governments and |IGOs accept income from their own governments —
tax havens and tax avoidance because increasing corruption in both
of the boost to economic growth that developed and developing countries.
they deliver.
TNCs make huge profits in countries
When TNCs are located in several like the UK, but pay very little tax,
different nations, it would not be fair to which means less money for
tax them in full in each one. government services, e.g. the NHS.

——————————

‘New try this

Suggest reasons why most governments and IGOs accept the emergence of tax havens.
_ :

250
 Had a look E | Nearly there i Nailed it! Pa A level]
Tepic ep
Growing global inequalities
Growing global inequalities are recognised as a threat to the sustainability of the global economic system.
Some governments have promoted alternative models.

Growing inequalities
Inequality has been increasing in some regions and
nations since 1990.
9 se Geographical
skills
The Gini coefficient
* The Gini coefficient is a measure of the
Sub-Saharan Africa distribution of wealth within a population of
Latin America and the Caribbean a country as a way of demonstrating how
Middle East and North Africa much equality there is. It is measured on a
Developed countries
scale of O to 100, with 100 being the highest
inequality. (The Gini index uses the same data
Developing Asian countries
but uses a scale of O to 1 instead.)
Industrial Asia
¢ There is usually greater wealth inequality within
Emerging and Developing Europe
developed countries due to higher incomes in
India
the upper quintile and decile.
China
1

=9) O 5 20

8) cass|An alternative model? Place |

Contexts
Since 2009, Bolivia’s socialist government
has used wealth to reduce inequalities.
Consequences of inequality Policies include:
‘In 2016, Oxfam calculated that the world’s * nationalising oil and other resources, so that
62 richest people have a combined income revenues go to the government rather than to
equal to that of the poorest 3.6 billion people. private owners and shareholders
The consequences of this include: * subsidising costs for poorer citizens, so the
&) unequal access to quality education government pays to make food cheaper than it
& reduced life expectancy for the poorest
otherwise would be
* promoting low-energy and low resource-use
ite low-pay, low-skill jobs with no prospects
economies: rejecting economic growth
& increased physical and mental health problems * import substitution: reducing imports by
for the poorest producing more products in Bolivia.
political instability as people reject the &) Bolivia’s policies have reduced inequality: from
established political classes who they identify Gini index of 63 in 2000 to 45.6 in 2015.
with the rich elite. yy Import substitution has boosted the
economy: growth is above 4% per year.
Political instability Its GDP per person of $3393 remains the
lowest in South America.
President Trump’s political base includes
working-class voters who felt ‘left behind’ & Although Bolivia rejects the West’s economic
as a result of global shifts in manufacturing. model, state budgets are dependent on
Protecting ‘America first’ threatened the global international oil and gas prices.
economic system based on free movement of
capital, goods and people. Trump’s trade war
| with China in 2019 threatened global growth.

Why does growing inequality threaten the

sustainability of the global economic system?

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The United Nations |

The United Nations was the first post-1945 IGO and was established to help reduce the tensions in the
world that had previously led to the First and Second World Wars. Its record of success has been mixed.
The UN Development The Food and Agriculture
Programme (UNDP) Organization (FAO)
® coordinates economic and * promotes agricultural development
social development. and food security.

The UN Environment
Programme (UNEP)
Ae
The UN’s role in
Ee The World Health
— Organization (WHO)
* global governance on
global governance ¢ works for international
environmental issues. health: largely eradicated
polio, river blindness and
leprosy worldwide.
The Office of the United
Nations High Commissioner The World Food
for Refugees (UNHCR)
Programme (WFP)
* provides food aid to The UN Population Fund
* protects the rights of
20 million people in * combats HIV,
refugees, asylum seekers
6&0 countries. funds family planning services.
and stateless people.

UN interventions
The UN assembly provides a forum for countries to
Oe Iran sanctions Contexts |
discuss their differences instead of fighting about S The UN’s economic sanctions against 4
them. However, when discussion and diplomacy are Iran from 2006 aimed to stop Iran from
not enough, the UN has hard power options: continuing its nuclear weapons programme.
* economic sanctions, which reduce a nation’s In 2016 Iran agreed to stop enriching
ability to trade uranium in return for a lifting of the sanctions.
* military interventions, in which UN peacekeeping However, the USA pulled out of the scheme in
forces go into conflict zones to help stop 2016, with destablising impacts.
further fighting. & UN peacekeeping forces were sent to Bosnia
in 1993 to protect the Muslim population
from ethnic cleansing. A safe zone was
established in Srebrenica, but in 1995 the UN
peacekeepers did not stop the massacre of
6000 Bosnian Muslims in Srebrenica.

Independent interventions
Some UN member states have intervened in OF The Iraq War, 2003-11 @
In 2003 the USA led the UK and other ‘SB
> Contexts
other countries independently of the UN and
without UN agreement. allies in an invasion of Iraq as part of its ‘War
° These interventions often happen when member on Terror’, despite the UN Security Council
states get frustrated with UN inaction or delays. not authorising this intervention. A short-term
¢ UN Security Council members often have different military success was followed by a deeply
geopolitical interests, which can mean proposed damaging civil war in lraq, which destabilised the
interventions get voted down. region, strengthened Iran and allowed the rapid
° However, the impacts of independent growth of ISIS.
interventions have often been negative:
pear) Ie aes relations.

ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee SF

1. Describe the UN’s role in global governance.

2. Why do some countries still intervene in other countries rather than leave it to the UN?

252
aa
i
e
_e
 Had alock | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | | 4 level]
Topic gp
IGOs and world trac 4e
IGOs have controlled world trade operations since 1945. Some policies have been problematic for
developing countries.

‘The IMF, WB and WTO

_The Bretton Woods Agreement (1944) created a system of rules for managing the international
monetary system, based on linking national currencies to the US dollar and following a free trade agenda,
in which regulations limiting free trade are removed. It established the IMF and what became the
World Bank.

Member countries pay money into Member countries pay money into a fund, The World Trade Organization brings |
the International Monetary Fund, which is then used to invest in developing countries together to agree
which is then used to make loans countries. Richer countries pay in more than reductions in tariffs and to
to countries in crisis so that they poorer ones, and in return have more influence standardise more products, all with |
can continue to operate. in the World Bank’s decision-making process. the aim of promoting free trade
around the world.

1GOs and reducing poverty

_* Because the biggest contributors to the IMF
2)85 SAPs: Jamaica Place |
and World Bank — developed countries — controlled Contexts |
decision-making in these IGOs, they benefitted In the 1970s, Jamaica built up debts
most from IGO trade policies and borrowing rules. paying for social programmes. Then interest
World Bank loans to developing countries for rates soared in the 1980s.
large-scale development projects in the 1970s The IMF and World Bank imposed SAPs
were hit by high interest rates in the 1980s. in return for the loans Jamaica needed to
Developing countries struggled to meet their stabilise its struggling economy.
debt obligations. Jamaica’s government brought in higher
. The World Bank and IMF used Structural taxes and caps on wages, prices and imports,
Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) to help then devalued the currency.
_ struggling countries, but SAPs came with SAPs had a negative social impact: people
_ conditions — most of which involved removing could not afford to buy food, fuel, clothing.
barriers to free trade, which benefitted Health care and education spending were cut.
_ developed countries. In 1985 there were riots.
The SAPs also failed to achieve their goals of
9) cass|Trading blocs ao economic development for Jamaica:
Contexts |
The Jamaican economy was producing less
Almost all nations have signed up to the y
than before the SAPs.
IMF, WB and WTO IGOs, but trading blocs,
such as the Evropean Union, have added regional &) Jamaica’s debts had grown to be 180% of
trade agreements. GDP (they were 61% in 1979).
Another example is USMCA -— the United States- Paying interest on the debts took up 25%
Mexico-Canada Agreement, which was signed by of Jamaica’s export earnings.
all three countries in 2018. USMCA: In 1996 the World Bank and IMF started
* agrees tariff-free trade on specific products the Heavily Indebted Poor Country initiative
(HIPC), which reduced the debt of the poorest
* includes protection for US and Canadian car
countries. This has helped 36 countries (30
workers from competition from low-wage
of them in Africa). Jamaica did not qualify for
production in Mexico: 40-45% of a car has to
HIPC and remains heavily indebted.
be made by workers earning a minimum of $16
per hour. In 2013 the IMF provided a $1 billion loan
to Jamaica — but with the conditions of a pay
freeze, which amounted to a 20% wage cut.

What are the advantages and disadvantages for a nation of being in a trade bloc?

253
 Had alook |_| Nearly there [ | Nailed it! | |
|i
|

IGOs: the environment _

IGOs have been set up to manage environmental problems. But, agreements require support from all nations

Oe The Montreal Protocol @

* In 1973 scientists discovered that CFCs were 450

thinning the ozone layer. This increased people’s 2400 > Nga Community (25)
exposure to harmful UV radiation from the Sun. 8 S 350 |
° The Montreal Protocol on substances that os pal
deplete the ozone layer was negotiated by the Bre o00.)
UN over 14 years and came into force in 1989. O85 "on |
The Protocol phased out the production of CFCs. gs 7007
¢ The Protocol was ratified by 197 countries — the = 50
first universally ratified treaty in UN history. Of
This was vital for its success. 1986 HER ee C000) eee
° It is now expected that the ozone layer will be
fully recovered by 2070.

€) fePiterety crim YOu need to evaluate source materials to determine the impact of IGOs
emits managing global environmental issues. Always consider the reliability and
accuracy of the source material.

Contexts
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (1975) is an international
agreement organised by IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) to manage trade in wild
animals and plants.
° Legal trade in wild animals and plants, alive and dead, is worth $300 billion each year. Illegal trade is
worth an estimated $19 billion. Both are contributing to significant loss of biodiversity worldwide.
° CITES took 12 years of negotiations to agree. By 2016, 182 countries were signatories.
° More than 35000 species of animals and plants are now protected under CITES.
CITES is a success in recording the trade in wild animals and plants and managing the species that
can be traded legally to protect endangered species. However, protecting species from illegal trade
is hard to do. Foreae eRecuonce ofUden vegetaken across borders ismeg ee
ceieeneitedhineaientietediainiaibla

ORR UNCLOS
un (UN) | OER x.Helsinki Rules (UN)
UNCLOS (the UN Convention on the Law The Helsinki Rules on the Uses of Waters
of the Sea) is an agreement about how nations | of International Rivers (1966) provides guidelines
should manage use of the oceans. UNCLOS: _ on the use of rivers and groundwaters that cross
* came into force in 1994 and by 2016 was | taigeeomiaaeS:
ratified by 166 nations and the EU | The MEA
° sets coastal boundaries within which nations The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)
have exclusive resource rights | (2001) studies ecosystems and reports on changes
° controls resource use in international waters. | andet ibeheeenvironmental and human impacts.
SSsaateataiannahahdnaadieiatabaadaen aemnmadaaenandaiaianamaeiaenemeaenaandeemeienaden

cry (255
low Blbabellbetebelelelteletetetatebeteitesrie
Why is successful management of global environmental problems difficult to achieve?

254
 Had a look |_| Nearly there a Nailed it! ||

The Antarctic Treaty

@

9) Sass|International cooperation in managing Antarctica as a continent of peace and science |

is perhaps the best example of successful |GO management of environmental issues.
nad caaateedaaie hada

Antarctica: a history
A > A °
* For centuries, Antarctica’s hostile environment
meant no human presence on the continent.
rz Exploration only really began in the early
20th century.
-* By the 1950s, advances in technology meant the
continent was surveyed and 50 scientific bases
had been set up by 12 different nations.
© At this point, nine of the nations claimed territory
_ in Antarctica, but these claims were disputed or
not agreed.
* Tensions increased, which put valuable New Zealand
international scientific research in Antarctica unclaimed
under threat.

Antarctica

The Antarctic Treaty (1959) Terms of the Antarctic Treaty

* The Treaty was the result of an international ° All military activity is banned in Antarctica.
research programme in Antarctica called the ° Scientific cooperation is encouraged and
International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957-8. countries should have the freedom to carry out
* In 1959, the Antarctic Treaty was signed by scientific research in Antarctica.
the 12 nations involved in Antarctica: Argentina, * Territorial claims made by different nations are
Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, not disputed, provided that nations do not
New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the UK, increase their claims or try to reduce other

* These nations agreed that international * Planned expeditions to Antarctica need to be

scientific cooperation in Antarctica must not be announced in advance.
jeopardised by conflict over territory.

| Success of the Antarctic Treaty Extensions to the Antarctic Treaty

WY Additional components now means the
a & The number of countries signed up to the
Treaty has become the Antarctic Treaty
Treaty has now increased from 12 to 53.
System: for example, an Environmental
| ey There have been no territorial disputes. Protocol (1998).
| = No military activities have occurred. CO All parties to the Treaty meet annually
|. & Scientific research in Antarctica has to agree issues and produce protocols
been vital for recognising and tackling protecting the environment, managing
atmospheric environmental problems. | tourism and collecting meteorological
and hydrographic data.

Now cory LEAR hated tates

Explain why the Antarctic Treaty is considered an example of successful international environmental management.
_-

255
zB level Had a look gs Nearly there & Nailed it! EE
gopic 82

National identity
Nationalism is complex: it remains powerful but often it is hard to define exactly what makes up national
_identity. For some, national identity is threatened by migration and globalisation.

How is nationalism reinforced?

Sport
For example, the opening ceremony of the
2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games in
London made many Brits proud of Britain.

Education Politics
For example, schools in For example, Britain’s exit
What from the EU was a rejection
England and Wales teach
‘British values’, e.g. reinforces of internationalism in favour of
the importance of nationalism? | national freedoms, e.g. over
English law. immigration, trade.

History History
For example, pride in Britain’s role in Nationalism is often strengthened
the Second World War is an important by perceived threats. For example,
part of British nationalism. threats of increased immigration.

National identify and loyalty Multinational identities

Identity and loyalty can be linked to various factors:
Most countries are now multinational, containing
* Legal systems: For example, English common many contrasting ethnic groups. As a result,
law provides different ideas of justice from questions of national identity and loyalty have
European civil law systems. become complex.
* Governance: For example, in Britain the right The 2011 Census asked respondents: ‘How would
to vote for representation in Parliament is a key you describe your national identity?’
part of ‘British values’.
CO Some 192% of the population described their
° National ‘character’: For example, British identity as British. Another 10% included
identity is often linked to characteristics such British along with another national identity.
as fair play, creativity, politeness, tea.
Ww London had the highest percentage of the
population describing itself as British (36%)
and the lowest percentage describing
itself as English (43%). London is the most
Oe Identity and Place '
ethnically diverse part of Britain.
Contexts |
landscape Cf The North East of England had the highest
percentage of people describing their
Identity may be tied to landscape, for identity as English (60%). The North East has
example, many artists, writers and poets have a high percentage of people describing their
celebrated the English countryside as a key ethnicity as White.
element of national (English?) identity.
Ww The religious group least likely to describe
themselves as British were Christians (15%)
while the most likely to describe themselves
as British were Sikhs (62%).

1. Explain ways in which nationalism is reinforced.

2. Why do you think identification as British is higher in ethnically diverse areas?

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Had alook([ | Nearly there | | Nailed it!| |

Challenges to national identity

> : §
| e e e be)

! Peeec on eetain’ OF Foreign ownership in (>

. Cf ‘Made in Britain’ is a component of . the UK car industry Contexts |
‘| _ British national identity with links to
pride in British manufacturing and an Brand Location in Ownership
. appeal to “buy British’ to help support UK (region)
Saag a
| Cf ae ee Bentley Midlands Germany
IANS ritain’, however, is an Ford Sauchieace USA
increasingly complex concept because
many firms operating in Britain are monde Bours vegan
foreign-owned, with profits made in Jaguar Land Rover | Midlands India
Britain transferred to other countries, Midlands China
and tax liabilities to the British
eee South East Germany
government reduced to their minimum.
7 — oa Nissan North East Japan
r VW British-owned companies in the UK are ;
| also often assembling products using Rls ROvee Midlands Permany
parts made in other countries in a Toyota Midlands Japan
complex supply chain. Vauxhall Midlands and | USA
North West

Ss) Non-national ownershi : <a

Oe P mee «86 Westernisation
of property
‘Westernisation’ is the term used for the
* Foreign ownership of property and land is collective dominant influence of TNCs from the
_ increasing in countries such as the UK, USA and Europe — the ‘West’.
q where the property market offers good
: * These TNCs can outcompete national brands
returns on investment.
on price (economies of scale) and marketing,
¢ Non-national ownership of property inthe UK meaning that ‘western’ brands replaces
is much higher in London than anywhere else. notionatones
° In 2014 it was estimated pet 10% of * Western TNC ‘soft power’ also impacts on
altee erent on ey onder cultural values: the US retail model is the
(or ‘Londongrad’) wee Russian. shopping mall, which has now been replicated
° The Qatar Investment Authority (QIA) is across the world.
London's gest erty owner In 201, a * US TNCs such as Disney dominate much of global
had invested £30 billion in the UK, most of it entertainment (film, music), affecting national
in London. QlA-owned property includes The cultural identity.
Shard, Canary Wharf and the Olympic Village.
* Foreign property investment has pushed up
property prices in London, making housing
unaffordable for some. iy
* The concept that British people cannot afford aes °
_ to live in Britain’s capital city is perceived as a © Now try this
threat to national identity.

a Is foreign ownership of companies and property a

| You should be able to f| challenge to national identity? Explain your answer.
analyse source material
ify errors related to the costs
2enefits of foreign ownership, such as
y, land or businesses.

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Disunity within nations

Disunity can arise due to strong nationalist movements within states, political tensions within emerging
nations because of winners and losers from globalisation, and when states ‘fail’.

Independence movements
° Many nations, including the UK, face internal
9) oa Catalonia Place
Contexts

pressures from regions wanting independence

from the state.
* This pressure comes from political movements
motivated by nationalism.
* This is not nationalism for the nation state but
for the new independent state that movements
want to create.
Often there is an ethnic dimension to this
nationalism, and/or a cultural distinctiveness,
for example, language.
Nation states often respond by devolving In a 2017 referendum, Catalonia in north-eastern
(giving) powers to the region. Spain voted to become independent, but Spain
declared the referendum illegal (0% of the
Independence movements in Europe often still
votes were to leave Spain).
support EU membership, as the EU helps smaller
Catalan nationalism has increased as its economy
states to prosper.

eee You should be able to

Failed states
skills analyse source material
to assess the role of governments and their In failed states, government is taken over
success in promoting national identity. completely by an elite that then does nothing for
the country’s population. The government:
& loses control over its territory
Political tensions in
has no authority to make decisions for
emerging economies the country
° Emerging economies, such as the BRIC &) cannot provide public services.
nations, have developed rapidly by benefitting
Any sense of national identity is usually lost
from globalisation. as the country divides into warring groups (often
° However, the benefits and costs of globalisation ethnic and/or religious). ,
have not been equally shared, causing resentment
in disadvantaged regions/social groups.
* These problems are made worse by weak Oe Yemen: a failed state
government institutions in some emerging An uprising against the government in 2011 was
economies, meaning there is little control over followed by a separatist movement in the north of
corruption, pollution, crime. Yemen. Military elites backed by different regional
powers have battled for control in a civil war.
1) cae|Disunity in Brazil A crisis has resulted, with 6 million suffering
famine, 16 million without clean water, and
Brazil hosted the World Cup in 2014 but instead 1 million victims of cholera. The cholera epidemic
of boosting national unity, there were protests is the worst ever recorded.
at the $15 billion spent on the tournament when
Brazil was struggling with corruption, crime,
the Zika virus and rising food prices.
In 2018, Brazil elected a far-right president
who promised to restore national pride and
end corruption. Explain factors that can increase disunity within a
nation. Use relevant examples.

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 Had a look a Nearly there |_| Nailed it! ae

skills l
These A level exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for the Migration, Identity and
Sovereignty topic in Paper 2. Remind yourself of the content on pages 240 to 259.

srked example
Option choice questions
1. Explain one change in the pattern of AL)
ea fonal mipration. Migration, Identify and Sovereignty is an
A level-only topic. It is the last question on
(4 marks) Paper 2 (Question 6) and is an option choice:
War in Syria has changed the pattern of international do not answer questions on both this topic and ©
migration. This is because people migrate to escape Health, Human Rights and Intervention! |
conflicts. Before the war in Syria, there was not
very much migration from this country. However,
as the war intensified, millions of people migrated Marks for this question are awarded for
_ to neighbouring countries, such as Turkey, and also uy one valid way (1 mark) plus a relevant
through Hungary into the EU. example (Syria) (1 mark), plus extension to
consider why it was a change (1 mark) plus
2. Study Figure 1. Suggest ways in which national Ga accurate knowledge of some countries
identity is challenged by globalisation. atfected by the migration (1 mark).
(6 marks)

(uy Marks for these G-mark ‘suggest’

questions are split into 3 marks for AO'
(which is about demonstrating knowledge
and understanding), and 3 marks for AO2
(which is about applying knowledge and
understanding). One valid way to approach
them is therefore to suggest three ways,
each developed to show understanding
—— with extra detail or an example.
Figure 1: Cartoon criticising globalisation (uy

6-mark ‘suggest’ questions will have a

Figure 1 challenges globalisation by pointing out
resource, such as a graph or map or table
the contrast between someone being something
of data — or possibly a cartoon such
nationalistic while consuming only US brands.
as this one — for you to study before
The brands of US TNCs such as McDonald’s have
you write your answer When you have a
had a massive impact on markets all round the
world. This impact of globalisation has challenged
question with a resource, the resource
national identity by making cultures more uniform can sometimes look difficult because you
(Americanised’) and reducing the importance of haven't seen it before. Take time to look
national brands and cultural variations, for example, at it carefully though, because it will often
in the way people consume food. Disney is an have plenty of relevant information for you
example of how globalisation can have cultural to use in your answer — the resource is
influences: for example, the popularity of Disney there to help you.
in Asia means children often identify more
with Disney princes and princesses than with
characters from their own culture. When y you are answering a G-mark
question based on a resource, using
Money moves grown he werd without Panels Rie information from the resource gives you
because of globalisation; this means companies AO2 marks, while adding in your own
that were once part pia nation’s identity can Ed inpornweian Ane eee esa en ettes
up being owned by foreign governments or foreign
TNCs. An example of this is the ‘British’ Land
Rover, which is owned by an Indian company.

259
B level Had a look | | Nearly there ee Nailed it! E!

ExXa
AY skills Z
These exam-style questions provide guidance on preparing for Topic &b in Paper.2.

example
b|
)

Worked —
tions
8-mark ‘explain ques
3. Explain why immigration causes These questions are looking for a wider
political tension. (8 marks)
range of geographical ideas than the 4-mark
Businesses often support immigration because it ‘explain one...’ question on the previous
provides economic benefits — migrants are often page. This would usually mean at least two
willing to work for lower wages than longer-term ideas or themes, and more like three or four.
residents, and more willing to take on demanding a

(but low-paid) jobs that are otherwise difficult to

fill. An example is fruit and vegetable pickers from
EU countries who are used by British farmers.
However, this causes political tensions because
local people object to competition with migrants
for jobs, and to the way that employers offer
lower wages for jobs because of migrants.
Immigration also increases diversity, which has
many benefits for countries as a whole.
For example, many developed countries have
ageing populations as fertility declines, due
to factors such as more women in high-paying
careers and increasing costs of childcare.
Immigration increases fertility, again because 20-mark ‘evaluate’ questions ;
migrants tend to have more children. However, this There is no single correct answer to the
causes political tension because some longer- 20-mark ‘evaluate’ questions: a student who
term residents feel ‘their’ area no longer reflects agreed with the statement could get full
their identity. They may also object to migrants marks, and so could a student who disagreed
using public services such as health and education, with the statement. What you would be
because these services become over-stretched. getting marks for is using what you know to —
develop a balanced, clear-to-follow argument
4. ‘As the global economy develops, it is AL) that makes a substantiated judgement — that
inevitable that inequalities will increase.’ means a judgement that is backed up by your
Evaluate this statement. (20 marks) arguments and evidence.
Supporting statement: inequalities have
increased within countries, e.g. China rural
vs urban. Low-tax regimes encouraged by
globalisation, e.g. Cayman Islands.
Some countries have not benefitted as much
from globalisation, e.g. Central African
Republic (landlocked).
Against statement: according to the World
Bank, nearly 1.1 billion fewer people were living in
extreme poverty in 2015 compared to 1990.
Not inevitable: because governments can take
action to limit inequality, for example, Bolivia
reduced inequality from Gini 63 to 45.8 in
2000-15 (though with cost to growth).

Conclusion: inequality is not inevitable but

combatting it comes at a price

260
 Had a look a Nearly there | | Nailed it! || A level
Topic gp

practice
Practise for Paper 2 of your A level exam. Afterwards see suggested answers on page 315.

1. Study Figure 1 below. Your exams will provide plenty of visual

140
information. Don’t be afraid of making notes,
circling or highlighting on the resources, to
<@ help you formulate your answers.
100

Timing
You must make sure that you leave enough
time to do the 20-mark questions well.
For shorter answer questions, allow about
(ODP)
1986
tonnes,
one minute per mark — this will then leave
about 25 minutes for you to write your
Consumption
potential
ozone-depleting
in
answer to a 2O-mark question.

Figure 1: Consumption of ozone-depleting substances in The World Bank and IMF have used
(a) the 26 EU member states plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs)
Norway, Switzerland and Turkey (the EEA33) and to help struggling nations deal with severe
(b) the world as a whole economic problems. They impose conditions
in return for large loans of money.
(a) Suggest one reason for the difference in AL)
reduction of ozone-depleting substances
between the EEA and world shown in In this 6-mark ‘explain’ question there are no
Figure 1. (3 marks) marks available for discussing whether SAPs
, achieved any good things: focus on criticisms.
(b) Explain why the Montreal Protocol was AL) Include at least two relevant themes or
es 2oabol reducing ideas that are discussed in detail and fully
production and consumption of CFCs
by 50% by 1999. (8 marks) poe Chee, using a case study if relevant.

2. Explain why Structural Adjustment = ;

Programmes have been criticised. AL] Examiners want to see evaluation of the view
(8 marks) v 7 or the statement from different angles.
Flag these by saying ‘A point that supports
3. Evaluate the view that migration is a threat AL) the view..., or ‘In contrast, ...’, for example.
to national identity. pears oe st oma
(20 marks)
W Relevance is as important in longer answer
questions as it is in short answer questions,
50 make sure you stick to the topic.
For example, the focus of this question
4. Evaluate the view that global governance AL, nse peace Aa a
by the United Nations has more weaknesses ; dali a
than strengths (20 marks) identity, not about competition with
migrants over jobs or public services.

Answering A level ‘evaluate’ questions

Your answers must:
Cf demonstrate accurate and relevant geographical knowledge and understanding
Gf apply this to geographical ideas/information in a logical way with relevant connections
produce a full, relevant and coherent interpretation of the question with support of evidence
Vi reach a rational and evidenced conclusion, fully supported by a balanced argument that supports |
a judgement.

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 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Statistical tests
Spearman's rank
-One of the statistical methods that you should be able to use is Spearman’s rank, which tests for a
correlation between two factors. All formulas will be provided in the exam. Also, remember that equal
values are given the mean rank of their positions. On the VEI scale below there are three values of 6
occupying rank positions 1, 2 and 3.1 + 2 + 3 = G then divide by 3 = 2 (the mean).
Null hypothesis (H,): There is no significant relationship between the scale of a volcanic eruption and
the financial costs of damage caused (i.e. no link between VEI scale and damage caused).
Alternative hypothesis (H,): There is a significant relationship between the scale of a volcanic
eruption and the financial costs of damage (i.e. the more powerful the volcanic eruption, the higher
the financial costs of damage caused).

Formula: R. = 1 —- 62d?
Z n>—n
Table 1: Correlation between (VEI scale) and damage costs ($m)

Eruption VEI Damage poe oa |r

Volcano |_year__|_ scale Rank | costs ($m)
Unzen IDE 2/3 17 150 ike 4 16
Krakatoa 1883 6 —
Pelée 1902 4
Santa Maria 1902 | 6
Mt St Helens 1980 4/5
Galunggung 1962 4
El Chichén 1982 5
Gamalama 1983 3
Nevado del Ruiz 1985 3
Unzen 1991 1
Pinatubo (STE 6
Rabaul 1994 4
Soufriére Hills EIS) 3
Tungurahua 2006 | 3
Merapi 2010 4
Eyjafjallajokull 2010 4
Puyehue-Cordén Caulle 2011 4
Calbuco 2015 4 9 600 6 3 |Sot
[n=18 | =
Student’s t-test The formula for Student’s t-test is:

It is also possible to further test the difference (X= 5)

between two samples using Student’s t-test. 1 FNS
* The null hypothesis is always that two sample in, a im
means are the same. where:

* The alternative hypothesis is that there is a X, and x, = the means of each sample (use only the
significant difference between the sample means. positive value of the difference)
5, and 5, = the standard deviations of each sample
n, and n, = the number of values in each sample.
Now try this

1. Complete the blank cells for Krakatoa and Unzen. _Remenber to

showeach
stage
ofyour
working,
2. Calculate the correlation using the Spearman’s rank formula.

262
 Had a look | | Nearly there i Nailed it! |_|
eegraphi ileal

Skil)ls

Wiass balance and GIS

Measure changes to glaciers through mass balance calculations and use of GIS images.

Calculating mass balance

The net mass balance (b) of a glacier can be calculated by finding the difference between annual
accumulation (c) and ablation (a), so b = c + a. Net mass balance includes variations according to season,
altitude and position in a glacier over a year. Mass balance is measured in metres of water equivalent
(mw.e.) loss or gain in ice thickness.
Most mass balances have decreased since 1980 with more ablation than accumulation because of global
warming, especially in temperate climates.

Table 1: Mass balance data for selected world glaciers, 2016 (except Mittivakkat, 2015)

| Martial Este Argentina

1.720 -3.230
3.200 -3.700
A positive mass balance will move the equilibrium line to a lower altitude, while a negative mass balance will
move it towards a higher altitude.

Remember that in a calculation if you add a negative this Remember that some GIS images use false colours or
means take away. eames colours to help show patterns.
A SR RIT wo

Using GIS images to show qlavier health

Below are Landsat satellite images of Quelccaya ice cap, Peru in 1968 and 2010.

meltwater lakex— “
fe By
its

Look for change in the two GIS images showing ice cap and glacier health: colours are helpful. Compare the area
of brighter white/light blue, which shows the amount of snow cover on the ice cap and glaciers. Is there a change?
Look at the amount of mid-blue colour around the edges, the more there is, the more snow has melted. Look at the
length of the tongues of ice (glaciers) protruding from the ice cap. If they have got shorter, then ablation has been
taking place (use the scale line to work out the distance they have retreated). Dark blue/black areas at the ends of
glaciers or on the fringes of the ice cap. Show meltwater lakes,
a a

1. (a) Use the data in Table 1 to calculate the 2016 net mass balance for the Sarennes and Martial Este glaciers
(in metres of water equivalent). (b) Which glacier was closest to equilibrium in 2016?
2. Use the satellite images to describe the health of the Quelccaya ice cap.

® mes o Am rh 4 0A -
oer 7 oe fa 263
 Had alook| | Nearly there | | Nailed it!| |

Map analysis: connectivity

Some CONMES OF TeGors itn conthes have dilficiity comecting to glovalisation; these
dhhaNies may arise trom physical or humari factors, You need to be sble to analyse human and
priysical features on niags to widerstand lack A conmectedness,

Iceland: ‘switched off from globalisation

ii ZONS ledland was tie least glovalised A Evropean counties (Index score = 70,62),
the dictance trom Eqlastady to the cata, Reydavik, by road 6 GSO lan (8 car journey time A eight hours),

[key
MMR FRosds (ict A paved) = |__| Bare rock
a |
Figure 11 topological and \and cover
| Moors arid heathilarid (EE) Lakes and rivers may of part of south-east leeand
| (il Peat bogs (Forest
| 166 SHEE OF 166 Gay Fagllastadir = Sinai settlements

All types of map may be used in your exams, from sketen Land cover shows what the land is being used tor,
naps to Or ANAaNEE WHVEY iaps ta hays A COUMHIES, in this part of leeland there is a small population with

small settlements, 90 the presence of human land use

is limited and laid cover is mostly natural,
topographical maps show the retiet of the land (for
exatiphe, altitude, mountains) either through 4 colour
56 5 OF Mading te oF 4 shadow ettect,
sequence or shading te Cfsats & 9 You must base your answers on map evidence.
Ones you have clearly identified the evidence then
. extend your answers with your qsographical knowledge
Globalisation deperids on cormections, especially arid widerstanding using geographical terminology, ¥
trarisport arid modern GOMIihGations,
1

aa

|, Identify the likely physical obstacles to the spread of globalisation to the part of leeland shown on the map,
2. \dentify two likely humarti obstacles to the spread of globalisation to this part of lesland,

264
 Had a look |_| Nearly there a Nailed it! a
Lorenz curve and datasets
To show disparities between or within countries the Gini coefficient can be calculated and shown in a
Lorenz curve.

Data on income distribution d ispari ties in India

Table 1: Cumulative income share in India (quintiles and top 10% of population) (2011)

population
Cumulative % of income share

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Figure 1: Lorenz curve for income distribution in India in 2011

Now try this

1. Plot, on a copy of Figure 1, the cumulative income share for 80%, 90% and 100% of India’s population and
complete the Lorenz curve line.
2. Calculate the Gini coefficient for India in 2011.

265
AS/B level Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |
Geog aphica’
Skills

synoptic chart interpretation

Weather conditions may bring lots of rain and river flooding, or no rain and short-term drought.

Low pressure weather system High pressure weather system

Figure 1: Fronts over the northern UK associated Figure 2: Clear skies over England and Wales
with a winter depression associated with anticyclone

How to interpret a synoptic chart: Figures 1 and 2

Ww The darker lines with triangles or half circles are fronts (the front of an air mass where it
meets another). Triangles show the front of a cold air mass and half circles show the front of a
warm air mass.
CG The triangles or half circles point in the direction that the front and air mass are moving.
Gi The fainter lines are isobars (lines joining up points of equal air pressure) with a number indicating
the amount of pressure in millibars (mb).
Ci H = high pressure centres (anticyclones)
Cf L = low pressure centres (depressions/extra-tropical cyclones)

1. Suggest why the weather conditions in Figure 1 brought river flooding to northern England.
2. Suggest why the weather conditions in Figure 2 brought very dry conditions to East Anglia.

266
 Land uses are changing in remote areas of the Amazon rainforest. Observing these is difficult and
satellite images help to track the change.

_ Satellite image from 2000

You should look carefully at paired
satellite images, and match features in
both, so that you can judge how much
change there has been.

These are true colour images:

® dark green = undisturbed forest

* beige/brown = cleared patches for
farmers’ fields
© white/yellow = roads (in lines)
or settlements
® faint blue/grey = smoke from
burning forest
® white blobs = clouds.

4
Y
se i

| Satellite image from 2012 Figure 1 and 2: Part of the Amazon

rainforest in Brazil, near Buritis

_ Explain what has happened in this area of the Amazon rainforest between 2000 and 2012.

267
 Had a look pal Nearly there uel Nailed if! E!
Skills
Analysing climate model maps
There are variations in global patterns of future water shortages and flood risk, and maps can help to
locate these.

Figure 1: Projections of future global drought risk (2100)

Dry Condition Wet

TSS eS 88
-10-8 -7 -G -5 -4 -3 -2 -1-0.50051 23 4 5 6 7 8 10
Positive numbers show when conditions are unusually wet for a particular region, and
negative numbers when conditions are unusually dry. A reading of -4 or below is considered
extreme drought.

Figure 2: Projections of future global flood risk (2100)

fe) 3000 km Increase Flood frequency

Decrease “4 Pd
(ea ane nos oN ‘ i a
Ye 2 )} 25 50 75 95 105 125 250° 500 1000
Return period (years)

|. Describe the projected pattern of future drought conditions around the world.
2. Describe the projected pattern of future flood frequency around the world.

268
 Had a look L_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! 2s

Divided bar graphs

‘Ethnic diversity due to migration can be shown through divided bar graphs, which show patterns and
_ offer a visual comparison.

Figure 1: Divided bar graphs showing ethnic diversity in UK, Thailand and Kuwait.
Se Fe

ills ethnic diversity (2011) 100%—Ltalland ethnic diversity (2010) 100% Kuwait ethnic diversity (2011)

20%. i TT
@ Other }
Oth
60% + im Other & Pakistani 80% | oidviabad
® Bangladeshi ® Australasian
70% | ® Chinese 4 7O%R-
; @ Korean South American
60%- ® Bangladeshi @ Philippine native | G0%-4 North American
| Viet:
50% f @ Other Asian B vietnamese 50%-| European
® Indian
. . Non-Arab Afri
40% -| @ Pakistani @ Japanese 40%- mor ane
@ Chinese B Arab Gulf Coop. Council
30% @ Indian
it | @ Laotian 30% Other Arab
iige.| @ Black (other) @ Cambodian 20%-| B Kuwaiti

White i Mynemar ® Non-Arab Asian

oo & Thai 10% +4
O% O%-

The top and bottom of each section should be read against the scale line opposite, not from the bottom of
the graph. For example, in the third graph, Kuwaiti is from about 38% to 74% (which gives 36%).

Ethnic diversity in the USA

You need to be able to complete and interpret bar graphs.

Table 1: Ethnic groups in the USA (2010 census)

Ethnic group % of total population

White 223553265 72.40
Black and African American 38929319 12.61

nn Asian EZ 4.75
| American Indian and Alaskan 2932248 0:95
| Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander 540013 0.18

. (a 19107 368 6.19

308745 535 100
Now try this

1. Compare the ethnic diversity of the UK, Thailand

and Kuwait.
2. Using the data in Table 1, create a divided bar graph
. to show the ethnic diversity of the USA in 2010.

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Use of proportional circles

The contribution of economic sectors can be compared through proportional circles, where the size
of a circle shows the relative amount. You should be able to interpret and draw proportional circles.

Output of UK economic sectors |

|
Figure 1: Proportional circles showing the output of UK economic sectors by GDP in 2016 |

[EaSnoniG
westoe |WOFGDP
|

Agriculture
Manufacturing KSeri
|Services 70.07
Data source: World Bank

When you are presented with

proportional circles, check the scale Agriculture
carefully. For example, the proportions
may be based on diameter or
on radius.

Foreign ownership by UK economic sector

Figure 2: Proportional circles showing UK inward FDI (£ billions) in 2016

seeder es

accommodation a

support

communication
Data source: ONS

1. Compare the economic output by sector of the UK in 2016.

2. Using the data in the table in Figure 2, draw a proportional circle to represent the data for the ‘financial
and insurance’ sector using the same scale as used in Figure 2 (1 mm = £0.5 billion). |
4 .s

|
270 |
2 |
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Paper 3

_ Preparing for Paper 3

The final A level Geography exam needs a slightly different approach. The paper is worth 7O marks and
you will have 135 minutes to complete the questions. You will be provided with a resource booklet and
‘the questions will be based on these resources, but you must ee draw on your learning from the whole
course, including the synoptic themes.

During your studies

'* Think about the geographical issues linked to each topic, so you develop an appreciation of the
connections within each one.
* Identify and understand where there are examples of players (P), attitudes and actions (A) and futures
and uncertainties (F) within each topic studied.
* Understand how PF, A and F interconnect with geographical patterns and processes.
'* Practise using geographical skills such as numeracy and statistics, cartographical, graphical and
photo interpretation.
* Complete practice synoptic investigation questions and also whole papers to get used to using
resources, and the timings and style of Paper 3.
© You completed your content revision when you revised for Papers 1 and 2, so there is no new content
revision to do.

Before the exam During the exam

_* Have all the stationery items for the skills ° Allow 15-25 minutes to read the resource
_ questions to hand, including ruler, pencil booklet and exam questions carefully.
and calculator. * Spend the correct amount of time on each
* Remember, you are being tested on your ability question (about 1.5 minutes per mark).
to combine information and ideas from several * Answer all questions — check you haven’t
topics, especially by making connections. missed any!
* Consider what certain command words, such as * Note the command words and answer the
‘explain’, ‘analyse’ and ‘evaluate’, require you questions in the style required.
to do.
* In longer answers, combine evidence from the

Now look carefully at the following pages of resources,

which provide information on the Nile River Basin.

1. Suggest the most important preparation you can do for this exam during your course of study.
2. Make a short list, in your own words, of the things you need to show in the longest answer question.
» 4 As
eth fe et th

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 Had a look [| Nearly there & Nailed it! EE

A: The Nile River Basin 1

You must make good use of all the resources provided in the Resources Booklet and use your knowledge |
and understanding from your whole course of study in all questions. .

Mediterranean aaa eS The Nile River Basin iS the longest river in the
ile Delta A . 5
\ pale ea world and its drainage basin covers about 10%
of Africa. It has two major tributaries, the
Major dams
on river
White Nile with its source in Lake Victoria
(in Uganda) and the Blue Nile with its source
in Lake Tana (in Ethiopia).
¢ The lower course of the river has little rainfall,
being a hot desert — the Sahara. The upper
course has highlands (over 3000 metres), which
receive relief and convectional rainfall, especially
in the ‘rainy’ season, from evaporated moisture
mostly transported by winds from the north or
east. Evaporation is low in highland areas where
temperatures are cooler. Soil moisture is high in
the Ethiopian Highlands but low in the semi-
arid middle course and arid lower course.

Ababa

ETHIOPIA

DR CONGO
Equator } :
bran G oNairobi *, Indian
RWANDA + : Ocean
Kigali =o SP. ee
Bujumbura —
BURUNDI
TANZANIA
Dodoma —5

1. Describe how the climate and water situation vary in the Nile River Basin.
2. Name and locate two large dams that are named on the map.
3. Study Figure 1 and surrounding information. Make a list of human geography factors that apply to the
Nile River Basin.
4. Make notes on the aspects of the water cycle that may be useful to recall.

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A: The Nile River Basin 2

Where a question specifically mentions a resource, you must make full use of it, as marks are allocated for
doing this.

| * Eleven countries are partly in the Nile River Basin, with over 300 million people depending on the
_| freshwaters of the river.
* Around 85% of the River Nile water in Egypt comes from the Blue Nile tributary, and so there is potential
conflict between Egypt and Ethiopia. A 1959 agreement favoured Egypt, but now other countries upstream
are developing economically and have population growth, so there is a growing demand for more water and
energy (HEP).
| ° In 1999 the Nile Basin Initiative intergovernmental partnership was launched, to provide a forum for all
| countries to consult and coordinate so that sustainable management and development of the Nile’s waters
-| could be achieved.

> ~ Central a .
2 Se elena ; _ African “~j%
| Population Density f ; Republic 2
| (persons per km?)
aa <2
210
| 10-40
100-500
5 >500 ;
Major Cities (>100 000 people)
\y Rivers fhe Sub-Saharan
£4 Political Boundaries (Intl) ¢ re
“Political Boundaries(Natl.) ) , 4 Africa
(9 Water bodies ys f
*MENA = Middle East and North Africa

Figure 2: Population distribution in the Nile Basin Figure 3: A table of population and urban population
growth rates gR

Compare the data for countries shown in Figure 3.

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A: The Nile River Basin 3

You will need to recall your graphical skills. In particular, look carefully at the axes, to see what scale is
being used. 4

Quality of life indicators for countries in the Nile River Basin

HDI (2017) {i
S-S Africa
MENA
World

Egypt
Stan
Ethiopia
Eritrea
South Sudan

Uganda
Tanzania
O ONRNOIZ 0,75" 0.4, 0;5) (O16. O77 Ore
Figure 4: Human Development Index scores

70
60 Globalisation Index 2015 -
@ Partly free
50 @ Not free
40
30
20
10

OMe Nia O Ue INTEND ee AO i

. YP OES scare i
Oy ~) O < & » Hl

NO ii Co la9 SA are
oe

Figure 5: Globalisation and freedom indices

fA. }

S-S Africa epee

T
MENA7er
World |

Egypt oe
Sudan
Ethiopia
Eritrea dees
South Sudan |
Kenya”
DR Congo |
Burundi |
Rwanda | oe
Uganda
Tanzania | J } ( |
of AO AD EAL AD 1 :
ee
ee 2 4 6 6 10 12 i
Renewable internal freshwater resources hi
per capita (2014) (‘000 m?) HL
Figure 6: Amount of renewable freshwater in the 11 Nile
River Basin countries i

1. Suggest the reasons for the differences in HDI score for the Nile River Basin countries.
2. Study Figures 4, 5 and 6. Explain two aspects of quality of life that need improving in the Nile River
Basin countries.

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 Had a look a Nearly there ba Nailed it! [|

A: The Nile River Basin 4

During your studies you will have used different types of graph. Be sure that you know how to read
and use a variety, including plotting points and finishing graphs.

Resources

§ Environment Access

—— Egypt
=== Ethiopia
m= Uganda
x
XY

Use ” Capacity |Higher value = lower water poverty |

Hiei Emcee
fee erties
Figure 7: Water Poverty Index for selected Nile River Basin countries

17 a 6 2

| Safely Ea | Basic water alee water aa y

water is the highest still improved but is water from an Unimproved
level of service. It Together, safely availability and improved source sources have
requires an improved managed and basic freedom from with a roundtrip little or no
water source, water are referred to contamination are collection time protection from
located on premises, as least basic water. not guaranteed, of more than contamination.
= | available when and it need not be 30 minutes,
needed, and free on premises, but Surface water
from contamination. must be within a (such as rivers)
30-minute roundtrip.

Figure 8: Access to water at different categories, 2015 (% of global population)

1. Study the three countries shown in Figure 7. Compare their access to water with their position on the
~ course of the River Nile.
_ 2. Ona copy of Figure 7, plot the data for Sudan and connect the points.
_ 3. Describe the world situation of safe water supply shown in Figure 8.

en | 275
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B: Change in the Nile River —

Basin |
Be prepared for text extracts. These can be from sources that use more complex literacy. Reading of
advanced texts and academic sources during your course of study will help you prepare for these.

The Nile River Basin is likely to be affected Lower rainfall is expected in the middle course of
severely by climate change, new reports show, but the Nile (for example, Sudan) with the consequent
not all parts will experience the same impacts, for risks of drought and desertification. The wet season
example the Blue Nile is more sensitive and 10% (monsoon) in the upper course is becoming more
more rain could increase runoff by 25%, whereas difficult to predict, but it is getting shorter and
the White Nile has wetlands that control runoff rainfall intensity is increasing, which could increase
and evaporation. There will be higher average flood risk. However, more data are needed to
temperatures everywhere, for example Ethiopia and confirm this.
Uganda had an average increase of 1.3°C between
Higher water temperatures in Lake Victoria and
1960 and 2006, and predictions suggest that by the
other lakes will increase the growth of algae, which
2090s temperatures everywhere will be between 1 and
reduces oxygen levels and consequently fish stocks.
5°C higher.
Diseases will spread to higher altitudes (such as the
Higher evaporation rates are reducing effective Ethiopian Highlands) as these areas warm up.
precipitation, which has implications for reservoirs
The Nile River Basin is used to weather fluctuations
and farming. Rainfall variability is increasing, as
affecting river discharges, but variability is going
experienced by Sudan, but climate models do not agree
to increase and this will cause problems for HEP.
on the amount of change. Greater evapotranspiration
Greater uncertainty leads to political tensions
will increase demand from farmers for irrigation water,
between countries (lower basin with upper basin),
especially if drought affects crops that are normally
and within countries where there are inequalities
rain fed. The Ethiopian Highlands and Equatorial
(rural poor, or women within households).
Lakes areas are sensitive to even small changes in
climate, as shown by the fall of water levels in
Lake Victoria.
Figure 9: Climate change article

me a eo ee ee ee

Describe the changes that are likely to take place to the hydrological cycle in the Nile River Basin.
 Had a look E Nearly there i Nailed it! haa

_ &: Change in the Nile River

Basin 2
Flow diagrams show links between parts of geographical systems. Follow the arrows and think about how
_ the different systems are linked.

Population growth
Increases need for more clean Diplomacy and
fresh water (e.g. Ethiopia’s transboundary
population grew by 41 million water
between 2000 and 2018). agreements
needed

Industrialisation
Economic growth increases
demand for water (e.g. Tensions and
Egypt’s GDP grew by 136% conflict when
between 2000 and 2017). water supplies
Increase are insufficient Climate change
in water * Higher average temperature
Urbanisation
use increases evaporation rates
More people in urban areas from reservoirs behind dams
need water supplies brought and soils.
Water
to them (e.g. Khartoum’s Drier climate in Sahel zone
scarcity and
size increased by 3 times with desertification — middle
insecurity
between 2000 and 2018). Nile (e.g. Sudan has less
water).
Higher standard of living Wetter subtropics in East
Increase in domestic water Africa — upper Nile (e.g.
Kenya has more water).
demand and for products, such
as food (so more irrigation) Mediterranean sea levels
(e.g. Ethiopia’s agricultural rise with thermal expansion
Key:
production increased by 129% — Nile Delta flooded, and
------- = Malthusian prediction salt water encroaches.
between 2000 and 2016).

Figure 10: Pressures on water supplies in the Nile River Basin

1. Explain the links between population growth and water insecurity.

2. Study Figure 10. Suggest what the implications are for people living in the Nile Delta of coastal flooding
and saltwater encroachment.

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C: Global connections 1
Tables of data may be included in the Paper 3 exam to test your numeric and statistical ability — but don’t
forget they still contain information that must be used in answers to other questions.

Country GDP annual growth Share of World ODA* | Rank | d |

(% 2017) (% 2016)
Tanzania 7.1 3 1.47 2 1
Uganda 4.0 6 14 | 6 a
Rwanda 6.1 4 O73 & 4
Burundi Or5 10 0.47 10 O
DR Congo Sif, 9 1.34 3, Ml 4
Kenya 4.9 5 1.39 Ei, 2 |
South Sudan =e 1.01
|Eritrea 6.7 0.04 |
Ethiopia 10.2 1 2.58 1 Os O
Sudan 4.3 a4 a 0.51 9 3 9 "
Egypt 4.2 7. (eS hs, 4 3 9
n= yd?
= 156 |
*“ODA = Official Development Assistance
Figure 11: A table of GDP annual growth rate (2017) and Share of World ODA (2016) for the 11 countries of the i|
Nile River Basin (Source: World Bank data) ca

Null hypothesis: There is no correlation between GDP annual growth and amount of ODA received. ; He

6 x Yd® . |
Spearman’s Rank correlation analysis formula: R, = 1 — Pas SLE } an
aa . a
Significance test (95% confidence level) for 11 items = +0.618 | F
i
' i
Rs 1 i
The significance of a statistical answer is judged in relation to the null hypothesis. Tables of significance based |
on sample size (number of items) show the level at which the null hypothesis can be rejected. Turn to page 264 FF
for more on significance levels. i

|
2 9 +=
=

‘Zz
Remember that a calculator is essential for Remember that with Spearman’s rank, when two ) ‘es
the exam, so that you can use formulae to get | or more values have the same rank position, it i
accurate answers. . must be the mean of the ranks. For example, if :
there are two values that occupy ranks 7 and } |
8, they are not both 7= but are both 7.5 :
Know how to do calculations accurately, and be (TAS set= 75)
careful not to do them too fast — otherwise you may DS eS i 4
spr
make mistakes.

ST
si
s

LL

1. On a copy of Figure 11, complete the missing information.

2. Explain why it is important to test for significance when completing the Spearman’s rank correlation
statistical calculation. ;
3. Calculate the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for the data in Figure 11.
» 4 As

278 |
ia |
_Hadalook |_| Nearly there |_| Nailed it! |_|
|

{
C: Global connections 2
Scattergraphs need careful interpretation. With all graphs, use a ruler and pencil in the exam to draw lines
ie the axes, to help get accurate results. With tables, make sure that you read the title to know what it is
showing, and look for the units for the numbers.

=
r =
PsS
~~ e

&

1
0 A 2 3 4 4 6 7 &
Readiness

p20 2000 2007 20022003 2004 2005 2008 2007 2nes 2000 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2018

_O 027 co:O14 O. 003 (©);003 0.O16 |

: ‘ * \
hee pe cee Wat Meche ct an Yet Actertticam, Yeni, dn } ep ey Qe j Pa

}
=

1. Describe the distribution of Nile River Basin countries in Figure 12.

2. (a) Which Nile basin country is most vulnerable to climate change?
(b) Which Nile Basin yy is most Ae for Se change!
Go ewe n eeSe

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 Had alook| | Nearly there | | Nailed it! |{|

C: Glebal connections 3 _
As well as doing statistical calculations, you must be able to recall their meaning.

Figures 14 and 15 use proportional circles to show the amount of aid given. Use the scales to work out |
a few amounts to quote as evidence in an answer. ?

Tanzania Uganda Rwanda Burundi DR Congo Kenya

e:@-c
ae

South Sudan Eritrea Ethiopia Sudan Egypt

Figure 14: USA Official Development Assistance to Nile River Basin countries (2016) (Scale: 1 mm = 0.1% of total)

Commitments

5 bn 10 bn 15 bn 20 bn

q @
[wf Sa ‘ .
’
. s @: tn 4

China supports all

types of country.
@ OECD says that - _ i aia %,
DP china’s aia helps “Ss © ~ Total aid (2000 to 2014) estimated to 5
o economic growth by be $354 billion, slightly less than USA) /
@ about 0.7% per total. Only 22% of this was ODA. China ~~ \_4
project. does not publish its own data on aid. Ay,

Figure 15: World pattern of China aid (financial size and location) 2OOO to 2014

World ODA

USA ODA 594.91 | 398.467

Figure 16: Frequency table for global and USA Official Development Assistance (ODA) given to Nile River Basin
countries (2016)

é
Be

|, Suggest reasons for the pattern of the USA’s aid in the Nile River Basin in 2016. |
2. Study Figure 15, Describe and explain the pattern of China’s aid between 2000 and 2014.

280
 Had a look L | Nearly there |_| Nailed it! | |

CC: Global cennections 4

| Do not be tempted to highlight all the facts. Think about the previous resources and look for connections to these.

Figure 17: The Aswan High Dam fact file

Location: Egypt, on main Nile
Official completion: 1970 (construction began in 1960)
Cost: $1 billion
Companies involved: Institute Hydroproject (designers), Russia; Arab contractors, Egypt
Reservoir: Lake Nasser; capacity = 132km?, 550km long and 35km wide

Benefits: Problems:
dS Irrigation water supply throughout year (increasing Funding: USA, UK and World Bank withdrew in mid-
crop yields) 1950s, so Egypt nationalised Suez Canal to raise money
Supplies water during drought &) Fertile alluvium no longer reaches Nile floodplain
& Controls annual flooding & Historical sites submerged under the reservoir
Ss Maintains constant river level for movement of fishing &) Changes to natural environment
and tourist boats
& About 100000 people relocated
& Generates HEP (2100 MW)
Geopolitical tensions between Egypt and upper Nile
dS Sudan has a share of water from the reservoir countries over control of Nile (from 1959 agreement)

Figure 18: The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) fact file
Location: Ethiopia, on Blue Nile
Official completion: 2022 (construction began in 2011)
Cost: $4.7 billion (could rise to $6.4 billion)
Companies involved: Salini Costruttori (civil construction), Italy; Metals and Engineering Corporation (MetEC)
(government-owned industrial corporation), Ethiopia; Alstom (HEP equipment), France; Voith Hydro
(HEP equipment), Germany; Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation, Ethiopia; China Electric Power Equipment and
Technology (electric grid), China. World Bank provided $230m for electric grid extensions.
Reservoir: Millennium Reservoir; capacity 74km3; 246km long and 8 km wide (when filled)
Benefits: Problems:
yy Generates HEP (6450 MW), quadrupling electricity &) Around 1680km/? of forest flooded
production, and supplying nearby countries p About 20000 people resettled
yy Irrigation of 500000 ha of new farmland
Reduced fertile alluvium reaching Sudan floodplains
yy Reduces silt problems for Roseires Dam and Aswan
No foreign financing due to geopolitical controversy
High Dam
of the dam, so very expensive (60% of annual budget)
SS Shorter and narrower reservoir reduces
&) Electricity production may only be 2000 MW except in
evaporation losses
wet season
yy Reduction in flooding in Sudan
Reduced waterflows downstream during filling of
ey Provides bridging point across Blue Nile reservoir (up to 25%)
Low evaporation from reservoir as cooler climate Geopolitical conflicts with Egypt, which has
increases water availability downstream dominated the Nile River Basin since 1959
Some cooperation between Ethiopia, Sudan and MetEC removed from project due to corruption and
Egypt has been forced faulty work

Study Figures 17 and 18. Suggest which of the benefits and problems of the dams are most significant.
i

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 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it!| |

D: Future challenges l
You must be familiar with choropleth maps. This is a common skill needed by a geographer, as they show
patterns clearly. Study the key to know what each colour represents.

INFORM promote: peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to
justice for all, and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels

INFORM Indicators:

@ HAZARD ¢ EXPOSURE
Current Current GGRIl Violent GCRI Highly
National Power Subnational |rternal Conflict
Violent Internal
Conflict Conflict probability Conflict
Intensity Intensity probability
@ VULNERABILITY @ COPING CAPACITY
Uprooted Uprooted Corruption Government
Population Population Perception Index Effectiveness
(percentage) (total)

O 1.2. Roa 4.5 5.9 10

Distance from achievement Lowest Highest — Not included

in INFORM
Countrles with most distance from achievement

1 Somalia 9.9] 5 Central African Republic 9 Libya =

2 South Sudan 6 Afghanistan 10 Pakistan 8.8
3 Yemen eRe} «67 «Sudan 11 Chad 8.7
4 Syria 6 \|raq 9.2] 12 DR Congo |8.6|

Figure 19: Peace, justice and strong institutions

(a) Natural hazards risk: floods and drought (b) Human conflicts risk: current and projected
10

Z
6 2)
4
iJ

v4
oe
od

D6 Zz
v4 ie)
E oO
© <
8 2
2 =
SS ie

:
lo

—_
(S)

O 2 4 6 & 10
FLOOD RISK PROJECTED HUMAN CONFLICT RISK

KEY
B = Burundi C = DR Congo Eg = Egypt Er = Eritrea Et = Ethiopia K = Kenya
R = Rwanda SS = South Sudan S = Sudan T = Tanzania U = Uganda
Figure 20: Scattergraphs showing risks for Nile River Basin countries

1. Describe how serious the risks from droughts and floods are in the Nile River Basin countries.
2. Study Figure 20. Suggest why the projected human conflict risks are higher than the current risk levels.

Y »
282
 |
a|
|
uture challenges 2
_ Summary diagrams, such as Figure 22, are designed to help you recall links that are suggested in other
‘resources. Flow diagrams may be used to show the links between processes. You should follow the
= arrows and think about how each item is linked (e. g. cause).
ees

; to aes

e st
| 225

| 1s
: ow-medium (=2)—

| 1

i} 05 ; 2
— 1 9 =
O
P8an eerey 2
=
=
.| ae
FFs &
PP
&
WO Pr ho? os
o oo Ra &
Gr Pps
oh >
a4 BS
fie) 52 Ne
4
me Ams” ge? QO e 2 Se obi Ft
re) “ % v Ru —
|Figure 21: Water Stress Index (2013) for Nile River & bene
/ 5
:
= a
. Basin countries ie, &
| 3
]

Figure 22: Summary of links

* Pat da, Aamo, Bon Kh

|
i ene eset teeter

Explain the links between water resources, water demand and water stress in the Nile River Basin.
SS

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 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it! | |

Exam skills: Explain

These exam-style questions will help you practise for Paper 3. You will need to refer to the resources”
mentioned by a question, in addition to any others from pages 274 to 285.

Paper 3 is worth 7O marks. Spend at

Worked example least 15 minutes reading and noting
key ideas and links between resources,
1. Study Figures 4, 5 and 6, Explain one aspect of
quality of life that needs improving in the Nile
This leaves 120 minutes for answering
River Basin countries, (4 marks) the questions.
¢ Each 4-mark question should take no
All HDI scores are below the world and
longer than 6 minutes to complete.
MENA averages and only four countries (for
* Each &-mark question should take no
example, Egypt) have a globalisation score
longer than 12 minutes to complete.
of over 50, Only one country, DR Congo,
¢ The 18-mark question should take
has freshwater resources above the world
average, others are well below (and below about 33 minutes.
the sub-Saharan average) so people’s quality ¢ The 24-mark question should take
of life and human development will suffer from about 45 minutes.
a lack of this essential resource. People are
likely to suffer from lack of clean water to
drink and insufficient water to irrigate crops, Remember to quote figures or other
leading to poor health. facts in your answers. You do not need
to do this in every sentence, but there
2. Study Figure 3, Calculate the median and inter- should be enough to show that you
quartile range for urban population growth in have used the resources and can link
the 11 Nile River Basin countries (4 marks) information from them.
Values from highest to lowest: 5.8, 5.7,
5,8, 4.7, 4:4, 4.3,-4.1, 3.9, 3.1, 2.8, 1.9.
The upper quartile is the mid-value of
The median (middle value) is 4.3,
the higher half (i.e. 5.3), and the lower
The inter-quartile range is 5.3 — 3.1 = 2.2. quartile is the mid-value of the lower half
(here)
3. Explain the pattern of population distribution
shown in Figure 2, (4 marks)
Figure 2 shows that there is a very high All stages of your calculation must be
population density around Lake Victoria in shown in full to gain full marks,
Uganda, Kenya and Rwanda and Lake Tana
in Ethiopia, reaching over 500 persons
per km® in places, This is because water is For statistical calculations (question 2),
available from these lakes to support people remember there are more steps than just
and farming, and urban concentrations. doing the calculations. For example, you
There is a denser patch around Khartoum at may be asked to establish a hypothesis
the confluence of the White and Blue Niles (null and alternative) at the start or use
(between 100 and 500 persons per km*), as a test for significance at the end. These
water is available, but it is also a strategic steps are important to the geographical
point in the valley for communications and
analysis of data: a hypothesis can be
trade, Population is also dense along the
proved or disproved, and a result may
River Nile in Egypt, with over 500 per km?,
or may not be significant.
It is very dense near the mouth of the Nile,
This is because the river provides water in an
arid area, again for human consumption and
agriculture, There are fewer people overall in
the Sahara desert (under 2 per km*), and in
“is thorough because it matches place
the Sahel zone because it is too dry.
detail from Figure 1 with the pattern and
data from Figure 2.

284
 Exam skills: Analyse
_ These exam-style questions will help you practise for Paper 3. You will need to refer to the resources
mentioned by a question, in addition to any others from pages 274 to 285.

4. Analyse the benefits and problems of large dams

in the Nile River Basin. (8 marks)
|_ Large dams such as the Aswan High Dam
~ (AHD) in Egypt and the Grand Ethiopian
4 Renaissance Dam (GERD) demonstrate the
_ benefits and problems of constructing dams
_ along the Nile River’s course. The benefits
are similar, with both dams providing water
supply, irrigation water, HEP and preventing
_| downstream flooding. AHD provides all-
m4 year-round irrigation water for farmers,
and Ethiopia may gain 500000 ha of new
farmland from GERD. They also provide cheap
HEP, both at least 2000 MW.
AHD and GERD have different problems:
both changed the natural environment and
river processes, but GERD flooded 1680 km?
of forest while AHD relocated 80000
_ more people. It has always been difficult to
get agreement between and within the Nile
etd
fiance
opt
spb River Basin countries, as all countries need
the water. Climate change has increased
the need for dams, but also increased
evaporation, reducing the storage
of reservoirs. ‘

eae
a
ee
Seer)
Ses Countries also need water for economic
development (Figure 2), and dams can supply
_ HEP (e.g. Egypt) as well as water for cooling
_| and processing. Dams create reservoirs that
| support population growth (e.g. irrigation of
| crops for food supply, Figure 10) and
| c? rapid urban growth rates (e.g. Khartoum)
q by supplying water for people. Figure 6
_ shows Egypt and Sudan with lowest water
a
"| resources and so are dependent on the
|| stores created by dams. But Figure 11 shows
a discrepancy on ODA and a large problem
is the expense of these large dam schemes
i for developing countries. For example, Egypt
. % had difficulty getting funding for AHD and
| _ GERD is perhaps too expensive for Ethiopia
(atleast $4.7 billion).

285
-—t
F -_
 Exam skills: Evaluate 1
| lim the exam there ane two “evaluate” questions: an 16-mark and 2 24-mark. In both you must:
fink everything you write to the question by addressing the view or issve giver
refer to the resowrces and your wider knowledge
make 2 judgement: have a strong conclusion that brings together all of your ideas and
KKK)
recognises alternatives (but does not introduce new ideas that have not been covered), ——~

This answer start> well, successtully

5. Ewaluatte the role of global commections mm the & maintaining a toous on global connections,
development of the Nile River Basin countries. while also referring to the importance of
(18 marks) Kgs regional and internal connections.
Global comnections were important at the
planning and construction phases of dams,
especially the Aswan High Dam (AMD) and
the Grand. Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD)
(Figures 17 and 15), bwt there ane strong This shows good use of the students
regional connections and internal factors that 4pm own knowledge and understanding,
should be considered. Globalisation forces
hawe grown since the 1950s and were very
strong at the start of the 21st century.
For example, Egypt has a Globalisation lindex This i5 a clear retererce to the
score over GO (Figure 5) but six cowrittries resources provided.
score below 42. Economic growth is 2
key aim, and Egypt's GDP grew by 136%
between 2000 and 2017, part of an attempt
The answer refers to the strength of
to follow the “Westenn’ modell that has been
both global and regional connections,
swocesstul for countries like South Korea. a

and weaknesses of qjloibail connections.

For example, AMD had Russian designers but hgh This i5 a partial answer To complete the
had diffiquthy getting iintennaitional fumcs trom answer you would need to include:
the USA, the UK and World Banik iim the 1950s * how the GERD shows the strengths
s0 they nationalised
the Suez Canail, which and weaknesses of global connections
was am inhennationall
waterway wsedi by many * regional agreement has increased, /
counbries,
which brought im finances. As part 25 population and economic water
of the AMID scheme Egypt lhad tto reach demands of countries upstream from
an agreement with other Nile River Basin Eqypt have increased
cownbries (1959) especially Sudan. The meed * planned regional links through
an electricity grid to other East
population and economic water demands of Atrican countries
countries wesbream from Eqypt have increased * regional controversy over the
(€.g. 1999 Nile Basin Initiative between transboundary water
* Nile River Basin countries are

ft
connected to world ODA.

Fimaily, the amsamer needs 2 conclusion that

pulls bogether the anquments into 2 fimall
judgement about global connections while
also swqgesting altennative ovtoomes and
Cowrses of action.
 Had a look ia Nearly there a Nailed it! har

Exam Liat Evaluate 2

| Beark evaluate questions

Cf There is not one correct answer — present a balanced argument considering beth sides with
a critical investigation of the pros and cons using factual evidence and opinion,
Ww A strong conclusion is vital —make a rational judgement supported by evidence trom the
resources and your own knowledge and understanding,
oY You must refer to players, attitudes and actions, and futures and uncertainties,

6. Evaluate the view that water insecurity poses the

d most serious threat to the economic, social and
political stability of the Nile River
f qbasin countries, (24 marks)
....Population growth (over 3% in Burundi,
_ Uganda and Tanzania in 2017), increased
i. _industrialisation, fast urbanisation (over 5%
in Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and DR Congo
in 2017) and increased wealth put pressure
on water supplies in the NRB (Figure 7),
_ High population densities in the south of
_ the NRB around Lake Victoria (Figure 2),
in Ethiopia near Lake Tana, in the Sudan at
_ Khartoum and along the Nile Valley in Egypt
puts pressure on water supplies in these
| areas, which countries have attempted to
relieve through dams and reservoirs (e.g.
_ Aswan High Dam). The threat of water
insecurity exists but has been reduced by
_ reservoir storage and water agreements,
prespures are ger oun to increase and

287
 Had alook | | Nearly there | | Nailed it![ |

Exam skills: Evaluate 2

continued =
:
This is a continuation of the sample answer given on page 289. Read the question and sample answer then
before continuing below. |
4

Worked exampie
... The Hadley circulation cell brings rainfall to the
southern basin (e.g. Burundi and Tanzania) near
the equator, but dry conditions in the north with
the Sahara desert in Egypt and the Sahel zone
in the Sudan, and mountains increase orographic
rainfall in Ethiopia, so there are different inputs of ~
water. However, global climate change is reducing |
precipitation and increasing evaporation from _
reservoirs (Figure 9), and causing water stress in
the lower and middle NRB (Figures 6 and 21), and
the Nile Delta area will suffer salt encroachment into
groundwater as sea levels rise. Although climate
models do not agree on what exactly will happen
(Figure 9). Figure & shows that at the moment. only
Egypt is marginally less vulnerable than other NRB
countries and only Rwanda has some readiness,
all other countries have high vulnerability and low
readiness for climate change. There will also be
problems generating HEP for economic uses as water
levels will fall, and farming will need more irrigation
water as precipitation reduces. Figure 20 confirms
that the drought risk is very high in 3 countries
and high in 5 others, so water insecurity is a major
threat. Although the risk of flooding is also high,
especially where cities are next to the Nile, such as
Khartoum and Cairo. Therefore there is the prospect
of higher water insecurity in the future, although the
level of seriousness is difficult to judge at the moment
(Figures 12 and 21). For example, it may be possible
to transfer water from the upper Nile, which is
predicted to have more intense rainfall, to the mid and
lower Nile, but this will depend on political stability. ...
Geopolitical stability is affected by many factors
(Figure 22), such as the financial demands of
economic development, population and urbanisation
pressures, energy and resource production, natural
hazards (drought and flooding), as well as the
interlinked impacts of climate change. However,
water is an essential resource, required by
people, farms and industries, and if climate change
causes greater water insecurity it will become
the most serious threat to stability within and
between countries.

288
 Had a look |_| Nearly there eS Nailed it! hae

practice |
q These exam-style questions will help you practise for Paper 3. You will need to refer to the resources
__ mentioned by a question, in addition to any others from pages 274 to 285.

1. Explain one reason why Egypt is concerned

about its water security. (aks) Avoid writing too much for the short
answer questions, but do not be
tempted to bullet-point any of your
answers, as this prevents you from
2. Explain one characteristic of the population developing full explanations.
distribution pattern in the Nile River Basin.
(4 marks)
As well as looking at Figures 2 and 3,
Ve don't forget to look back at Figure 1 to
3. Using a copy of Figure 11, calculate the establish connections.
correlation between GDP annual growth
and ODA received using Spearman’s rank
nd correlation analysis, and suggest one reason Use a calculator, but always write
for the correlation result. Show your working. GE out your calculations, as there are
(4 marks) marks available for these stages.
Remember that this question also asks
Spearman’s rank correlation Pent for one reason for the result.
analysis formula is: Hepes :
ja edie 01
A \n the exam, any formula required will be
In the exam, you néed to know the given (see page 264 and page 280).
5: number of paired items (n = 11) and the
BR? 2
Sep eX a Qd® = 156). Think of both physical and human
geography points. In ‘analyse’ questions
B Significance test (95% confidence level) for 11 you must use the resources to identify
items = +0.618 ie individual impacts and the causes of
7 4. Analyse the likely impacts of climate change them — that is, make the connections,
on the Nile River Basin. (8 marks) and also show knowledge and
understanding that you have learned
4 during your studies.

Mark scheme statements

Questions worth 8 marks or more will be ‘levels’ marked, so you have to make sure that you do
_certain things to get into the highest level. Some examples:
& marks - Level 3:
. WY ‘Critically investigates the question, producing a coherent analysis and making logical
connections to relevant geographical ideas.’
18 marks - Level 3:

relevant connections.’
Ww ‘Makes valid judgements about the value and reliability of quantitative and qualitative
data throughout.’
24 marks — Level 4:
of ; ‘Critically investigates the issue to produce a coherent interpretation of quantitative and
___ qualitative evidence, making meaningful connections to relevant geographical ideas from
across the course of study.’
See pages 288 and 289 for examples of 18- and 24-mark questions.
 Had a look a Nearly there |_| Nailed it! E |

Exam practice 2 4
These exam-style questions will help you practise for Paper 3. You will need to refer to the resources 7
mentioned by a question, in addition to any others from pages 274 to 285. gy
|
|

5. Analyse the pattern of Official Development

Reference the resources that you use in
Assistance given by the USA and China to
Nile River Basin countries, (8 marks) ri
your answer, either by writing ‘Figure 3’,
for example, with a point that you make,
or by quoting data or information from
a resource.

This evaluation question means that you

must make a judgement of importance
of the human geographical processes
based on evidence. You must have an
introduction outlining the processes and
6. Evaluate the importance of the human i suggest which is most important, and a
geographical factors to the creation of water- conclusion that confirms your suggestion.
related issues in the Nile River Basin. : asco
(18 marks)
Think of the main points to help
structure your answer. Include relevant
7. Evaluate the view that water insecurity poses geographical KROME a aan
the most serious threat to the economic, social underebanding, ey there Are. Marks for
and political stability of the Nile River Basin this. Don’t plan to mention everything,
countries. (24 marks) but do try to mention different scales,
for example with these resources —
continents, world regions and countries.
~ a

In the 24-mark question:

* make sure you include players, attitudes and actions, and futures and uncertainties. Remember that
futures are not set and processes can change. |In the given geographical situation and issue, think
about what could change in the future
* include an introduction that shows the direction of your argument, and a conclusion that supports this
argument — but with caveats about change. You should recognise points and evidence for and against
the view or issue,

Evaluation questions
Ww Briefly make a plan to structure your thoughts and put them into a logical order.
Ww Use a paragraph structure for ‘analyse’ and ‘evaluate’ questions, and all of these must have
an overview/conclusion at the end.
VW Every couple of paragraphs, check that you are answering the question. ia = ‘ip

290
 ANSWERS

Answers
1 Distribution of tectonic hazards and it is light so it is carried by atmospheric prepare for, withstand and recover from the impacts
1 (a) Nazca (oceanic) and South American (continental) circulation systems (e.g. jet streams) around the of natural hazards,
(b) In the diagram of distribution patterns, complex world, Ash eruptions can therefore disrupt the flight
paths of aeroplanes.
13 Physical factors and context
plate boundaries are found on the western edge
Physical factors cause the hazard, such as magnitude of
of the Nazca plate, and also where microplates f Causes of tsunamis ground shaking, size of tsunami wave or amount of ash
are found,
| (a) 22 hours. (b) Distance between epicentre and fall, and greater magnitude events have larger impacts.
2 Most tsunamis are linked to destructive (convergent) Hawaii is 10810km and the time taken was 15 hours. However, the differences in human context factors
plate boundaries. In the diagram, these are found
10810 + 15 = 720.67 kilometres per hour. appear to determine the scale of the impacts. For
along the west coast of South America and part Three features of a tsunami include: several waves;
nN example, population density and distribution; strength
of the north-west, Alaska in the USA and the west
first wave not the largest; very fast speed in open sea and design of buildings and other constructions;
coast of Central America,
but much slower in shallow water; low height in open presence or absence of warning systems; scale of health-
2 Intra-plate processes sea but up to 20 times higher in shallow water; long care system; amount of disruption and damage to
1 (a) Movements along ancient faults that build up wavelength in open sea but short in shallow water. economic activities (e.g. farming, tourism); the spatial
stress; isostatic uplift of the crust after melting of extent of impacts; the success of evacuation and other
8 Disaster and vulnerability
ice sheets. emergency measures; the amount of construction and
Vulnerability would be greatest where: infrastructure affected, These context factors modify
(b) Any two: pushing crust down by covering it with the settlement is in the most hazardous zone
a large weight of water in a reservoir; forcing the hazard impacts so that usually more people are
people have no knowledge and understanding of killed in poorer countries with less costly damage, while
gas out of shale rocks (fracking); setting off the natural hazard, its possible impacts and how to
large explosions. the opposite is so for richer countries.
prepare themselves to mitigate a disaster
2 Volcanoes are found a long way from plate people are unable to prepare or react to a 14 Tectonic disaster trends
__ boundaries because there are hot spots, mostly hazardous event due to poverty It is necessary to be cautious when using data to
| _ associated with mantle plumes, which force molten there are no advance warning systems or interpret trends because:
' material through thinner parts of the crust or where ineffective ones * accurate recording and reporting have only existed
the crust is cracked. people have not been involved in the planning for a few decades and previous disasters may not
3 Plate tectonic theory and preparation for a hazardous event and so do have been recorded
not know what is going on, what the risks are and + short timescales ignore the fact that natural hazard
1, Convection occurs in the mantle of the Barth
what to do when the hazard occurs. trends are linked to geological timescales
because considerable heat is radiated through it
+ data from developing countries, especially remote
iat from the core (where temperatures reach 7000 °C), 9 Social and economic impacts
isolated areas, are often inaccurate and incomplete.
The material of the mantle (peridotite) is under 1 All aspects of development:
pressure and with the heat, it behaves like a viscous * Bconomic aspects show the level of poverty 15 Significance of mega-disasters
liquid, slowly convecting. When these convection cell and the lack of ability of people to afford 1 A mega-disaster has larger impacts (measured in
currents move along underneath the Earth’s crust mitigation measures, terms of deaths, homelessness, economic losses and
there is friction and the tectonic plates are dragged * Social aspects show education levels and the lack disruption). For example, the UN suggests that
along in the same direction as the current. of understanding and knowledge that people have between 500 and 2000 deaths is a disaster and over
2 Knowledge of the Earth’s structure and composition of their situation, 2000 is a mega-disaster.
are important because it shows that (a) there is a * Political aspects show how involved people are in Nw Some large-scale tectonic hazards become mega-
source of heat from the inner core that radiates decision-making and planning, and the level of disasters because of global geographical processes,
outwards through other layers; (b) the mantle understanding of what to do to reduce impacts of For example, atmospheric circulation is able to
material must behave as a viscous liquid and so can a hazard. distribute ash over huge areas, and ocean shapes
convect; (c) the outer core is hot liquid iron and * Environmental aspects show the extent to which and depths direct tsunamis. The ability of people
is convecting to generate a magnetic field, which people are keeping natural systems intact so to travel easily around the world places different
changes direction regularly. that they help to protect them, particularly from nationalities in hazardous zones. Globalisation has
secondary tectonic hazards. linked world economies together, so an impact in
4 Tectonic processes 2 Three reasons linked to higher vulnerability, such as: one location may have knock-on effects in other
There is subduction of the Nazca plate under the South * lower level of knowledge and understanding of world regions.
American plate with seawater causing hydration melting, hazards and what to do
and the mixing of lithospheric mantle and continental * lack of access to technology and resources that
16 Multiple-hazard zones
rock minerals creating a high silica and gas content in would help protect them | Suggested possible deadly hazard combinations
the magma. Viscosity is high and eruptions are explosive. * lack of warning and evacuation systems where a tectonic hazard may be made worse
Tn contrast, Hawaii is at a hot spot plume in the centre * health care and rescuing services are less (any two);
of the Pacific plate and the magmas are basaltic with well developed Landslides after earthquakes may block river
low silica and gas content, eruptions are therefore + proliferation of shanty towns with poor valleys, ponding back water until it breaches the
gentle and effusive. Cross-sections of the relevant plate construction standards, blockage causing flooding downstream.
boundaries should be labelled or annotated to support Coastal flooding could be made worse if a tsunami
written answer. 10 Measuring tectonic hazards combines with the storm surge of a tropical cyclone.
Only four earthquakes have ever been recorded at 9.0 or Earthquakes may shake unstable slopes so much
5 Earthquake waves higher. This is the top of the energy scale and therefore that they move rapidly downhill as a landslide.
1 Lsurface waves arrive after the S body waves. S it is most likely that the intensity will be at the top of NR The Philippines has experienced combinations
waves have a long wavelength and travel relatively the Mercalli scale (X11) and that the largest tsunami of physical processes to produce a natural hazard
slowly (4 km/s) keeping a large amplitude even (VI) will be created. that has the potential to be a disaster, therefore the
away from the epicentre, They moye the ground, monitoring and management of just one process is
including solid rock, up and down many times. Many ll Tectonic hazard profiles
not enough to reduce the overall risk. The density
structures are weakened by this movement. Then L Social impacts are more severe in developing countries of population and poverty increase the vulnerability
waves arrive with a very strong horizontal (lateral) because people are more vulnerable. For example, they of people in the multiple-hazard country, and these
movement, different from other seismic waves, lack knowledge and understanding of hazards and human aspects require management as well to
and buildings cannot respond fast enough to this therefore cannot prepare themselves, the countries improve resilience,
movement, especially if weakened by the body waves, lack technology to create warning systems and
and may be completely destroyed. effective communications. Therefore usually more 17 Prediction and forecasting
2 Seismic waves shake the ground in many ways, people are killed or injured, Economic impacts are | Suggested possible rank order: volcanoes, tsunamis,
moving it in all directions during the short duration more severe in developed countries in terms of total earthquakes, Volcanoes are in a fixed location and
of an earthquake. In urban areas there are many costs because there are more expensive buildings and can be monitored, Tsunamis are linked to a certain
buildings of different ages and sizes in a small area; infrastructure to be damaged and more GDP-earning earthquake location and can be tracked. Earthquakes
some may have aseismic designs but if not they are businesses to be affected, However, poor people in occur anywhere on plate boundaries or faults and
vulnerable to the waves and may suffer damage or developing countries may struggle due to loss of monitoring these reveals no useful information
destruction; this can then block streets and make it jobs or to replace even low-cost buildings, Emerging for prediction.
difficult for people to evacuate or receive aid. countries may experience combined severity, as they 2 Developed countries have the wealth and technology
have growing cities to be damaged but still many to be able to establish monitoring stations, the
6 Volcanic hazards vulnerable people. scientific expertise to collect and analyse data, and
1 Pyroclastic flows can be considered the most serious the ability to communicate quickly with populations.
of the volcanic hazards because of the extremely fast 12 Vulnerability and resilience However, often these things are lacking in developing
speed they travel from the volcano into surrounding 1 The lack of money, people or governments, reduces countries, for example at the time of the 2004 Indian
areas. They are not limited to the sides of the the ability to prepare for hazards because buildings Ocean tsunami there was no warning system.
volcano. There is a wide range of ways in which they will be weaker, understanding and
can damage property, infrastructure and people; planning will be missing, access to health care 18 Hazard management stages
such as superheated material which burns and starts will be difficult, and the ability to obtain and store Developing countries are often less prepared for a
fires, the suffocating and poisonous gases that kill resources will be lacking. hazardous event because their planning may lack
_ people and farm animals, the large material (even 2 Cities in developing countries will have a lot of poor the expertise and availability of technology that a
boulders) that smash buildings, and the vast number people, often living in slum conditions, Population developed country has, Communities may not have
of smaller particles that bury things. density is very high, especially in the poorest areas, emergency plans in place, especially in remote rural
2 Eruptions of ash can have global impacts because Many people only have informal jobs which do not areas of developing countries, which many developed
ash is ejected to a high altitude by violent eruptions provide a regular income. There is a lack of ability to countries will have. A developing country, or region/

: 291
 ANSWERS

community within it, may be dependent on external 24 Exam practice 2 21 Periglacial processes
help and this may take time to arrive. Search and rescue 1 Suggested possible answer: All three stages are If continuous permafrost is associated with very low
may initially be left to people in local communities and important in their own way. Pre-disaster actions can mean annual temperatures, sporadic permafrost occurs
medical care may not be available, contrast to developed reduce risk or prevent a disaster, saving lives and in areas where mean annual temperature is only just
countries where these services are available, contrast to protecting property and infrastructure, but cannot above freezing and less than half the landscape has
developed countries where these services are available. stop a tectonic hazard event and if it is of large permafrost. This suggests that local factors will also
A developing country may lack the money and materials magnitude then it may overwhelm preparations. be important in sporadic permafrost distribution. For
necessary for the ‘build back better’ recovery stage. Quick responses once a hazard has occurred can save example, vegetation cover will insulate the ground
19 Strategies to modify events lives. For example, warnings can lead to successful and prevent permafrost formation. Water retains
evacuations and aid can look after people; however, heat better than the soil so areas with lakes may have
Any choice possible but probably not earthquakes.
damage to property could be considerable and less permafrost under and around the lakes. Slope
Possible suggested answer for volcanoes:
take a very long time to rebuild. Post-disaster is an orientation could also affect permafrost development,
* Fast-moving hazards like pyroclastic flows can
only be avoided by hazard zoning and keeping important stage if lessons can be learned from the with north-facing slopes (in the northern hemisphere)
people out of risky areas. hazard event, such as rethinking the risk assessment experiencing the least solar radiation.
and mitigation measures to improve things for
More predictable and slower moving hazards such 28 Periglacial landforms
as lava flows can be modified by diverting them the future.
2 Resilience can be improved by having knowledge and The formation of an open system pingo begins with a
or slowing them down by artificial cooling with discontinuous permafrost layer including a talik — an
water.
understanding of the areas at risk and the details
area of unfrozen ground below the permafrost. The
° Some lahars can be avoided by draining crater of the possible hazards to be faced. Plans should be
next step is the formation of an ice ‘lens’ under the
lakes, which could be the source of water to mix drawn up to help cope with a hazardous event if it
occurs; this may include building standards, land-use active layer overlying the talik, which starts to push the
with tephra. ground surface up. The ice lens grows as water moves
zoning, evacuation procedures, and stockpiling of
20 Mitigation and adaptation strategies towards it from the talik, forming a pingo.
essential resources and building supplies.
The formation of a closed system pingo begins with
1 Hi-tech monitoring involves the latest electronic There should also be a flow of information and
equipment. This includes the technology to monitor good communications between the authorities and
continuous-permafrost, with a pocket of unfrozen ground
hazards, through use of satellites or buoys in all people, so that there is awareness of a hazard underlying a lake. Next the lake disappears, with an ice len:
open ocean, which enables warning systems to be occurrence and plans can be implemented effectively. forming beneath what is left of the lake. The permafrost
established. Modern communications enable instant 3 Major earthquakes are most common at destructive then advances on the unfrozen pocket of ground,
messaging around the world so warnings can reach (subduction) plate boundaries, therefore the energy expanding the ice lens to create a closed system pingo.
planners and officials; increasingly people have released is very likely to move the crust (and 29 Glacial mass balance system
mobile phones through which to receive warnings. therefore the seabed) upwards or downwards (as well An ‘unhealthy’ glacier is one that is retreating and
Construction also involves advanced designs using as sideways) a significant amount very quickly. This thinning over a longer time period, for example 10
latest technologies, such as computer-controlled displaces a water column leading to the creation years. Glacier mass balance is the total accumulation of
counter-weights in the top of tall buildings. Computer of a tsunami. Earthquakes at constructive plate the glacier minus the total ablation for a year, and an
modelling of hazards leads to the production of boundaries under the ocean have less energy and unhealthy glacier will be retreating and thinning becaus
hazard zones, which assist planners. Rescue teams cause much less movement, and the other causes, it is cumulatively in negative mass balance.
have the latest heat- and noise-sensing equipment such as volcanic islands exploding, are rare events.
when they are searching collapsed buildings. 4 Suggested possible plan: The processes that combine 30 Glacial movement
However, hi-tech is not always necessary, for example to produce hazardous lahars include erupted material 1 Polar glaciers move by internal deformation because
buildings can be made aseismic by strengthening (tephra), a source of water and valleys to confine the they are frozen to their bedrock as a result of low
corners of houses, putting on lighter roofs and mixture into a flow. To be hazardous there must also temperatures, meaning the ice at their base does not
reinforcing walls with bamboo or plastic netting. be the presence of human activity. Without valleys reach pressure melting point. Temperate glaciers
2 Itis often said that it is better if people can help lahars would disperse, and without unconsolidated do reach the pressure melting point at their base
themselves, so communities that are prepared erupted material or sufficient water they would not and consequently their movement is lubricated and
through knowledge and understanding, and with happen. If nobody lived in their path, they would accelerated by basal slip. It is basal slip that means
local experts to help in an emergency, will be able to not be a hazard. Perhaps the water supply is the most temperate glaciers move faster than polar glaciers. .
direct people on where to evacuate to or where to get important, as without a sudden large amount, like 2 There are a range of factors that could explain the |
food, water and shelter. It may take time for external the emptying of a crater lake, the water would not difference (any three):
help to arrive, so the first people to start rescuing pick up tephra or be fast or travel long distances. * slope gradient (steeper slopes mean
are local volunteers. External groups such as NGOs 5 Suggested possible plan: No one correct answer, but faster movement)
have more and better equipment and organisational each process should be considered so that the relative bedrock permeability (meltwater is lost to
skills, so can get more done such as setting up camps importance can be shown. For example, convection permeable bedrock, reducing basal slip and
with proper sanitation and shelter with medical in the mantle could be regarded as the most slowing movement)
aid. External rescue groups will have the latest important process as it moves the large plates, both precipitation level (higher snowfall means more
technologies to be able to find people better. oceanic and continental, in various directions, so accumulation and faster movement)
creating the different types of plate boundary. Once rate of ablation (more ablation means more
23 Exam practice 1 meltwater which means more basal slippage and
this has taken place then slab pull (and slab push)
1 (a) The VEI scale uses (any one): volume of ejected add their influence on movement. Palaeomagnetism more movement) i
material, height of ash column, and length of ice temperature (colder ice deforms less and stays
is just a record of movement. Mantle plumes may
eruption phases. stuck to the bedrock more)
be part of the convection system, but if they are
(b) Suggested possible answers: separate then they could also be important in ice thickness (greater thickness — over 50 m thick —
(i) They are close to plate boundaries where means thick plastic flow, though the heavier the
splitting the crust.
there are weaknesses in the Earth’s crust 6 Suggested possible plan: All of the strategies are ice, the more force is needed to overcome increase¢
allowing molten magma to reach the surface. friction caused by more mass).
important in their own way, so there is not one
They are close to subduction (destructive)
correct answer to this question. It could be argued 31 The glacier landform system
plate boundaries, where melting of subducted
that modelling and creating hazard-zone maps
oceanic plates creates instability, with molten 1 (a) Sub-glacial environments are below a glacier or
and then land-use regulations are best because
magma forcing its way to the surface. ice sheet, where the environment is under great
then people are moved out of risky areas. Or that
(ii) Cartographic skills: add a second bar pressure from the weight of the overlying ice,
construction techniques are most important because
alongside the VEI scale drawn to a scale; or producing erosion by abrasion and plucking. For
most people in earthquakes, for example, are killed
proportional circles (using log scale) over temperate glaciers this environment may also
by buildings collapsing onto them, or tsunamis wash
location of volcanoes to show damage costs. have a lot of meltwater present, which can create
buildings away with people inside them, and it is not
Must be some explanation to get the second sub-glacial deposition landforms. Ice marginal
possible to be 100% certain where a tectonic hazard
and third marks. environments are at the sides of the glacier/ice
will hit. Also, that having good communications
2 Suggested possible plan: Social vulnerability arises sheet, or at its end. Processes operating here are
to all the people in a community and an efficient
when a household or community lack access to dominated by weathering and deposition.
evacuation procedure with fast routes away are most
an essential during a hazard event or afterwards. (b) Proglacial environments are at the front of glacier:
important, because then people have the chance to
Health care is one of these. Without immediate and ice sheets, and are dominated by fluvio-glacial
get away from the risky zones.
medical aid people may die of their injuries. processes, while periglacial environments are at the
Without medical care after an event disease may 25 Causes of climate change edges of glaciated areas (and in areas unaffected
cause further deaths. People are therefore not Glacials happened relatively regularly throughout the by glaciation) and are dominated by freeze-thaw
prepared and lack resilience. Pleistocene, which suggests that whatever caused them processes and meltwater, and are not characterisec
3 Suggested possible plan: Plate tectonic theory was happening cyclically/in a cycle. Glacials happened by moving ice.
has only existed since the 1960s, when it was roughly every 100000 years, which is the timescale over 2 Periglacial environments are often very extensive
established that radiated heat from the Earth’s which Milankovitch’s eccentricity cycle operates. and involve processes operating over a wide scale to
core must be causing the viscous mantle, which is produce macro-scale landforms such as patterned
under pressure, to convect. Your answer should 26 Distribution of ice cover ground and blockfields.
cover how convection explains what is happening Temperature declines by 1°C for every 100 m of altitude, 3 The concept of a glacier landform system links
to plates and tectonic processes, then introduce meaning that high-altitude areas can be cold enough to characteristic landforms to particular glacial
other factors such as palaecomagnetism, seismic allow snow to persist from year to year, enabling layers processes so that it is possible to see not only how
waves, sea floor spreading, intra-plate processes and of snow to accumulate and be compressed into ice. The far ice extended in the past but also what glacial
mantle plumes, and knowledge of Earth’s structure distribution of high-altitude glaciated upland landscapes processes were dominant at different places in
and composition. Not all of these need to be in the map shows that these areas are largely confined the landscape at different times. For example, the
covered, just enough to be able to make an accurate to the world’s highest mountain areas, for example the presence of terminal moraines indicates the extent ol
assessment of the significance of mantle convection. Himalayas, the Rockies and the Alps. past glacial advances.

292
 ANSWERS

32 Glacial erosion and cirques 3 First the deposit would be photographed with a Slope damage in ski resorts comes from the removal of
1 Glacial abrasion would be increased by factors metre rule for scale, for use in supporting subsequent vegetation, rocks and soil to create the broad, smooth
including: the mass of the glacier because the greater data analysis and interpretation. pistes that skiers want, and from the construction
the pressure of the ice against the bedrock, the A random sampling technique would be used to of roads, ski lifts and other infrastructure around
greater the pressure of the abrasion on that bedrock; sample 100 clasts (a 100-m tape measure randomly the pistes. Pistes are also groomed overnight to
the speed of the glacier as a faster-moving glacier placed along the deposit and a random number pack the snow and create a good surface for skiing,
will transfer more energy to the abrasion process; the generator used to generate 20 random sample sites snowboarding and snowmobiling. Slope damage can
amount of basal debris since the more debris there along that 100 m with the clasts positioned on the be reduced by revegetating slopes using plants that are
is, the more material is embedded in the ice to abrade tape measure at those 20 numbers sampled. Once native to the area (ski resorts often sow grass seeds
with; the nature of the abrading material because complete, another random location on the deposit that are not adapted to the conditions, increasing soil
harder/more angular debris will be a more effective; would be sampled in the same way until 100 clasts erosion), maintaining the vegetation cover in summer to
the nature of the bedrock since less resistant bedrock had been randomly sampled. get it as dense as possible. Netting (made of sustainable
will be abraded more rapidly; the presence of basal Each clast would be measured in situ for orientation jute) adds stability to slopes. Forest reserves around
meltwater under pressure since this may protect the by placing the long side of a compass along the the pistes can further stabilise the soil. Rotating pistes
bedrock from abrasion. long axis of each clast and recording the orientation and limiting the numbers using pistes can also reduce
2 Inacirque glacier, accumulation is greatest at the of each end (180° apart) in degrees to give two slope damage.
‘back’ of the glacier, closest to the cirque headwall. recordings for each clast.
4 Calculating the mean orientation would enable any
44 Managing climate warming
This means this part of the glacier is thicker and Global scale: the Paris Agreement (2015) is intended
heavier. Ablation is greatest at the ‘front’ part of the trend in orientation while calculating the standard
deviation would give an indication of any dispersion to be a global commitment to limit global temperature
cirque glacier, closest to the cirque lip. This makes rises to below 1.5 °C, to which 184 countries plus the
this part of the cirque glacier relatively thinner and from the mean.
EU have signed up.
lighter. This difference means the glacier rotates 38 Glacial meltwater processes National scale: governments switch national economies
in the cirque hollow to redistribute its weight. The 1 The higher the Cailleux Index value, the flatter or to low-carbon sources of energy (more renewables).
rotational movement intensifies abrasion of the more angular the clast; as a result, glacial till would Local scale: people make their homes more efficient in
cirque hollow, over-deepening it. have higher values, as its clasts have been frozen into how they use energy (e.g. through insulation).
33 Valley glacier landforms ice and not rounded by meltwater attrition in the way
47 Exam practice ]
Cirque: dominant process is erosion (plucking and fluvio-glacial deposits have been.
2 Meltwater has the greatest power closest to the snout 1 (a) Precession cycle
abrasion), macro-scale, mainly sub-glacial environment, (b) Two from:
upland landscape, both active and relict. Glacial trough: (proximal zone) and so deposits here will be large,
coarse particles. In the medial zone, particle size is The eccentricity cycle: changes in orbit over a
dominant process is erosion (plucking and abrasion), 100 000-year cycle. When the Earth’s orbit takes it
macro-scale, mainly sub-glacial environment, upland smaller as meltwater here has less energy and is also
more affected by variability in flow (both daily and further from the Sun, it receives less solar energy.
landscape, both active and relict. Ribbon lake: dominant . The obliquity cycle: changes to the Earth’s axis
process is erosion (plucking and abrasion), meso-scale, seasonally). In the distal zone, furthest from the
snout, deposits are small and well sorted. over a 41 000-year cycle. This changes how much
mainly sub-glacial environment, upland relict landscape. solar energy is received at the Earth’s poles.
34 Ice sheet scouring 39 Fluvio-glacial landforms The precession cycle: ‘wobbles’ in the Earth’s axis
Differential geology means that the underlying geology Ice-contact fluvio-glacial landforms result from over a 21 000-year cycle. This affects how cold or
of the landscape is not uniform or all the same, but deposition of material carried by the ice or within/ warm seasons are.
includes some rocks that are less resistant to erosion beneath the ice. Proglacial landforms result from 2 Evidence for reconstructing Pleistocene ice sheet
and some that are more resistant. This can be to do with deposition by meltwater beyond the glacier’s snout extent could include: depositional evidence such as
differential weathering of a single rock type as well as to erratics, drumlins, moraine; erosional evidence such
40 Value of glaciated landscapes as glacial troughs, corries, roches moutonnées, knock
there being different rock types of varying resistance. Answers could include:
Both roches moutonnées and crag and tail are examples and lochan landscapes; meltwater evidence such as
* unique and endemic species/animals and plants till, meltwater channels, eskers.
of landforms that form because of a more resistant that live nowhere else
tock outcrop surrounded by less resistant rocks (usually 3 Plan: When and what? Little Ice Age as a period
¢ wilderness areas — an increasingly rare opportunity of cooling during the Holocene, which lasted from
these are already outcrops before glaciation). Knock for humans to experience true wilderness
and lochan are perhaps the best example, because here around 1300 to 1870 (disputed). Characteristics?
traditional lifestyles and culture of indigenous Cold winters: frozen rivers (ice fairs); glacial
the glacier is responsible for eroding less resistant rock peoples, which will disappear if not preserved
(lochan) more than more resistant rock (knock). advances; sea ice increases; changes to climate in rest
fragile ecosystems that should be protected from of year meaning poor harvests. Causes? Uncertain.
35 Ice contact depositional features damage because of the very long time it takes Volcanic activity? Sunspot activity?
1 (a) Terminal moraine, because this is deposited at the them to recover from damage 4 Plan:
glacier’s furthest extent (and will not have been contribution to natural systems (water cycle, What is mass balance? How it explains glacial
reworked by subsequent advances). carbon cycle), which only continues in a positive movement — accumulation greater than
(b) Drumlins with a high elongation ratio, because form as long as the environments are protected ablation = glacial advance; ablation greater than
the faster the ice was flowing, the more elongated from the threat of climate warming. accumulation = glacial retreat. Significant on
the drumlins (if any were formed). 41 Direct threats macro-scale; significant in understanding and
(c) A recessional moraine, because these are created Avalanche risk is increased by human activities, especially explaining widespread glacial retreat today due to
as glacial retreat pauses. deforestation and soil erosion, as this can increase the climate warming.
2 One theory for drumlin formation is that they are likelihood of underlying layers being too weak to support However, other factors also important: polar vs
formed by deposition when glacier ice becomes the weight of heavy snowfall by reducing slope stability. temperate glaciers (also macro-scale), altitude,
overloaded with debris when exiting an upland Vibrations from transport and construction can also slope, lithology (meso-scale); extent of basal
area. The deposits are streamlined and shaped by trigger avalanches. Risks of hazards inevitably increase slip, regelation creep, internal deformation
the moving ice. when humans are active in a glaciated landscape, as it is (micro-/meso-scale).
Other theories: the humans and their property that are at risk. Conclusion: significant at the largest scale and
* Drumlins are formed when deposition occurs main driver, but necessary to consider other
in the lee of an obstacle, which then forms the 42 Indirect threats factors too in order to get full understanding.
core of the drumlin as moraine is deposited and There are a range of possible explanations, which could
moulded around it. Some drumlins (but not all) include (assuming no actual knowledge of the specifics 48 Exam practice 2
have been found to have a rock core. of Patagonia): 1 Reasons could include:
* Drumlins are formed from irregular deposits left * a greater-than-average increase in temperatures in * uniqueness of some plants and animals found in
by meltwater floods, which are then moulded by the part of the world where Patagonia is located glaciated landscapes, especially polar landscapes
a contribution of ocean currents (or perhaps El + fragility of glaciated landscapes which increases
advancing ice.
Nifio/La Nifa fluctuations) to glacial melting or their value as they are so easily damaged
36 Lowland depositional features snow supply ¢ Polar scientific research that has been vital in
(a) clasts; (b) rock flour; (c) unstratified; (d) measuring Patagonia’s glaciers may be lower level glaciers, understanding Earth’s climate history and in
the orientation of clasts which makes them more vulnerable to ablation detecting atmospheric changes
than high level glaciers * wilderness recreation, which allows people access
37 Reconstructing past glaciation Patagonia’s glaciers may calve as icebergs into to the distinctive environmental qualities of
1 (a) Place tracing paper over the map or image and the sea, which makes glaciers more vulnerable to glaciated landscapes.
trace the outline of an appropriate number of rapid recession 2 Answers could include developments of the
drumlins. Draw a line along the long axis and record changes to precipitation, which may have meant following points:
the orientation of the long axis for each drumlin a reduction in snow accumulation in winter, and regulation of the carbon cycle — the major carbon
to record evidence for direction of ice movement. more frequent and more intense rainfall in summer. stores provided by periglacial environments
(b) For relative speed of ice flow, calculate the regulation of the hydrological system — for
elongation ratio by dividing the length of the 43 Managing glaciated landscapes example, glaciers providing meltwater that is
drumlin by the width of the drumilin: the greater the Heating could change from reliance on fossil fuels important in maintaining flows in river systems
ratio, the faster the ice was moving. to renewable energy, for example solar, wind, biofuel * regulation of climate through albedo effect.
2 The BGS Geology of Britain viewer has a and geothermal. 3 Plan: Glaciers contribute to river flow through
‘superficial only’ setting which displays superficial Transport could change from individual car, ATV meltwater: the larger the volume of ice in the
_ deposits (previously called drift), including and snowmobile use to more walking, cycling and ablation zone, the larger (in principle) the volume of
diamicton (non-stratified) till and glacial sand transportation by electric vehicles. For example, meltwater reaching river systems. Reductions in flow
and gravel. Using this setting, the limits of glacial Zermatt in the Swiss Alps has banned cars and brought could therefore be related to reduced volumes of ice
deposits can be viewed to indicate the extent of ice in electric buses and electric taxis (helicopters are still in ablation zones ~ glacial retreat, reduced levels of
coverage in the UK. permitted, however). melting, perhaps due to cooler summer temperatures.

293
 ANSWERS

Links to climate through climate warming (consider the arrival of each wave crest, using a fixed point on 59 Rapid coastal recession
natural as well as anthropogenic) and glacial retreat, the beach as your reference point (e.g. the end of a Changes in wind direction could increase the rate of
also possibility of other climate factors such as groyne). Doing this for a fixed period of time (say, recession if winds change to those with a long fetch
reduced rainfall and increased evaporation from 10 minutes) would give you the data for a measure of compared to winds with a short fetch (which might
rivers. Human factors: human activities link to central tendency. The mean frequency of the waves be the prevailing winds). Seasons will affect the rate
enhanced greenhouse effect and climate change. over this period would then tell you if they were of recession since erosion is likely to be most effective
Human activity also likely to be a factor in over- constructive (6-8 per minute) or destructive (13-15 in winter when winter storms (low pressure weather
abstraction of water from rivers for agriculture per minute). systems) bring the most powerful destructive waves
(irrigation), industry, power generation. to UK coastlines. Tides will also influence the rate of
53 Landforms of coastal erosion
4 Plan: What is the influence of geology? Influences recession, since high tides may mean the waves reach
Softer, unconsolidated lithography is not strong enough
ofdifferential resistance, permeability, jointing the backshore, eroding cliffs, while at low tide waves
to support features like arches and stacks, which is why
to specific landforms. What other factors are also may have all their energy absorbed by the beach.
the cave-arch-stack-stump sequence is associated with
important? Glacier type (cold-based or warm), When winter storms coincide with high tides, the rate
glacier movement (fast or slow), glacier advance or
stronger rocks that can support these features. Joints
and bedding planes are important for the formation of recession will also increase. Weathering and mass
retreat (is geology less important for landscapes of movement are likely to have stronger effects during
deposition than of erosion?). Consider the complex of caves, especially caves that extend through a
headland, and this is why they are most associated with the winter, when there is more rainfall (and possibly a
nature of glacial landscape formation and time as a freeze-thaw cycle) than in summer.
factor: multiple glaciations and their influence. There sedimentary rocks that have these features. Igneous
is no single correct answer: consider each factor so rocks often have cracks and joints (caused by shrinkage 60 Coastal flooding
as the rock cools), and where these run horizontally, like Mangroves reduce the height of waves by an average
the relative importance can be shown, then come
to a substantiated judgement that is backed up by a bedding plane, then arches, stacks and stumps may of 40% within the first 100 m of forest, so removing
form, too. mangroves would mean higher waves reaching the coa
evidence from your answer.
5 Plan: Avoid dismissing one viewpoint and declaring 54 Sediment transportation causing more erosion and reaching further inland,
your support for another right from the start: Your example of negative feedback should explain how increasing the risk of coastal flooding. Mangroves are
consider the alternative views and then make your the negative feedback returns the system to balance especially important at reducing the impact of storm
own substantiated judgement. It is useful to consider (dynamic equilibrium); for example, where wave erosion _surges. Their impact in reducing storm surge levels by
a themed approach, as this provides more depth to causes rock falls, which then protect the base of the cliff 0.5 m for every 1 km of forest that the seawater passes
your answer than a ‘on the one hand this, but on from further erosion. through can have a very significant effect in lowering
the other hand that’ approach. For example, what the surge by the time it reaches the coast.
is meant by threat and how should we evaluate its 55 Transport process landforms
Your cross-section should look something like this:
61 Coastal flooding examples
severity to glaciated landscapes? Are natural hazards
Physical reasons could include: low-lying (coastal plat
more of a threat in the short term while human Sorting of
pebbles by size deltas, estuaries); falling land level (isostatic sinking);
activities have longer-term impacts? Is the location
Storm beach rising sea level (eustatic); removal of vegetation, e.g.
of the glaciated landscape important to the severity (age)
(omaller ridges) Wave action tides salt marsh, mangroves; frequent tropical cyclones; low
of the impact: polar glaciated landscapes compared ee
Gemi-circvlar Wave action pressure systems; funnel-shaped coast and sloping
with Alpine valleys, for example? Is there a difference olfshore currents
aa shallow sea bed which intensify storm surge height.
in threat between active glaciated landscapes and Runnel and
water pool Human influences are also potentially significant: the
relict glaciated landscapes? Considering these
Aswan Dam example shows how reducing inputs into
questions will help you to take a balanced approach.
sediment cell can increase the risk of coastal flooding:
49 Classifying coasts 56 Weathering and mass movement coastal management in one area could increase the ris
1 The foreshore, between the high- and low-tide marks. of flooding down drift; and human activities reducing
1 Salt crystallisation probably contributed to the rock
The backshore may be affected by wave action sand dune vegetation could increase the risk of “blow
fall on these chalk cliffs, due to saltwater penetrating
during very high tides and very powerful (usually out’, creating a gap in a sand dune barrier leading
the pores in the rock, evaporating and leaving salt
winter) storms. to flooding.
in the rock that expands as crystals, degrading the
2 High-energy coasts would fit on the retreating
rock. A daily cycle of freezing and thawing is not 62 Consequences
coast (sea gaining) and erosion section of the
present in Kent, on the south coast of England. While most countries, especially developed countries,
advancing and retreating coasts classification, while
As chalk is mostly calcium carbonate, it is affected will be able to reduce the threat of coastal flooding as
low-energy coasts would fit with the outbuilding
by carbonation — a chemical reaction when slightly sea levels rise/tropical cyclone intensity increases by
section of the advancing coast (land gaining) side.
acidic rainwater falls onto and penetrates into the building sea walls and other defences, the challenge is
One problem with the combination could be that
chalk, creating soluble substances that can be washed especially great for low-lying island developing nation
some coasts can be high energy in winter but are
away by water. such as the Philippines or the Maldives. One risk fact«
generally low energy in summer, with a dynamic
2 Weathering makes rocks weaker, making them is therefore having a lot of coastline to defend, which
equilibrium meaning that the coast is neither
less resistant to erosion or to mass movement is difficult for the Philippines since its large populatio:
eroding/retreating nor outbuilding/advancing,
processes. When some cliff strata are less resistant to (100 million) is spread out over 2000 islands. The lack
except on a short timescale.
weathering than others, this may contribute to the of higher elevation land to relocate communities to is
50 Geological structure formation of a wave-cut notch and undercutting of second risk factor, compounded by the high populatic
On a discordant coast, less resistant rocks are eroded the cliff, which leads to recession when the overhang, densities that characterise some developing countries,
differentially forming bays while the more resistant exposed to mechanical and chemical weathering, In the case of the Philippines, settlements by the coast
rock layers form headlands. Waves bend as they enter collapses due to gravity. are subsiding, in many cases due to the extraction of
bays — refraction. Refraction focuses wave energy on 57 Mass movement landforms groundwater, which increases the risk/vulnerability.
headlands, so that waves erode the headlands not only Hard engineering defences are very expensive both
Factors include:
head on but also from the sides. This erosion exploits to build and to maintain, which may be a factor for
* when permeable strata are on top of impermeable
points of weakness (e.g. a joint) so that they are some developing countries. Coastal communities in
strata, such as sandstone over clay
enlarged, which in some cases may eventually become developing countries are often heavily dependent on
when the bedding plane between the permeable
a sea cave: sea caves that erode right through the fishing, which makes their economies vulnerable to
and impermeable strata dips towards the sea
headland (sometimes on both sides of the headland) disruption by coastal flooding/storm surges. Rapid
when heavy rain saturates the permeable strata,
form an arch; subaerial weathering of the arch causes urbanisation may mean that settlements have been”
increasing its weight
its collapse to leave a stack. constructed in areas prone to coastal flooding before
when water percolates through the permeable
city governments were able to restrict construction in
51 Coastal erosion factors strata to the bedding plane between them, creating
these areas, or potentially these areas at risk of coasta
Embryo dunes form first and, once established, they pore pressure within the permeable strata
flooding are settled unofficially by recent migrants to
collect more sand and become larger. Pioneer plants when wave erosion undercuts the cliff from below.
the city.
such as sea rocket are then able to colonise the stable 58 Sea level change
dunes and help to bind the sand together and trap 63 Hard engineering
Your answer could make the following points:
more sand. ° Tides cause sea level changes on a short timescale For example: groynes. Groynes alter the process of
Yellow dunes are usually the highest dunes in a dune longshore drift as the barriers block the transfer of
as these happen twice daily (approximately).
sequence, and may form a ridge near the dune front sediment. This creates a broader beach that absorbs
Spring tides are higher than average tides caused
with marram grass. These are not fully vegetated and wave energy that might otherwise have reached the
monthly by the Earth, Sun and Moon being
can be altered by the wind and waves (‘blow outs’ can backshore and eroded it, increasing the supply of
in alignment, while lower tides, neap tides,
see dunes eroded, forming gaps in the line of dunes). At sediment. Obstructing the transfer of sediment along
occur monthly when the Sun and Moon are at
high tide or under storm conditions, seawater may reach the coast by longshore drift has consequences for
right angles.
the dips in the sand dunes, called slacks, allowing other beaches downdrift, which may become starved of
Very low pressure weather systems can produce
plants such as marsh orchids to grow here. sediment and narrow, reducing the protection provide
storm surges that temporarily raise sea levels at the
Mature dunes are known as grey dunes because their to the backshore, which may then be eroded.
coast by heights of several metres: these weather
humus content is higher, and the climax vegetation
is either pine forest (where soil acidity is high) or oak
systems often have a seasonal nature, for example 64 Soft engineering
winter storms in the UK. 1 For example: dune stabilisation. Embryo dunes fort
forest (where shell deposits neutralise the soil a little).
At the scale of decades and centuries, tectonic around obstacles — dune stabilisation often uses old
52 Marine erosion processes activity can cause tsunamis and raise or lower the Christmas trees to provide suitable obstacles to
Destructive waves have a wave frequency of 13-15 land locally relative to the sea. encourage deposition. Dunes are replanted with
waves per minute, while constructive waves have a wave On longer timescales are the eustatic and isostatic plants such as marram grass that naturally colonise
frequency of 6-8 waves per minute. changes due to glaciation and interglacials. dunes, working with the natural process of successit
You would time the frequency of the waves by using Sea level rises due to global warming appear to be 2 Your cross-section diagram will look something
a stopwatch to time the gap (in seconds) between a short-term change that really began in the 1980s. like this:

294
 ANSWERS

Slope revegetated to structure influences erosion and deposition but This is because modern services, such as finance,
increase stabilisation emergence and submergence: other factors. involve communications using the internet so distance
On other scales geological structure is significant, is not important and Singapore can easily link to
e.g. rocky cliffs vs sandy beaches (resistant geology), the wealthiest countries of the world. There is also a
Original cliff profile
headlands vs bays, concordant and discordant significant flow to nearby countries in SE Asia and
Cliff re-grading reduces coasts. Geological structure is an important influence Australia, the shorter distance making it easier to
the cliff profile to a more
stable angle on morphology and erosion rates. However, export. Three countries in Europe feature despite
geological structure is not the only factor: wave the considerable distance away and this is because of
Additional hard engineering
defences added to base of
energy is equally important, which is related to well-developed communications to and from this area
cliff to prevent undercutting a wave size and shape, length of fetch, depth of water, and specialisms in services (e.g. financial). India (2.1%
by marine erosion We ne
yi
dominant wind direction. to 3%) also features, probably because of the relatively
p short distance from Singapore and the emerging
71 Exam practice 2 economy of that country needs services.
1 Reasons could include: sea level rise, increased
frequency of storms, increased magnitude of storms. 73 Governments and organisations
; k 2 Answers could include: 1 Both international and national political decision-
5 Managing future threats *) Wave-cut notches are a distinctive coastal making have influenced the globalisation process.
sustainability is not only about use of resources but landform caused by abrasion and hydraulic action National governments adopt free-market economy
vho benefits. Because the coast is a complex system where destructive waves meet cliffs at high tide. policies that extend beyond their own country, and
ised in many different ways by different groups of * Cliffs are caused by waves eroding (undercutting) at join international trade blocs (e.g. the EU) or make
eople, new developments that benefit one group of the base of a slope, with gravity then causing mass agreements with nearby countries (e.g. ASEAN),
takeholders will inevitably displease or cause losses to movement and the exposure of a steep cliff face. which makes it easier to link into global economic
thers. Sustainable management recognises the potential * The cave-arch-stack-stump sequence of distinctive and political systems.
or conflict and seeks to meet the differing needs of as coastal landforms in which erosion is a dominant 2 There are large international economic organisations.
nany stakeholder groups as it can. factor: hydraulic action and abrasion first forming For example, the WTO promotes free trade on a
6 ICZM strategies caves, which may develop into an arch that is global scale, while the EU does the same for 28
Eee sistentHenc watise 100 much extended by further erosion and, weakened by European countries. The World Bank and IMF link
disturbance
Ete tooissc sediment transfers once
Was contipleted, frit the
thereinitial weathering, eventually
is gradually eroded into falls to create a stack which
a stump. the global Dankiby
for countries. Syste towprovige
Governments financial
of countries Help
assist by
might be disruption to local wild bird populations, eo ecducsees Ukely ue poy ecomomicond rao gene spe doing HDL usally from TNCs
possibly also to offshore habitats for sea life; there social: Economic: losses affecting housing, business, sd ae rain
might be concerns from the local tourist board agriculture and infrastructure (refer to table for AO2 74 Economic globalisation
about a wind farm spoiling the sea view; local Pee snc tcee bacatmcor 1 Possible suggested answer for customs duties:
sailing clubs might object to a wind farm if it : é i i i
aa their a ofoperations. and, esp cially, vo aegional and local BUS NES ee SEE Oa waa ae ie
b) Offshore dredging is damaging to local habitats oes acy rs eiithe cost of Ase a reduce their costs as it is cheaper to import or export
and it can also interrupt or disrupt the physical OMe BON but also the Battonal smpact = raw materials, components or finished goods. Time will
processes of sediment transfer within the coastal pews masteaace costs, AOI: social losses relating to also be saved asthe materials or goods do not need to go
system, which would have potentially serious these: Peee & forced eichoosing we Bocas (loss'of through a customs checking process. Therefore TNCs
consequences for coastal management. ee tes oF livelihood (farms can locate in many countries to get the advantages of
c) A golf course might be a popular addition to the ssi Lee ea famniliRayon generations are part of the best locations for each part of their business.
coast for local businesses and the council, but there identity), loss of BMG value. 2 China has a positive attitude towards FDI as
might be objections if, say, the course was to be 4 Plan: Describe ee Sediment eee renceDe CESS it started an ‘open door policy’ to help link the
built among sand dunes which formed a part of OSES: oe Explains ue eoast asia Ges economy of the country to global trading, and
the natural sea defences of the area, if the golf equilibr:jum, ways in which this is ANON Ce obtaining investment from other Couttries (through
course would block access to the sand dune area BATONS understand pe of negative feedback, TNCs) helps to make those links with the global
for other recreational users of the habitat. Golf such as wave erosion Causing tock falls, mic hithen networks, as well as providing employment and new
courses also use a lot of water and this might pee the base of a cliff from further erosion, and skills for the population which can then be passed
potentially be considered unsustainable. Pern ieedoack, such a damage ee oe dune on to domestic industries. China has also gained by
: 4 : uring a storm then leading to a ‘blow out’ and lean iyo? Hes isai al aan
7 Coastal policy conflicts further erosion, in order to explain landforms in a SIDS BOO GBCTECL ONORES 200 Copy thea,
‘our message might contain
: some of the following
: points: dynamic context. Important too in evaluating
; coastal ag SyneSingapore,
h as Japan, Hos bo Mealy
South ice elous
Korea and eae
to
a) A statement expressing your sympathy with the defences and coastal management — the impact ane bs : ‘ i :
3 A 7 : 5 Aah, : another economic superpower — the USA — so it has
situation faced by residents of Happisburgh (using that intervention at one part of the coast can have been allot inlesrate elf well
local knowledge such as the name of the main road on others through its influence on the transfer of 5 ;
affected, caravan park, etc. to demonstrate that you sediment. Ways in which the Sediment Cell concept 15 Global Indices and TNC role
know the local details). is limited: the idea of each sediment cell being 1 The ‘global core’ countries generally have the
b) An explanation of how policy decisions are reached: closed is possibly simplistic — transfers of sediment highest rank positions and highest Index scores
cost-benefit analysis, consideration of sustainable between cells may be important. How well does the compared to other categories. The ‘downward
management principles. Sediment Cell concept deal with change over time as transition’ countries generally have the lowest rank
c) A paragraph explaining how coastal defences at a second limitation? positions and lowest Index scores. ‘Resource frontier’
Happisburgh would, by creating a-headland or 5 Plan: Scale of challenge = the range of players countries generally have a higher rank and Index
promontory, have wider impacts on the whole involved makes management very challenging: score than the ‘downward transition’ countries. The
littoral cell down drift of Happisburgh, including the for example landowners and farmers, resident Globalisation Index means confirm the division
risk of increased erosion for other communities. associations, parish groups, councils, wildlife into the core-periphery model. Index means for the
d) A concluding paragraph recommending adaptation associations, recreation and leisure organisations, groups of countries shown are: Global core = 86.36;
strategies that the community could fund itself. business and infrastructure, e.g. tourist boards, Upward transition = 75.86; Resource frontier =
power companies, port managers, railway companies. 69.48; Downward transition = 62.96. Index rank
'0 Exam practice 1 Their interests are not always compatible. position means confirm this: Global core = 9.8;
(a) Glacial/ice sheet melting Consider SMPs as an attempt to make sure as many Upward transition = 36.8; Resource frontier = 56.6;
(b) Using the two from the diagram is fine, as long players’ needs as possible are considered when Downward transition = 81.4. The resource frontier
as you provide an explanation of how they each managing coastlines, Evaluate success: generally does better than expected, probably because of the
cause long-term change (sea level rise or fall). In speaking they are successful: coastline management strong influence of trade and other direct links to the
the case of glacial or ice sheet/ice cap melt, then plans are accepted and SMPs give the opportunity global cores. So global core countries are the most
it is the release of water on the land into the sea for all players to give their views. globalised, linked the most to global socio-cultural,
that raises levels, while for thermal expansion it is Consider flashpoints: where SMPs face greater political and economic systems, with downward
warming of the oceans that increases the amount challenges often where physical factors mean transition zones being the least globalised. Resource
of space between water molecules that is the coastlines are especially dynamic, e.g. where rates frontier countries are perhaps higher than expected,
cause. Other factors could include ice formation/ of recession are rapid. That leads to conflicts over but the wealth gained from resources and the trading
glaciation and sea level falls. holding the existing shoreline against no active links that are necessary raise their position. It is
(c) The specification mentions raised beaches with intervention or managed retreat. Use example of worth noting that some countries in reality are in
fossil cliffs, and rias, fjords and Dalmatian Happisburgh for opportunity for compromise: no more than one category, for example Brazil has an
coastlines in this context. active intervention policy went against the wishes of upward transition region (south-east), a downward
Plan: Changes in the rate of recession that happen local residents (Beach Road), lowered house values, transition region (north-east) and a resource frontier
over short timescale: tides (twice a day), wind etc. However, Happisburgh example shows coastline region (north-west) but data on globalisation of
strength/wind direction and fetch; over a medium management can be flexible: local campaigning led regions is not available.
timescale: seasonal factors such as winter storms and to £3 million grant from government to manage the NR TNCs link into globalisation systems by dividing
other weather system changes; longer-term changes: problem, move people to safer locations, etc. their production stages between different countries,
influence of weathering and mass movement, climate wherever is the best advantage; they seek out new
change, tectonic changes. 72 Global connections markets and so take their contacts and brands into
Plan: What is coastal development? — The way There are global flows, except Africa and South new countries; they take their products and modify
coasts develop. Reference Valentin’s classification of America are not connected to Singapore. The largest them to suit the markets of other countries so that
coasts: advancing coast (land gaining): emergence exports of services from Singapore are to the main they can still sell their brands there; they use the liberal
and outbuilding (deposition); retreating coasts economies of the world (USA over 10%, China and ‘free-market’ policies of governments to establish
(sea gaining) submergence and erosion. Geological Japan) regardless of distance from the country. different types of operations in other countries.

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 ANSWERS

76 Degree of globalisation country, supporting families and the economy there but 85 Mixed cultures and tensions
1 Suggested possible answers: Physical distance from with elite migrations it is often the opposite. Low-wage 1 Any one, such as open borders. Possible suggested
economic centres can leave a country isolated (e.g. migration consists of larger numbers and so may have answer: Sometimes the economic situation within
Chad); climate can create difficulties for working and a social impact if it is a certain age or gender group, a country needs either more workers to complete
operating machinery, with survival the main option while elite migrations are much smaller in number. Both low-wage manual jobs or provide skills in a service
for people and governments rather than making links groups may cause social and political problems if they (e.g. health care), or an influx of money from
with the rest of the world. return home with new cultural beliefs. wealthy foreign elites to boost the financial sector
2 Suggested possible answers: Corruption within a Cultural globalisation or FDI from TNCs to boost employment. National
government and authorities makes it difficult to governments may make it easier for people to move
TNCs are one mechanism by which cultural
trust rules and stability in the country, so FDI is not into the country at these times. If a country is a
diffusion has taken place. The media, especially
attracted; national governments may decide to follow member of a bloc of countries, there may be a legal
via the internet, has enabled people with electronic
isolationist or protectionist policies to keep control open border policy to allow freedom of movement
devices or access to TV to see different cultures
rather than allow development of external links (e.g. (e.g. the EU). |
or the portrayal of them. The USA and ‘western’
North Korea). 2 Tensions may arise in a host country if numbers of
cultures have a strong appeal as they seem to suggest
Suggested possible answers: A country with high immigrants are large and threaten the traditional
WwW
opportunities, freedom and wealth. TNCs spread
debt will have difficulty attracting FDI and lack national culture. Threats may be real or perceived;
these cultures through their brands, which are seen
trust in the validity of government fiscal policies usually immigrants do not take jobs away from
as a sign of prosperity, and also through providing
(e.g. Kazakhstan); some countries may not have any people but they may place pressures on schools
a product or service that symbolises wealth or
resources or products to sell, so they cannot engage or the health service as they get older. Immigrants
freedom to choose. The factories in which people
in trade with other countries. do bring with them a different culture, including
are employed will be organised along the lines of
language, religion, shops, entertainment and ways of
77 Benefits and costs ‘western’ principles. Other global organisations, such
doing things, some of which may contrast with the
1 Suggested possible best benefit: investment in as the Olympic movement, are also important in
national culture. /
infrastructure as this enables those industries already promoting disadvantaged groups.
established to lower their costs and improve their 2 USA brands dominated in terms of the number of 86 Controls on globalisation
competitiveness in global trade. It also stimulates top 12 brands in the world from that country (i.e. 9), -Some countries may wish to control the spread of
further growth (a multiplier effect). but also in terms of the total value, with both Apple globalisation because they see real or perceived threats
Suggested possible worst cost: the degradation of and Google dominating and having a value about to their ideology, culture or industries and businesses.
the natural environment is the result of uncontrolled three times greater than the first non-USA brand For example, information shared on the internet may
air, water and land pollution which kills wildlife but (Samsung of South Korea). Amazon is catching the lead to civil unrest and calls for significant changes in
also harms the health of people as they will breathe top two brands up fast. the way that a country is governed, or immigrants from
polluted air and drink contaminated water. 82 Cultural impacts contrasting cultures may start to dilute the national
2 No one correct answer. Suggested possible answer: culture, or industries may be declining because of
1 Cultural erosion is caused when a local or national
Emerging countries such as China and India wish competition from products produced more cheaply (or
culture is exposed to new ideas through globalisation
to be involved with global trade because this is better) in other countries.
(e.g. media, brands) that are perceived to be better
the main way of the country becoming wealthier,
(or in some cases they may be forced). The aspects 87 Attitudes to globalisation
earning foreign currency. They seek to develop a
of culture perceived to be better replace traditional 1 Indigenous groups can protect their culture
comparative advantage in the world of trade, by
elements and are incorporated into the local or and physical resources by forming a collective
offering a unique, high-quality or cheaper product
national culture. This is visible through the wearing government that can act as a pressure group,
or service. The money they earn can be used to
of branded clothing or designing weddings around representing the interests of all. This pressure can be
improve the global standing of the country, giving
the westernised ‘white wedding’. used to get cooperation with governments, national
it more power, but also to improve the lives of the
2 The natural environment may be damaged when laws or international help through organisations
population through higher wages and the ability
rapid urbanisation takes place due to people moving such as UNESCO, and bring pressure through
of the government to provide better infrastructure
to cities looking for better jobs; expansion is often negotiations on companies exploiting resources.
and services such as health care and education. A
into natural areas and the disposal of wastes from 2 Indigenous groups or native peoples may experience
healthier skilled workforce will then give the country
industries and people are put into the air, land or isolation and deprivation in terms of lack of services,
an advantage in the future to develop further.
water, which contaminates the natural environment. or job opportunities. In this situation these groups
78 Global shift: issues There is often a greater exploitation of resources may wish to embrace the benefits of economic
Global shift of manufacturing industries to developing to support the growth of industries (such as Rio globalisation to different extents. Money from
and emerging countries was fast and many governments Tinto in PNG) and their extraction and transport contracts with companies, jobs for native people
and systems were unprepared for this. For example, remoyes natural ecosystems, and the industries and compensatory payments bring money into
some countries did not have regulations to control and power stations add their damaging pollution. communities, which can be used to improve the
the operations of factories, especially waste disposal. Intensification of farming to support large urban quality of life for families and provide important
Economic priorities were put above the natural centres adds pesticides to the natural environment, services such as better education for children and
environment. The impacts of large-scale rural to urban damaging food webs. better health services for all.
migration were also not anticipated and so lacked 83 sisted development 88 Localism
controls. Therefore the natural environment was
(a) 1;— There is a range of costs associated with local sourcing
damaged by resource exploitation, factory emissions | a = South Africa
/ == India
(air, water and land) and urban sprawl — especially in and they are of varying importance. Local small-scale
the form of urban slums (shanty towns). production is often less efficient because of “economies
of scale’ and therefore products are more expensive
79 Rural—urban migration for consumers, while the efficient production methods
1 Globalisation has enabled megacities to establish elsewhere can easily offset transport costs and pollution
strong links with the rest of the world; this has emissions. Local production reduces consumer choice
attracted FDI, especially from TNCs, and increased and some products may not be available or are more
the exposure of the population to ‘western’ lifestyles best-fit line expensive, certainly at certain times of the year due
(e.g. branding). This creates a perception that the to seasonal production or work practices. External .
megacities represent a microcosm of the developed economic links are greatly reduced and interactions
world; people living in rural areas experiencing O° beyond the local area become rarer. The importance
1990 1995 2000 “2005 2010 2015
problems move to the city looking for a better life. of these may depend on the viewpoint — as a consumer
2 The flow of people (internal migration) into (b) India is an emerging economy and has the fastest there would be concern about expensive products
Maharashtra shows that it receives people from increase of the four countries, increasing by about and less choice, while producers may be concerned
more areas (nine) than any other Indian state. The 0.2. Despite being an emerging economy, South about the inability to expand production methods or
largest movements are from Uttar Pradesh and Africa’s HDI has fluctuated and is the only one to make beneficial external links. A national government
Karnataka with over 300000 people in one year have decreased (between 1995 and 2005), but it still may be concerned about not being able to interlink
and over 200000 from Bihar and West Bengal. The has the highest HDI. Haiti and Burundi are both local production and markets to benefit the whole
distances travelled include from neighbouring areas poor developing countries, with Haiti increasing at country, especially if external products are in fact more
and from the other side of the country. There is a steady rate, improving by about 0.1. Burundi has environmentally friendly.
only one movement out of Maharashtra, going to had the most dramatic change, between 2005 and The benefits of local sourcing include reducing
neighbouring Gujarat. The city of Mumbai is one 2010, when it improved by 0.1, narrowing the gap transport costs and pollution emissions because
of the main pull factors (jobs) with its population with Haiti. products have fewer miles to travel. Farming and
predicted to nearly double between 1995 and 2035 other production is likely to be smaller scale and so is
84 Inequality and trends
(14 million to 27 million). Mumbai is also attracting better for the natural environment as there are fewer
During the developing stage, a country may be mainly
a lot of people from inside the state of Maharashtra commercial pressures to be intensive, and selfsufficiency
an agrarian economy with relatively low incomes,
(70% of all immigrants), from both other urban becomes achievable. Local people can change their
so income distribution is more equal — although big
areas and rural areas; from beyond the state it is consumer habits and improve their local social and
landowners and traders may have considerably more.
mostly poor farmers and farm labourers moving to cultural connections, as well as supporting the economy
As a country emerges economically and manufactures
the megacity (20% of total). of the local area and helping to make it prosperous.
more valuable products, the gap between company or
80 International migration resource owners and the low-wage workforce increases 89 Fair and ethical processes
Source areas may lose the low-wage workforce, which the income distribution gap (e.g. India and China 1 Fair trade is a certification process that shows that
has an important role in the economy of the country, today). In developed countries, the income gap should a farm or other product has not unduly degraded
while elite migrations may take considerable sums of narrow, but this depends on the ethos of the country: the natural environment and that the producer
money with them out of the country. The low-wage if it emphasises providing opportunities (e.g. USA) has received a fair price for the product. The
diaspora usually send remittances back to the source then income inequality may still be significant. production point is monitored by NGOs, such

296
 ANSWERS
as Fairtrade Foundation, to ensure farmers, for 64.5) on the KOF Globalisation Index than upward primary sector jobs such as seasonal farm work
example, are using organic methods as much as transition countries (31.5 and 77.7). This shows that receiving low pay, and quinary sector jobs such as
possible, replanting trees and using sustainable they are the least globalised. This is because they consultants and chief executive officers (CEOs)
farming practices generally. In return, farmers are are found in less accessible locations, away from receiving very high pay.
helped to work together in cooperatives to negotiate global cores, so are not connected by transport or Employment type includes permanent and temporary
directly with buyers to get a fair price for their communications networks, or have governments that employment, employed and self-employed, part-time
products based on world markets; this cuts out the are authoritarian and/or corrupt so that there are and full-time. One possible connection/reflection
intermediary, who would often take a large share of political barriers to the spread of globalisation into could be a relationship with age: people may choose
profits, and makes trade more equai. the country. to switch from permanent full-time jobs to permanent
Many ethical consumption schemes are run by NGOs, Any two, such as: part-time jobs as they need more flexibility in their
who monitor environmental and working situations * Recycling is concentrated on dry wastes, especially lives to look after elderly parents perhaps, or because
in emerging and developing countries. These schemes glass, paper, metals and a few plastics, because they feel their own quality of life is under pressure
are important because without them consumers some wastes are not easily recycled. due to the demands of a full-time permanent job. On
would not know of situations and therefore not be * Some recycling technologies do not yet exist and the other hand, most students need to earn money
able to choose ethical products if they wished to. some are more expensive than extracting and using to live on as they study, without which their quality
For example, the Rainforest Alliance monitors the the original raw material. of life would suffer, and more flexible temporary
management and use of tropical rainforests to see that Plan: contracts (gig economy) fit their needs in a way that
they are not degraded; in return they certify products * Inequality exists around the world in economic permanent full-time jobs could not.
that come from areas where sustainable practices are and social terms.
found. Human Rights Watch has broadened its remit Globalisation has benefitted some but not all, so
97 Changing places
to include working conditions and labour rights; gap between groups has increased. 1 Location has been an important reason why places
they conduct interviews with workers in formal and Examples include income inequality; some have changed; for example, places near natural
informal work situations — although the latter are more countries have become linked to global economic harbours may have developed into important ports.
difficult to research. They help workers to achieve systems quicker than others, so some have emerged If these ports were located near industrial centres,
more rights through union membership and improved economically while others have remained poor. as Liverpool was, for example, and located on the
working conditions. There are differences within countries, with rich right side of the UK which is most beneficial for
people getting richer and poorer groups getting trade with the USA, as Liverpool also was, then this
90 Role of recycling location could mean a place changed significantly
poorer (as shown by Gini coefficient or index)
Recycling improves the management of resource during the 19th century. When a location no longer
(example of billionaires in India compared to
consumption by reducing the demand for new raw poverty and bustees). has the functions required, such as a deep water port
materials to be extracted. By doing this, the damage Social inequalities, such as on the basis of for container ships or a location near to growing
to natural environments and landscapes is reduced European markets, then a place (such as Liverpool,
gender, as those with education are able to
(as, for example, mining, deforestation and oil sands for example) may decline and require regeneration
access opportunities while those without are left
mining would not expand. Less energy will be used for to, for example, a regional retail destination.
in poverty. Inequalities between regions within
processing of new raw materials so this reduces the use countries, such as in the UK where the London Over time, changes in retail have caused major
of fossil fuels and the need for their extraction. Fewer changes in places. For example, over the last
region has benefitted from links to the world
resources are needed now and so resources, especially 50 years, shopping has moved from specialist
financial system, while northern regions have
finite ones, will last longer into the future. The amount local shops (a stationer selling pens and paper,
experienced deindustrialisation due to global shift.
of land space is also reduced as there is less waste going However, some countries have decreased a chemist, a greengrocer, butcher, fishmonger,
into landfill. inequalities (e.g. Brazil). Theories suggest that etc.) to supermarkets located in high streets, then
hypermarkets located out of town, causing changes
93 Exam practice 1 benefits will spread to all given sufficient time.
in high streets, then internet retailing putting
1 CA business makes a contract with another company 4 Plan:
Global influences on indigenous cultures, e.g. pressure on retailers and the rise of retail experiences
to complete part of the work on a product or service and high street functions that cannot be ordered
2 Several possible answers; one is: Satellite economic and resource links, communication and
cultural links, political integration. online, such as barbers, tattooists and coffee shops.
communications enable almost instant
communication around the world; this allows people Threats include loss of land ownership rights, 98 Measuring change
in different countries to see on television or hear extraction of resources from tribal lands, lack of 1 No. The IMD can compare a place’s deprivation
on the radio news and events from other parts of equality in terms of services, degradation of local with all other places, but that does not provide an
the world, making people more familiar with global environments, and cultural influences to change actual measure of deprivation. An LSOA with a
issues and other cultures. way of life. rank position of 1000 is not half as deprived as one
Several possible answers; two are: However, there are benefits, such as alternative jobs, with a rank of 500.
* Air pollution is very high in some cities of the share of wealth from resources (leading to improved No. The domain of income deprivation measures
developing world, such as Beying in China and quality of life), increasing political recognition, people on low incomes who receive benefits and
Kolkata in India. This is because of poorer international laws protecting human rights. tax credits, it doesn’t measure how much income
controls of emissions of particulates from vehicles Examples from First Nations peoples in Canada all the people in the area get. So a place with
(especially in traffic jams) and factories. and Alaska, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander no people on low incomes might have everyone
Water is contaminated, especially by untreated peoples in Australia, native people in Amazon Basin. living on high incomes, or no one living on high
sewage and factory wastes, which greatly affects Conclusion: threats exist but there can be benefits. incomes — or anything in between; the IMD
human health as these sources are often used by 95 Classifying economic activity doesn’t measure it.
poor people, as there is no sanitation and water
(a) Advantages of the gig economy could include: 99 Past and present connections
supply infrastructure, especially in shanty towns.
people who work in the gig economy can be more (a) This answer will depend on your chosen places and
No one correct answer; one is: Global understanding
flexible, fitting in work as and when they need the results of your place studies. Deindustrialisation,
of climate change may help poorer people living
to among other commitments; some temporary for example, might have had an influence on the
in areas experiencing the greatest change, such as
contract jobs pay more than doing the same job on paths students are working towards when they leave
islands (e.g. Tuvalu) facing rising sea levels, as New
a permanent basis; short-term temporary contracts school. If, in the past, many people went on to work
Zealand has agreed to resettle them. Globalisation
are a good way of getting experience in different in a place’s main industrial employer, that may now
has helped raise issues of human rights through
types of employment; short-term temporary have changed and future pathways be
faster reporting of issues around the world, such as
contracts can be more interesting and varied than more uncertain.
the plight of the Kurds in northern Iraq, prompting
doing the same job year after year. (b) Internet connectivity might be something you have
international action to help them. Economic The main disadvantages of the gig economy are that considered, for example, with its impact on students’
globalisation has spread job opportunities to poorer
workers do not have the same rights as employees of connections globally and to your chosen places.
people in developing countries, such as factory
the companies that they work for. For example, they
workers in China or India, as the increasing wealth
are not protected by laws about unfair dismissal, which 100 Successful regions
of people has created new markets for exports. means they can be sacked for unfair reasons, they have This answer will depend on the example you have
Plan: no rights to redundancy payments if they lose their studied in class. For Berkshire an answer might include
+ Economic development and processes require jobs, no right to paid holidays (if they go on holiday or the following factors:
resources to sustain them. What are the types of have a day off, they are not paid) and no right to sick * Location: close to London and Heathrow airport.
resources? Where do these resources come from? leave (which means many people in the gig economy * Physical factors: the wide flat floodplain of
Pollution and environmental degradation may the Thames Valley has allowed for extensive
continue to work even when they are not well).
result; examples such as Niger Delta in Nigeria, (b) Impacts for places: whereas people often had strong development of higher-quality residential and
Canadian oil sands, Gulf of Mexico. links to the main employers in those places (e.g. commercial properties.
Tensions between economic motives and shared experiences of many people leaving school to Accessibility and connectedness: Berkshire has
environmental motives. Tensions between work for the same factory), the gig economy means the M4 motorway running through it, providing
different groups, governments of countries and that companies can recruit people to provide services fast access to London and Bristol; it is close to
local and international environmental and for them all over the country or even the world, and Heathrow, Britain’s principal airport.
human rights groups. may have much less of a link to the places in which Economic development: Berkshire has high
Future tensions and conflict, for example Middle they are located. rates of employment because of its successful
East, Arctic Ocean, Black Sea area. transition to a post-industrial economy, with
Conclusion: economic globalisation has spread 96 Economic inequalities high concentrations of major ICT companies
environmental tensions around the world, and 1 Income is related to health, life expectancy and such as Microsoft and Oracle, and major TNC
\ some outcomes are severe. education indices — people with higher income headquarters, including BMW, O2, Dulux Paints,
generally enjoy longer healthy lives and have higher Waitrose, NfER, Vodaphone and Bayer AG.
94 Exam practice 2 Workforce: Berkshire has a highly skilled
educational achievement, and income does have
1 Downward transition countries have higher mean workforce, with a 2008 ONS survey showing that
some connection with the economic sector, with
rank position and lower mean scores (76.3 and

297
y
 ANSWERS

roughly 50% of all workers in the region were * Open door policies: The UK government may place-specific (niche) regeneration. Another
employed in knowledge-based, managerial and decide on open or closed door policies to, for contrast is that while Powys covers a very large
professional occupations. example, international immigration or deregulation area (approximately half of Wales), the area of \

There is high demand for skilled workers that is not of controls on foreign investment in UK businesses regeneration in London is much smaller.
being met by internal migration. It is expected that and markets (which had significant impacts 2 Advantages could include: low cost, place-specific,
Berkshire will need an additional 70000 well-qualified on the London property market, for example). based on community needs, sustainable, future-
workers by 2020. Many companies are looking These decisions can be important indirectly in proof (green energy, carbon storage and low carbon
overseas and in 2011 alone they recruited between regeneration, by opening (or closing) the door to technologies are all likely to be growth areas in the
7000 and 11000 workers from outside the EU. investment in places (e.g. foreign investment in future), achieves’a good balance between desires
London) or the movement of people to declining to preserve what makes Powys special (natural
101 Declining regions areas, boosting local populations and economies. environment) with the need for economic growth in
This answer will depend on the example you have 2 Increased immigration into a place is seen as a this rural area (broadband investment).
studied in class. For Middlesbrough the details would positive multiplier for economists — it is when Disadvantages could include: expects a lot
include the information that between 2010 and 2015, populations stagnate or decrease that places may from local communities — their responsibility to
six wards (LSOAs) improved their IMD ranking but start a downwards spiral of decline. More people, regenerate their own places alongside their other
14 got worse. Around 30% of Middlesbrough is in especially more younger people, means a larger commitments; other infrastructure is also important
the most deprived 1% in England, 35% in the most working population, which provides a boost to local in regeneration apart from internet access, such
deprived 3%, and 50% is in the most deprived 10%. One industries and services, especially since new migrants as improved road and rail links that would make
Middlesbrough ward, North Ormesby, was ranked the are often prepared to work for lower wages than Powys less isolated; the diversification suggested by
second most deprived ward in England in 2015. longer-term residents. More working people means the strategy may be growth areas but they may not
102 Regeneration priorities a larger tax base for local government, enabling currently deliver the higher wages that the region
This answer will depend on the declining region that regeneration projects that make the place more requires to compete with cities such as Cardiff,
you studied in class. For Middlesbrough, specific attractive to new residents. Swansea or Birmingham.
priorities could include: 107 Local government policy 110 Rebranding strategies
* sink estates, for example in East Middlesbrough 1 Retail-led plans for regeneration involve changing or (a) Three ways of rebranding a deindustrialised city
and Grove Hill adding new retail spaces that mix popular clothing could include: use its distinctive industrial history
the gap in educational achievement: for and homeware shops (e.g. TK Maxx, Tiger) with to create an image attractive to tourists, convert old
example, that half of all secondary schools lifestyle facilities (cinema plus a range of restaurant industrial buildings into attractive, atmospheric and
‘require improvement’ chains, for example Nando’s, Wagamama) to create accessible commercial spaces (e.g. apartments, with
more employment opportunities: the closure in an attractive and interesting shopping and leisure shops and cafes below), integrate industrial history
2015 of the SSI steelworks in Redcar was another experience that pulls people into the place from a with retail to create an exciting, distinct-feeling retail
major employment blow to the region. wide area. Increased numbers of people coming to space with plenty of opportunities for enjoyable
103 Lived experience the place means more money in the local economy, an and distinctive experiences, encourage tourism
Voters are motivated to vote in national elections by improved image for the place, and a multiplier effect with museums, local history tours, galleries, cafes
many different factors, some of which (e.g. allegiance to in the local area as more people want to live there. and restaurants.
a Party leader, concern about foreign policy decisions) Ne Increasing tourism can be a successful regeneration (b) Three ways of rebranding a ‘post-production’ rural
might bear little relation to the voter’s engagement with strategy in some cases, for example rural regions area, where farming production is no longer the only
the place where they live. This would reduce its reliability with a strong literary tradition such as Haworth in or main focus for the rural area, can also be based on
as a measure of engagement in place. However, a decline Yorkshire where the Bronté family of writers lived. heritage (Victorian farms) and literary associations
in voter turnout is usually accepted to have a good However, there needs to be a strong enough tourism (Beatrix Potter, the Brontés, the Hay Festival). Farm
correlation, with distrust of politicians’ willingness to attraction to compete with all the other places that diversification, especially into tourism, is a strategy,
bring in changes that will improve the lived experience tourists already have on their itineraries, which would or farms can produce specialist, distinct products
of the place where voters live, or to understand that mean a tourism-led strategy might not be appropriate (drinks, cheeses, meat, etc.) which people will travel
lived experience in the first place. That makes voter for all places. Also, tourism can cause congestion in to buy, see made or learn to cook with. Outdoor
turnout more reliable, at least in terms of measuring places, making them less convenient places to live for pursuits and adventure in both accessible and remote
a sense of disengagement with the main democratic non-tourists; services in places popular with tourists rural areas are often successful in encouraging people
method of kick-starting regeneration of places. tend to be geared towards tourists rather than to visit rural areas and spend their money there.
local residents; popular tourist hotspots tend to see
104 Conflict property prices increase rapidly as people buy second lll Rebranding examples
Different lived experiences of place can provide some homes or property to rent out using Airbnb or The Titanic is a world-famous ship, with a powerful
reasons: for some residents the police are not perceived similar services, and tourism is often highly seasonal, story connected to its disastrous journey that has
in a positive way, perhaps because lived experience is meaning there is little money to be made in tourist been the subject of many media representations. That
of police harassment of the community. The police’s areas in winter, for example. This might mean that makes the association of this area of Belfast with the
actions in shooting and killing a man therefore fewer people benefit from tourism-led regeneration Titanic a positive one — connecting it to a famous
crystallised feelings of anger and disengagement with the than could be achieved with other strategies. story that has been given romantic, elegant and tragic
authority structures controlling behaviour in London’s connotations by media representations. The re-imaging
places, resulting in riots. For other residents, the riots 108 London Olympics 2012 of Belfast’s Titanic Quarter has successfully represented
were perceived as an attack on the things holding a The main advantage perhaps has been that the Olympic a deindustrialised area of the city as positive industrial
community together: local shops and businesses and a Games is such a showcase for a country to the world heritage, instead of it being associated with the decline
sense of helping each other, which resulted in action to that the UK government was always going to spend of an industry, and removed some of the negative
clean up and repair their place foliowing the riots. Both a very large amount of money to make sure the associations of Belfast from the time of the Troubles
sets of residents could be equally deprived in terms of area chosen looked good, was well connected to the (the Northern Ireland conflict).
income, employment and economic opportunity, though transport network so large numbers of people could get
it seems possible that rioters perceived themselves as to the Games, and had world-class sporting facilities. 112 Measuring success
having less but deserving more than some others living in All of these were things that would regenerate an area: The changes possible to identify could include: where
London, such as the super-rich. For others, deprivation improving the built environment for the Olympics buildings have been demolished and replaced by new
might be relatively less important than their engagement included decontaminating the site of the Park from buildings or new land use; gentrification (e.g. graffiti
with a community constructed by themselves and people years of industrial pollution, which had prevented it on buildings that is painted over, boarded-up properties
like them, which deserved to be protected. previously from being developed, and also made the that become renovated apartments, local shops replaced
local area more attractive to new residents. Improving by trendy cafes); where old industrial buildings have
105 Evaluating regeneration the transport connections to the area meant that it been renovated; where buildings have changed their use
This answer will depend on your own chosen place or became a much easier area to commute from into (e.g. from a factory to a media production company);
places. Statistical evidence might be crime statistics for central London after the Games, which was good for where landscaping has been added to improve the built
your chosen place, perhaps correlated with statistics on regeneration as many more people then wanted to live environment (e.g. trees planted or cut back, play parks
employment, environment or multiple deprivation. there. Sport and recreation are increasingly popular added or upgraded).
106 UK government policy in the UK and having world-class sporting facilities in
an area will attract many people to the area and allow
113 Urban regeneration
1 Your three ways could include: Some reasons for the different stakeholders’ views
new sports and leisure businesses to grow up around
* Infrastructure: Decisions to implement major could be:
them, while the accommodation for the Olympic and
infrastructure projects can provide stimulus for + Differences between new residents and longer-
Paralympic athletes could be designed with repurposing
regeneration of regions that were previously term residents: long-term residents may feel that
into housing after the Games in mind.
underperforming due to, primarily, accessibility and distinctive characteristics of the area (e.g. favourite
connectedness factors. For example, the government 109 Regeneration in Powys pubs) have been lost while new residents may only
intends high-speed rail infrastructure in the UK to 1 Powys’ strategy relies heavily on local stakeholders have moved to the area once they were confident
have a similar beneficial effect to the introduction of coming forward and planning and delivering that its character has changed to something more
the TGV infrastructure in France, which promoted regeneration plans for their own towns, voluntarily. acceptable to them.
economic development in declining regions. The London regeneration strategy was part of a . Differences between those involved in consultation
. Planning laws: The UK government may prioritise
multi-million pound bid for the Olympics, and while and those who were not: those who were involved
national needs over local opinions in regards to it has involved local stakeholders, the regeneration is could feel their views have been incorporated into
issues such as energy (fracking, nuclear power) or centrally organised. While the London regeneration the regeneration, while those who were not might
availability of housing, or transport infrastructure. strategy is based upon high cost, large-scale feel excluded. Alternatively, people who became
This can have the effect of speeding up the rate of infrastructure (rail, housing, sporting and retail — involved in the consultations because of strong
development, and also the type of development Westfield shopping centre), the Powys strategy is feelings about how regeneration should occur
that might otherwise have been a non-starter due based on very focused expenditure (the council has might feel that the regeneration did not take their
to local NIMBY-ism. to make extensive funding cuts) and small-scale, concerns into account.

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 ANSWERS |
* Differences between those who are employed and come from homes where no one has a job. Lack relating to older people), education, health, access
those who are not: the regeneration is designed of motivation may mean education achievement to services, crime levels, living environment. Other
to make Devonport a more attractive place for in the place is lowered, making it less attractive factors from across the option can also be considered:
investors and visitors and principally on providing for businesses to locate in because the population place function, physical factors, demographic
a better range of attractive housing, but for people is low skilled. In Middlesbrough, for example, changes, regional and national influences,
who are unemployed the regeneration does not half of all secondary schools in 2014 ‘required international and global influences, cultural factors
offer new job opportunities. improvement’ according to Ofsted, which is a such as cultural erosion and cultural enrichment.
low rating. Remember to consider the possibility that high
114 Rural regeneration
Because of a lack of jobs, low educational employment might not be related to positive
Different views can result from many reasons, with a achievement and low motivation to get a job perceptions of place in some areas, for example if
common theme perhaps being the different expectations elsewhere, crime may increase in the place as employment is high but this is because a place is
of visitors to the centre, the objectives and aims of the people turn to dealing and using drugs for a dominated by zero-hours contract employment, or
managers of the centre (the National Trust), residents way of earning money and as something to do. employment is high but the place is a commuter town
of the area, and local and national governments. This can increase other forms of crime, which in with little community involvement in the place.
For local and national governments and the managers turn makes the place feel unsafe, which means
of the site, the aim of increasing the numbers of people who can leave do so, increasing the spiral
119 Population distribution
national and international visitors coming to the Giant’s of decline. For example, 20000 people have left 1 The benefits of rapid population growth are mainly
Causeway means that these stakeholders would see a Middlesbrough since 1990. economic: employers have many more people
30% increase in visitors as making the centre a success 5 This answer will depend on your place studies. to employ, including more skilled people, which
(economic — increased revenue; social — promotion of ¢ AOI points your answer could make: increasing enables businesses to expand. A lot of people living
the region and educational opportunities). roles of TNCs, international migration, increases in an area create a bigger market for products and
Visitors to the centre seem generally to feel it offers in international tourism visits, increasing roles services, which creates increased demand for the
good facilities but at too expensive a price, and that of IGOs. businesses making and providing those products
the centre makes the site too busy (encouraging too AO2 impacts to consider: economic and and services. More people with more jobs, buying
many tourists) — despite these visitors themselves being social changes in your two places; how these more things means more money for the government
part of this problem! Great efforts have been made to changes in your chosen places have influenced from tax payments (including VAT on the products
minimise the impact of the new centre on the landscape, people’s identities. and services people buy), which means more
which seems to have been a success with visitors ° AO2 judgement: which of the impacts have been opportunities for the government to spend on
(environmental and social factors). most significant in each place? Support your benefits for places, such as improved infrastructure,
Residents of the area will have benefitted from answer with evidence from your place studies. which creates more opportunities for businesses and
increased tourism to the area and there are also 150 jobs makes places more attractive, increasing population
connected to the centre, which is important in a rural 118 Exam practice 2 growth further.
area (economic factors; possibly demographic factors 1 A positive view is expressed by the writer when they 2 The costs of rapid population growth are mainly
too if it means more opportunities for younger people say (for example) that the slogan made an ‘effective social. There are suddenly many more children in
living in the region). However, there are likely to be link’ that connected businesses in Herefordshire. a place who need a place at nursery, school and
issues with increased congestion on the roads leading Effective could be positive in terms of the rebranding college. Health-care providers have many more
to the centre (where parking is limited). The National works well in achieving its aims, and effective could people to treat, which means hospitals can become
Trust has attempted to reduce this through bus travel also mean the rebranding is good value for money. overcrowded or waiting lists increase in time. Places
and also by incentivising people to travel to the site (Your answer should make three linked points.) become more congested, which may make them less
by bike or electric car (environmental factors). Many 2 You would need at least two reasons for this question attractive for businesses (that can’t move people or
residents who do not benefit directly from tourism may and these reasons would need to be detailed and products around quickly) and for residents of the
feel that the expenditure of £18 million on the centre fully developed. For example: place. When population growth is associated with
is money that could have been spent on improving One reason for difference could be between increased migration, resident populations often
services for rural transport, for example (social factors). interest groups that are looking to preserve a become alarmed by rapid cultural changes to places
The National Trust is also the manager of the site and particular aspect of a place from being changed, that they had become used to thinking of in a certain
the money that visitors pay to enter the centre goes for example a historic building or an area of way. People can start to feel that their values and
to the National Trust, rather than coming to the local environmental value, and those who are keen to their opportunities are under threat.
community (economic and social factors). see change, for example local residents who want
access to better shopping opportunities with
120 The rural-urban continuum
117 Exam practice 1 bigger brands. (a) An overspill town is a place near a large urban
1 A The process of reducing or removing rules A second reason for difference could be different centre that has become almost a suburb of the large
governing economic activity lived experiences of a place, for example between urban centre: people who couldn’t afford to live in
2 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, because this groups representing those who feel excluded the big city have ‘overspilled’ it and gone to live here.
is a statistical test to check whether any correlation is from a place or marginalised, perhaps because of Its characteristics would be that it would appear very
a significant one (strength of correlation), and also ethnicity, who may want different priorities for urban in character with health and leisure facilities,
the direction of the relationship between the two regeneration than those whose lived experience of retail, schools, etc. Population density would be high
variables (i.e. positive or negative). place is based on high levels of access to economic and age structure young.
Your answer could have explained how a benefits of place, and high levels of engagement in (b) A suburbanised village still has some rural
scattergraph tests the strength of a relationship. local politics regarding place. characteristics (e.g. older village properties in its core)
If you answered scattergraph, make sure you develop 3 This answer will depend on your named example. but has become surrounded by a ring of newer housing
your answer in order to get the full 3 marks. Make two or three points developed in detail, which used by commuters into the large urban centre. There
3. Two from: could include: may be a split in the village population structure
¢ Age —for example a teenager’s experience of place The London Olympics and Paralympics used sport between older residents living in the old village core,
will be different from an adult’s, and that will and leisure as a key part of the urban regeneration and working-age residents of the newer housing. There
produce different levels of attachment. of Stratford. Advantages included the huge will also be a lot more suburban residents than the
Length of residence — a person who has lived investment that comes with staging the Olympic older residents in the old village core.
somewhere for a long time would be expected and Paralympic Games: £9 billion. This is much (c) Old core is the original village, which is now
to have a greater attachment to the place than more than regeneration strategies would usually be surrounded by newer housing or has newer housing
someone who has recently moved there. able to access. nearby on several sides. The old core will retain rural
Level of deprivation — someone who is struggling Some of the facilities that were developed for characteristics: perhaps an old church, pub and
to find work or to earn sufficient amounts to the Olympic and Paralympic sporting events village green. It may be difficult to combine these
achieve a reasonable standard of life is likely to were designed to be converted into facilities for with the needs of newer residents, such as parking
have a different attachment from someone who local residents and visitors after the Games had for large cars, home deliveries by vans.
does their dream job in the same place and has a finished. World-class sporting facilities encourage (d) Second homes are properties bought, usually in
very comfortable and rewarding place. local people to be more active and take part in attractive remote rural locations, by people who
Other reasons could include: gender identity, ethnicity, more sport and leisure, which reduces health
live elsewhere but use them for their own holidays
religion — if you gave those as answers, remember to inequalities and deprivation. or rent them out (e.g. Airbnb). The village keeps its
develop each for the full 2 marks per reason. rural characteristics but loses population outside
People have positive associations with sport
4 There is no single correct answer. Your response and this makes regeneration based around sport of holiday season, which may cause economic and
should make three supported points, which could and leisure effective at changing perceptions of social problems — village shops may close, ditto pubs,
schools, churches, because there aren’t enough full-
include three from the following: — places such as Stratford, which was a deprived
* Unemployment might have increased following area before the Olympics. Now people associate
time residents to provide a viable market for them.
deindustrialisation in places where people formerly Stratford with very positive feelings about the 121 Population structure
relied on one or two major employers such as London Olympics. 1 There are three main differences: a higher than
a steel mill, which increases social deprivation . However, sport and leisure are not enough on their
average percentage of under 10s, a higher than
because people have less money to spend, houses own to make regeneration successful: retail and average percentage of 20-39-year-olds (significantly
are worth less money, local businesses earn less infrastructure (such as improved rail links, more higher for 25—34-year-olds) and a lower than average
money and may close, which means even fewer affordable transport) are also key to success. percentage of people over 45 years.
jobs. In Middlesbrough, for example, 4 This answer will depend on your place studies. There 2 A higher birth rate would explain the higher
the unemployment rate is twice the national are many other factors that influence perceptions of than average percentage of under 10s; this higher
average and 30% of its households have no places to consider (for both your places), including: birth rate could itself be explained by the higher
one in employment. migration (internal and international) and low levels proportion of young adults in the population
Education may be affected by economic of multiple deprivation (unpacking the economic and structure (so more people of the age when people
restructuring as schoolchildren no longer feel social factors for this relating to income, including have most children), and possibly by increased
sure what job they will get after school and may child income deprivation and deprivation of income fertility within the population structure related to

299
 ANSWERS

ethnicity and culture — cultural traditions among for some farm products, which can make it difficult improvement, as could the similar idea that the main
recent migrants of having more children. for farmers to stay in full-time business. Perhaps in purpose of cities was to organise trade in such a way as
Migration (both international and internal) could some cases, what started out as farm diversification, to enable'some people to get very rich. {
explain the higher than average percentage of for example marketing a quad bike course on a
128 Perceptions of rural places
20-39-year-olds, as younger people are the most farm field, led into a new part-time job opportunity
in marketing for a farmer that took them away Older people could find accessibility a problem
likely to migrate to another region or internationally.
in remote rural areas: for example, distance to
Another explanation could be a ‘baby boom’: a from farming.
2 Demographically, seasonal workers must give a supermarkets, to access health care (a key issue for rural
period of increased fertility in the recent past that
short-term boost to local population numbers in areas is often distance people have to travel to access
produced more babies than average, who then grew
the rural area in which they work. Presumably the ongoing hospital treatment, for example for cancer),
into more adults.
demographic impact is not longer-lasting than that, and possible isolation and lack of social interaction
The lower than average percentage of people over 45
in that if seasonal workers become pregnant, they do in small communities without community centres.
could be explained by increased mortality, though
not stay in the UK to have their baby, as they only Older people without access to a car would struggle
this is unlikely to be the main reason since Newham
have a short-term work visa. if public transport were not available. Local banks
residents have the same access to the NHS as
and post offices have often closed, making it difficult
people across the rest of the UK. While a lower life Culturally, seasonal workers who are non-British
or expensive to get cash for those without debit or
expectancy would explain some of the lower than nationals will increase the cultural diversity of the
average result, it is possibly more likely that some rural areas in which they stay. This increase will credit cards,
older people have migrated (internal migration) be significant because most rural areas in the UK Middle-aged people could also find accessibility a
out of Newham, possibly as a result of increasing are not very culturally diverse at other times of the challenge for buying food shopping, problems with
year. It may become part of the sense of place that accessing services, for example builders, takeaways,
property prices or negative perceptions about
childcare, financial services. Petrol is often more
changes to the area, such as perceptions of increases seasonal workers return at set times of the year,
which residents may welcome or find challenging, expensive (where it is available) in remote rural
in crime and anti-social behaviour.
depending on attitudes. Local shops may change locations. Housing may be cheaper, but maintaining
122 Population characteristics some of the food and drink they supply to cater older rural properties can be expensive and problematic. _
1 Your answer could consider several reasons. for seasonal workers, residents may hear different
Young people are often dependent on others (parents) ~
For example: languages as they do their shopping in villages and for transport, or infrequent bus services (which may
¢ Rural areas are less accessible to migrants: large market towns, all of which may influence place
_ have early return times from local'towns making
cities are much more accessible. This could meaning and shape identity. nightlife difficult to arrange); leisure and entertainment —
decrease the cultural diversity of rural areas. services are often lacking or limited in remote rural
° Migrants go to where there are good employment 126 Perception of places locations, job opportunities also limited and low paid,
opportunities. Rural areas typically have fewer (a) The older man may have a perception of the place access to reasonable broadband speeds can be patchy
employment opportunities so migrants would not based on how it has changed over time, while the or non-existent, ditto mobile network services so online
tend to settle there, reducing cultural diversity. younger people may perceive it just as it is now. services can be far from adequate. Local banks have
Social clustering means that migrants of the same The older man may perceive the place in terms of often closed making it difficult to get cash.
ethnicity often form communities in places where the challenges it presents for older people (e.g. high 129 Evaluating people's views
the original migrants from their ethnic group first kerbs), while the younger people may not have this
settled. Since original migrants are most likely Your example or examples will be specific to the places
perception and may hardly consider this aspect of
to settle in large cities, that is where subsequent you have studied. One example could be using local
the place at all. It is possible that both the young
migrants settle too, rather than in rural areas. property prices to identify areas with high property
people and the older man think of the place as
Government policy has encouraged migration values compared to lower property values and then
belonging more to their sort of people (younger/
to fill labour shortages, for example in industry survey people’s perceptions of those places to identify
older) and may find the presence of other types of
last century, or in services such as the NHS more whether property prices are a good proxy (stand in)
people annoying in some way. Equally, it is possible
recently. Due to mechanisation of farming, the measure for positive and negative perceptions of place.
that the young people and/or the older man consider
need for labour in farming (except for short-term this to be a shared, public space that should be used 130 UK diversity
seasonal work) has decreased. by different groups in different ways. It might suggest that people are motivated by the fear
2 (a) Because international migrants tend to be young (b) Change over time is an important factor for of something happening as much (if not more) than
adults, fertility rates often increase in places perceptions of place, and an older man may the reality of change, where it is perhaps possible to see
characterised by higher rates of international possibly have a complex perception of this place both positives and negatives of the changed situation.
immigration: so Newham has the highest birth based on many different experiences of it over his It shows the power of perception, as people were
rate in England (113.9 live births per 1000: the lifetime — perhaps as a younger person himself projecting onto a place they knew a representation of
average for England is 65.5). just like the group walking past him. So lived immigration that might have had something to do with
(b) The rise of places that are popular with retirees experience will be important. Both individuals national newspaper coverage of immigration from the
means that internal migration of older people from the group of younger people and the rest of the EU.
from cities to, for example, the south coast of older man may have had pleasant or unpleasant Alternatively, it might suggest that areas that voted
England, is increasing mortality rates in some experiences in the place, which will shape their Remain rather than Leave were influenced by {
places because of the higher proportion of the perception of it. Accessibility will be a big demographic changes, so that many more voters were
population who are elderly. (Since women have factor for someone who uses a walking frame, themselves not born in the UK or were descended
longer life expectancy in the UK than men, these as the older man is doing — this place may be a from people who had been immigrants themselves, in
places may have a higher proportion of women welcome part of his route because it is flat and which case their perception of immigration would be
than men — gender characteristics.) unencumbered by obstacles, or it might be a place influenced by strong positive associations.
123 Connections shaping places he dreads because of the challenges of accessing
it. Environmental factors such as pollution or 131 UK diversity examples
(a) This answer will depend on your chosen places and London emigrants might cause tensions by having more
perception of crime could also be significant in
the results of your place studies. Deindustrialisation, money to spend on housing, causing house prices to
explaining differences between the groups.
for example, might have had an influence on the rise, which could make it difficult for local people to buy
paths students are working towards when they leave 127 Perceptions of urban places or rent housing (especially first-time buyers).
school. If in the past many people went on to work There is no single correct answer to this question. If London emigrants continued to work in London
in a place’s main industrial employer, but that may Arguments that perceptions have changed a great deal but live outside it, this could add to pressure on
now have changed and future pathways could be could make points such as there is no longer such a the transport system, adding to delays for existing
more uncertain, impacting on people’s feelings about strong class system as in Victorian times and people commuters and other road and rail users.
place and their own identity. from any social background are able to make successful London councils moving homeless families out of the
(b)This answer will depend on your chosen places careers for themselves. Repressive Victorian ideas about capital to new places could cause tensions because the
and the results of your place studies. Internet gender roles and their racist perceptions have also families might not want to move away from places
connectivity might be something you have changed significantly, meaning that perceptions of who they have strong connections to, and there might be
considered, for example, with its impact on students’ urban places are for and what it is permissible to do tensions between them and local families who also need
identity possibly replacing, amending or enhancing in them has changed substantially too. There are also council support.
identity from the place they live in. environmental perceptions of the city that Victorians
would not recognise: the idea that cities are better
132 Levels of segregation
124 Change in UK urban areas Assimilation is the process by which an immigrant
This answer will depend on your own view — which you when they are sustainable, for example. The Victorian
religious view of the city has also changed, with places community or a minority culture becomes more and
should explain. Some would see culture as an expression more like the society it has immigrated into or the
of economic change and would say that cultural of worship being less attended.
Arguments that perceptions have not changed that much majority culture. So while the original immigrants from
changes are responses to economic changes, while Punjab lived together and their culture influenced the
others see culture as independent of economic change, could make points such as that some wealthier people
today still view poorer areas of London as a threat place they were living in, assimilation might happen
or even that culture influences economics. when their descendants decided to leave Southall and
to them, with perceptions including that poor people
125 Change in UK rural areas are more likely to commit crime, that their wealthier moved to lots of different better-off areas in which
1 The pie chart shows there are more part-time farmers residences need to be protected from poorer criminals, they lived less like their parents and more like the non-
than full-time ones, which suggests that some that poor people are in some way to blame for their Punjabis they now lived among.
farmers have to do other jobs alongside farming in poverty due to having too many children, that it is the 133 Change, tension, conflict
order to make a living. The reasons for this could responsibility of the poor to improve themselves through Challenges often relate to the affordability of
include the low prices that some supermarkets pay hard work. The Victorian idea of civic duty — that it housing once regeneration increases the perceived
for some UK farm produce, for example milk, was a good thing to improve cities for the enjoyment attractiveness of an area for investment. Developers
because of the supermarkets’ need to offer cheap and convenience of everyone (or everyone thought to be wanting to maximise the return on their investment
prices to customers in order not to lose business to deserving of them — e.g. city parks) — could be said to will be inclined to maximise the amount of more
other supermarkets. There is also global competition live on in regeneration, social housing and infrastructure expensive housing they think they can sell in an area

300
 ANSWERS
and minimise the amount of affordable housing, while Also, not all stakeholders might feel their views Examples: population growth rates are highest
long-term residents of a regenerated or gentrified had been recorded (the interviewers focused on in the south-east of England and London in
area will usually be people who lived there because community ‘change makers’: influencers who particular. Eight of the 10 fastest growing areas
housing used to be affordable for them. Opportunities would have an interest in expressing the positives in England are in London. These areas are also
for local people often relate to: better employment about changes) and some, for example providers densely populated. The 10 English regions with
opportunities, perhaps in service jobs that increase like the council, might feel their role in the project the slowest growth are in the north-east and north-
in number as more wealthy residents move into an had been misrepresented. west regions. Some areas have declined.
area; opportunities relating to increasing property Social: immigration boosts population sizes
prices if local people own their own homes; improved 137 Managing rural change
because migrants are usually young people who
leisure and entertainment opportunities resulting from Campaigners who are against the forest becoming go on to have families. This contrasts with areas
regeneration; improvements to schools and health a holiday park could be local residents (users) but with an ageing population, which can include rural
services, etc., as councils receive more money from probably ones without an economic stake in the rural
areas (especially remote rural and possibly ‘post-
more higher-band properties in the area. area. The landowners of the forest (providers) are
productive’ rural areas).
stakeholders who would presumably be keen for a
134 Measuring management Examples: between 2005 and 2015, the UK’s
holiday home development to proceed, since they will
population grew at between 3.5% and 4% per
1 Voter turnout suggests that people are politically get much more money from such a development than
year. This rapid growth rate has happened with
engaged in the UK democratic system, which they would earn from their land being used for forestry.
increased immigration from European countries.
suggests that they share the democratic values that Other users of the rural area might be in favour of The most popular destinations for immigrants are
are a cornerstone of the complex of shared ideas the change because it would offer job opportunities
London, the West Midlands, the South East, the
that make up British values. If an area that has or other opportunities to provide services to the East Midlands.
experienced rapid immigration shows a change tourists coming to the area. Governance stakeholders 5 This answer will depend on your place studies.
from low voter turnout in one general election to would probably perceive the change to a holiday
AO! points your answer could make: increasing
increased voter turnout in the next general election, home as a good thing, as it would help create rural roles of TNCs, international migration, increases
then this could be evidence of increasingly shared development through tourism. Other influencers such in international tourism visits, increasing roles
values about the political process, and therefore as campaigners for rural conservation might back of IGOs.
increased assimilation. opposition to the development on the grounds that it AO2 impacts to consider: economic and
2 A problem with using voter turnout as a measure jars in some way with the image of rural Britain they social changes in your two places; how these
of assimilation could be that there are several want to conserve.
changes in your chosen places have influenced
factors affecting turnout that are not directly related
to segregation/assimilation. For example, voter
138 Rural change example people’s identities.
1 Reasons could include: lack of affordable housing,
e AO2 judgement: which of the impacts have been
turnout nationwide has been in decline for some
small range of job opportunities, low wages, most significant in each place? Support your
decades, especially for local government elections,
lack of public transport/high dependency on car answer with evidence from your place studies.
which is thought, at least in part, to reflect a
general dissatisfaction with the political elite and ownership (which might mean high dependency 142 Exam practice 2
their lack of understanding of the issues facing on older adult car owners), shortage of services/ 1 A positive view is expressed by the writer when they
their constituents. In this way, a declining voter interesting things to do. say, for example, that Russian investment has made
turnout among a particular ethnic group could 2 There are likely to be economic reasons for an ‘exciting boost’ to London’s property prices. This
be said to be a sign of assimilation with the rest promoting development of Caithness and could mean that more people will look to buy and
of British society, where turnout is also in decline, Sutherland’s towns over its rural areas — it is more sell houses as prices increase, which is good for estate
than otherwise. Another factor could be that cost-efficient to meet housing demand across agents, as well as international investment, making
participation in the democratic system is actually the region by concentrating new building in the capital a more interesting and dynamic place
a sign of distinctiveness rather than assimilation, towns; the infrastructure for development (roads, to do business. (Your answer should make three
in that it represents a minority group looking to parking, power, etc.) already exists in towns; linked points.)
achieve a voice in parliament or local government new shops and services have a better chance of 2 Include at least two fully developed reasons,
with which to defend their distinctive culture against succeeding in towns because of the larger market for example:
assimilation. In extreme cases, high voter turnout size. Socially, encouraging people to locate in the One reason for difference could be between long-
can express a rejection of assimilation, as has been region’s towns will make it easier for the council term residents who are looking for continuity
the case in Northern Ireland, where votes for Sinn to provide improved services such as health care (for things to stay the same), perhaps because
Fein in republican areas are a form of protest, since and education rather than if they attempted to they benefit from how things are at present, and
the MPs elected by these votes do not take their seats improve smaller scattered services across the rural those who are keen to see change, for example,
in parliament. area, and it will also make it easier for people to recent in-migrants, who may have different
access these services in towns than if they were in
cultural characteristics and want to see changes
135 Managing urban change scattered locations across the area. Environmentally, that reflect important values for them. An
One difficulty might be that many UK-born people who focusing development in towns is more sustainable example could be conflict over older buildings
have experienced British culture all their lives would not and conserves more of the historic/natural being converted into places of worship for
necessarily know the answers to the test, which makes environment, which is key to developing the area’s immigrant populations.
the test more of a general knowledge quiz than a reliable tourism industry. A second reason for conflict could be over access
ndicator of assimilation. Another issue might be in
141 Exam practice 1 to shared local services, such as health care and
Jeciding what “British culture’ actually is: for example, is education, and increased competition over jobs.
t British to support the idea of having a king or queen? 1 D When people lack the things they would expect to
have in the 21st century. This was the case in Boston, Lincolnshire, when
[s it therefore un-British to oppose having a monarchy, immigration from EU countries increased. Long-
1s many people born in Britain do now and have done 2 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, because this
is a statistical test to check whether any correlation is term residents felt they now had to wait much
n the past? Is it more British to like cricket or to like longer to get a GP appointment, while recent
‘ootball? Another issue is the separate identities of the a significant one (strength of correlation), and also
the direction of the relationship between the two immigrants wanted to be able to access health
lifferent parts of the UK: if Welsh people identify as care as residents of the UK who paid national
Welsh first and British second, wouldn’t assimilation be variables (i.e. positive or negative).
Your answer could have explained how a scattergraph insurance towards the NHS.
etter if it focused on getting immigrants in Wales to 3 This answer will depend on your named example.
show their knowledge of ‘Life in Wales”? tests the strength of a relationship. If you answered
scattergraph, make sure you develop your answer by Make sure you develop each point with detail or
136 Urban change example explaining how a scattergraph tests the strength of a evidence. For example:
a) There is a range of options for measuring the success relationship, in order to get the full 3 marks. Angell Town is an estate in Brixton with 4000
of the changes in Angell Town. In quantitative 3 Two reasons could include: people, of whom around 60% are black and
terms, the area’s crime rate could be measured and * international migration, which brings different minority ethnic. It is one of the 10% most deprived
compared with previous years — a reduction in crime cultures into places over time, for example, areas in England, crime is twice the London rate,
rate (especially for robbery and for knife and gun changes in local food choices, changes in religious and male life expectancy is 73 (five years below the
crime) would indicate success for stakeholders such buildings and religious practices; successive waves average for men in London).
as the council, police, national government and of international immigration that sees the cultural
° Young people in Angell Town do not perceive the
many residents of the estate who were intimidated characteristics of a place change more than once living space as safe. They feel threatened by gangs
by crime and were afraid that their children or as it provides homes and work opportunities to a but also under suspicion and surveillance from
friends could be killed in the gang violence. succession of different cultures the police. There was little to do in Angell Town
Qualitative measures could include interviews and e internal migration, which can bring cultural after a local youth centre was closed down in 2012
surveys of local people, comparing their views changes based on age: for example, the following violence.
of the situation in Angell Town before and after popularity of some of England’s south coast Gang members in Angell Town are under threat
the changes. Interviews conducted by the Evening towns with retirees, which changes the cultural from other gangs from neighbouring places. For
Standard could be used for this, for example. characteristics towards meeting the needs and them, Angell Town is their only safe place because
'b) However, some young people might feel that a interests of older people. travelling outside the area is very dangerous. Gang
reduction in crime represented more control and 4 There is no single correct answer. Your response members resent the surveillance of the area by the
surveillance over their lives rather\than successful should make three supported points, which could police, who they see as doing nothing to protect
change. Other quantitative measures of success include three from the following: them from other gangs.
could be an increase in life expectancy, which all * Economic: successful places with strong economic Older residents are happy to accept the high police
stakeholders would welcome, an improvement in growth attract people who want to get jobs surveillance of the area (CCTV) if it means the
there. Declining places with low growth and few area is safer. They do not like the gangs because
IMD ranking, an improvement in reading and
numeracy scores for the newly reopened primary opportunities lose people. This can be linked to they bring criminal activity into Angell Town.
school, and reduction in unemployment, especially deindustrialisation and the impact of the global They are worried about the influence of gangs on
recession after 2008. their own children.
youth unemployment.

301
 ANSWERS
.Residents feel the local council does not do enough a little each year, and seasonally, so inputs of change the land uses within a drainage basin; runoff
to give young people a chance in Angell Town. As precipitation and outputs like evaporation vary. Any is increased and lag times shortened, so that flooding
well as closing the youth centre, a local primary changes to vegetation, such as wildfires causing tree happens faster and probably with a higher water
school was also closed. deaths, would also change water pathways. level as the channel cannot carry the extra discharge.
4 This answer will depend on your place studies. River channels may be altered by engineering, for
There are many factors that influence whether
147 Water budgets example, indirectly by building bridges across a river,
people have a positive or negative image of places the supports of which may narrow a channel which
yr changes the flow of water and may block it enough to
to consider (for both your places), including:
migration (internal and international) and its act like a dam, ponding water upstream at times of high
impacts on economic and cultural relationships. discharge causing the river to overflow. The channel
Other factors from across the option can also may also be directly changed by straightening it and
be considered: place function, physical factors, concreting the banks and bed; this increases the velocity
demographic changes, regional and national and capacity at that point but carries a greater discharge
influences, international and global influences, and downstream which can increase flood risk there. Risk
cultural factors such as cultural erosion. Remember is also increased by human use of floodplains, which
to consider the possibility that inequality might are clearly a feature created by regular floods, and these
not always be a factor in a place being viewed are always likely, especially with changes caused by
negatively, at least among some groups (those enhanced climate change.
benefitting from inequality, or those aspiring to
JA SiO cIN-ED Ho
153 Climate change effects
have what the wealthiest have). JTFITMLATM!

Months 1 Climate change has increased temperatures and

ae Hydrological cycle Tropical Climate Water Budget this has increased evaporation rates and humidity
Flows include: evaporation (from oceans 413 x 10° levels in the atmosphere; with more moisture in the
km} per year, lakes and rivers) into atmosphere, 148 River regimes and atmosphere there is more water to condense when air
evapotranspiration into atmosphere (from vegetation storm hydrographs is cooled. Once the water vapour has condensed into
73 x 10° km? per year), transport of water vapour The Amazon River has a peak discharge about 15 times liquid droplets and formed clouds, they merge within
in atmosphere (40 x 10° km? per year), land greater than the Yukon because it is in a tropical the clouds becoming larger and ‘heavier until gravity
precipitation (113 x 10° km? per year) and ocean environment with very high precipitation, while the pulls them towards the Earth’s surface; as there is
precipitation (373 x 103 km} per year) Yukon is in a tundra area with low precipitation. The more moisture there is more precipitation produced.
2 Gravitational potential energy from the mass of the Amazon has a peak flow in April/May at nearly 200000 2 Climate change is affecting the stores of water
Earth is turned into kinetic energy with pull and m?/s while the Yukon has a peak in May/June at just within the hydrological cycle. Warmer temperatures
movement of all water to the lowest point (base over 12000 m*/s. The Yukon has very low flows during have not only melted ice masses but also reduced
level), so precipitation and runoff are pulled towards the winter months (December to April) due to the the amount of precipitation falling as snow in
the centre of the Earth and the water collects in frozen conditions and lack of liquid water; it increases winter months, so new ice is not being created to
the ocean basins. They are estimated to contain dramatically (10 times) at the end of April due to snow replace ablation. The cryosphere store is therefore
1335040 x 103 km3. melt, and declines steadily after most of the snow has decreasing. Lakes and other water stores on land
3 The global hydrological cycle is considered to be a melted. In contrast the Amazon has a large flow for are shrinking as higher temperatures have increased
closed system because there is currently no water much of the year, except for the dry season, which evaporation into the atmosphere from their surfaces,
being added to the Earth from beyond the planet. halves its flow by September. and if precipitation in the area has not increased
All inputs and outputs are internal to the planet and to compensate, the volume of water stored has
so the amount of water stays the same. 149 Natural causes of drought decreased (e.g. Lake Chad). Water stored in
The short-term causes are related to weather conditions. soils is being drawn to the surface by higher air
144 Water stores, fluxes and budget Dry spells may be caused by blocking anticyclones that temperatures, increasing the amount of evaporation
The oceans are large and are the base level to which are stationary over a large area for several weeks, and and causing soils to dry out.
all water moves (due to gravity) so the residency if this occurs after a period of below average rainfall
period is long (3600 years) before it is evaporated. The it is enough to tip conditions into drought. Similarly, 154 Water security and
cryosphere has frozen water which keeps itself cold drought may exist because rainfall has been too low climate change
and solid, therefore evaporation is limited (although to support plant life, with soils becoming too dry, 1 The ENSO cycle creates uncertainty about future
some sublimation takes place), and often it is at high especially if it is the growing season. water security as there are regular changes every
altitude or near the poles where temperatures are lower, few years from normal conditions. During an El
and melting will only take place when global climate 150 Drought impacts Nifio event warmer Pacific Ocean waters move
warms. Once water has infiltrated the ground it is often 1 Several ways to choose from; one is: over-abstraction closer to South America; this increases rainfall in
stored in aquifers, and heat energy from the Sun cannot of surface water — taking too much water from rivers, coastal countries such as Ecuador, but decreases
reach it to evaporate it; often the rock structure does streams or lakes may cause them to decrease in precipitation in Australia (July—January) and South
not allow ground flow and so the water is trapped. volume or even dry up, so that less water is available East Asia (June—January) where droughts are usually
Other residency periods are much shorter, surface water downstream or within the region. If conditions are experienced as water supplies are reduced. During
is pulled by gravity towards the sea and is constantly already dry then drought becomes worse. The Aral a La Nifia event the warm mass of water in the
moving, moisture in the atmosphere quickly coalesces Sea dried up because of overuse of irrigation water Pacific moves as far west as it can, bringing heavy
to form water droplets which fall, and plants are from feeder rivers, and being in a desert evaporation rain to Australia and South East Asia but droughts
constantly absorbing and transpiring. then accelerated the process. to Ecuador (June—April) and the southern USA
2 Forests are an important resource, providing (October—April). The same countries and world
145 Hydrological cycle: processes environmental services and resources; however, regions are affected by this cycle, so every few years
1 Orographic rainfall occurs over highland areas, droughts can reduce their function by removing the water security situation changes.
especially mountains, where humid air has been their role in the hydrological and carbon cycles. The 2 Global warming is creating uncertainty about
forced to rise upwards to a higher altitude where it is dieback of forests also removes the timber resource future water security because the increased global
cold enough for water vapour to condense and form and can change local conditions so that forests temperatures are changing the hydrological cycle,
clouds. Processes within the clouds create raindrops cannot regenerate; it can take two to four years and exactly how is not yet fully understood.
large enough to be pulled to the ground by gravity. for drought-stressed trees to recover and only then Precipitation patterns are changing, both in terms of
Most rain falls on the windward side or tops of the if precipitation returns to normal levels. Warmer where it will increase or decrease but also the nature
mountains while the downwind (lee) slopes are drier. winters are allowing pests and diseases to survive in of rainfall events. Some parts of the world will
2 Throughflow occurs in soil while groundwater flow larger numbers, instead of being killed by the cold become drier, especially those with a Mediterranean
occurs in rock. Both soil and rock need to have of winter, and these then attack trees (e.g. pine bark climate and regions that are currently semi-arid.
spaces for these processes to happen, with water beetle in boreal forests of the Rocky Mountains). Some will have more intense rainfall, which may limit
infiltrating the soils and then percolating into a Food web balances are changed if trees die, as the amount of water flowing into stores as much
porous or permeable rock. habitats and food supplies for some are removed so will run off the surface, such as South East Asia.
3 Evapotranspiration is affected by temperature as other creatures die with the consequent knock-on Increased flooding and drying out of soils may cause
higher temperatures will create greater evaporation effects through the food chain. more contamination of water, making it unavailable
from open water surfaces and from the leaves of
151 Natural causes of flooding for use. Higher evaporation rates, due to higher
plants, while plants will be transpiring more because
temperatures, also reduce effective precipitation
they need greater water absorption in hot weather. A large database can help identify trends and patterns in
as the water evaporates before it enters natural or
The wind will assist evaporation and transpiration flooding by identifying the areas that are experiencing
artificial stores.
by allowing the air to hold more moisture. A greater them most frequently; this helps to provide warnings
forest cover will increase transpiration, because to such areas and encourage management measures to 155 Water supply and demand
there are more trees, but also evaporation because it be implemented such as land-use zoning, evacuation 1 There is a growing mismatch between water supply
absorbs more heat energy. procedures and flood prevention engineering. This and demand because the amount of accessible
146 Hydrological cycle: factors monitoring is important because of climate change, as freshwater is changing in some places due to drier
the location, scale and frequency of floods may change conditions, contamination and over-abstraction.
1 Deforestation removes trees, which intercept, absorb
and catch some areas unprepared. At the same time water demand is increasing due
and transpire so more precipitation reaches the
to population growth (domestic use), increasing
ground increasing runoff and discharge in channels 152 Flooding impacts urbanisation (construction use), economic
will be higher. In contrast, building a dam to create a Flooding occurs when a river channel exceeds bank-
reservoir prevents the runoff and channel discharge development (industrial use) and more intensive
full stage and the excess water flows onto the natural farming (e.g. irrigation).
from above that point moving downstream, so floodplain. However, human activities can make this
discharge downstream is reduced. 2 The map shows that the regions with greatest water
happen more frequently or at higher levels. For example, stress are (a) those with semi-arid or Mediterranean —
2 Points include: flows within the water cycle vary replacing natural vegetation with farmland or creating
naturally because the climate and weather vary climates, such as the MENA (Middle East and
impermeable surfaces through urbanisation may

302
 ANSWERS
North Africa) region, southern Europe, southern 163 Exam. practice 1 to economic factors). Even some developed countries
Africa, Chile, Australia, the USA and (b) countries 1 NGOs such as the charity WaterAid can help by are experiencing pressure due to population growth
with large populations, such as India, China and improving access to clean freshwater supplies. For (e.g. south-west USA (part of the Sun Belt).
Indonesia. The first group have experienced drier example, by training local people to make rainwater UN Water estimates that water use grew at twice
conditions, largely due to climate change, and harvesting barrels/jars from cheap local materials the rate of population increase in the 20th century,
growing economies that are demanding more water. that can store water during wet periods for later and by 2025 66% of the world’s population will
The second group have experienced rapid population use. These barrels collect water from roofs, with the experience water stress. Your answer should also
growth with high population densities, especially in added benefit that women and children do not have consider the role of urbanisation, industrialisation,
megacities and emerging economies, so the demand to travel long distances to get water. globalisation, energy production, food consumption
has become very high. Urban areas change the hydrological cycle locally and physical factors (climate variability, effective
56 Causes of water insecurity and downstream by introducing impermeable rainfall, salt water encroachment). You should also
surfaces (roofs, drives, roads); this increases runoff include examples of places with physical water
‘he pressures on finite freshwater resources are
by 45% and may quickly increase river discharges scarcity and schemes to reduce water issues, before
icreasing. This is because the world’s population
downstream of the urban area and make flooding coming to a reasoned judgement as to whether
ontinues to grow, especially in countries such as India
more likely. With more runoff there is less infiltration human or physical geography factors are more
1.35 billion), although it has been slowing down, and
into soils (15-20% reduction), so soil moisture levels important to the causes of water insecurity.
very person needs clean freshwater in order to survive
nd people will take what they need. Water is important are lower. With less vegetation evapotranspiration is 165 Carbon cycle
) food production and everyone needs to eat, so as reduced by 10% so the air is drier (lower humidity). 1 There are two sets of fluxes that are larger than
opulations have increased so has the demand for food, Conflicts over freshwater may arise because it is an all of the others. The interaction between the land
nd more water is used for irrigation of crops. A lot of essential for life, farming and economic activities. surface and atmosphere has significant annual fluxes
ountries have been emerging economically, and all the Within a country, disadvantaged groups may find of respiration and wildfires, which emit CO, to the
onstruction and industries use water, but also people that their access to clean water is restricted because atmosphere with a comparable (but slightly larger)
ave become wealthier and want to improve their lives it is diverted for other uses such as irrigating flux of photosynthesis, which takes CO, out of the
0 they improve their homes with appliances and eat farmland or for HEP production, so poorer people atmosphere. The other set is the interaction between
greater variety of food (especially meat) all of which may have their health and livelihoods affected, the oceans and atmosphere with diffusion taking
onsume more water. for example they may become more susceptible to place in both directions where they are in contact;
disease. An example of this is the Omo River in the process is fairly equal (with slightly more being
5Z Water scarcity issues Ethiopia, which affected over 200000 people (e.g. dissolved into the oceans than emitted). All other
)verall Egypt has a better WPI score than Ethiopia the ethnic Mursi group) who relied on the river for fluxes are very small.
51.7 compared to 34), especially in terms of access, subsistence farming; however, the building of the By far the largest store of carbon is in sedimentary
apacity and use due to the level of development in Gilgel Gibe III dam has threatened their survival. rocks, although the actual amount can only be
1€ country that has water management and expensive Tensions build and can result in open conflict, estimated. The next largest store is the ocean
ams, providing clean water for domestic, agricultural such as the displacement of people due to the (but only 0.05% the size of the sedimentary rock
nd industrial use. However, Ethiopia has a better score construction of the GERD in Ethiopia. Many river store), followed by an even smaller store in the
1 terms of resources as it has the availability of water basins are transboundary, covering several countries, atmosphere, where only 0.03% of natural air is CO,.
‘om a large part of the upper Nile River Basin, but it and there are not many water agreements in place; Biogeochemical processes over a very long geological
still a low score (6.6/20). Both countries only score those countries downstream will always be concerned timescale are responsible for the differences in size.
bout 10/20 on Environment, showing that ecological about what countries upstream may do as dams During more active volcanic periods there was more
ustainability needs improvement. can severely limit river discharges downstream. An carbon in the atmosphere, but for about 290 million
example is the Nile River Basin where Egypt is in the
58 Water conflicts years there has been less activity and 400 million
lower course. A 1959 agreement guarantees Egypt years ago, land-based ecosystems started absorbing
international conflicts develop over water resources
a large share of the Nile’s waters but this has been CO, from it through photosynthesis. Carbon has
ecause it is so essential to human life and wellbeing,
threatened by the GERD in Ethiopia. been trapped in sedimentary rocks over billions
nd being a liquid it moves from one place to another
> it is difficult to get complete control of it. Where 164 Exam practice 2 of years and so the quantity has built up; this
vers flow through several countries, those downstream 1 The hydrological cycle is a closed system on Earth happens as oceans absorb CO, from the atmosphere
re anxious to protect their rights to a fair share of with changes being caused to evaporation rates and land sources to form calcareous oozes on the
1e waters that would normally flow to them. With and precipitation patterns by higher average seabed. At the same time the shells of dead sea
rowing pressures from population growth, economic temperatures. In addition, it is subject to short-term creatures, formed by extracting calcium carbonate
evelopment and climate change, countries have changes within world regions due to variations in from seawater, settle on the seabed. Over time all
ecome even more worried about water security and the weather systems caused by, for example, fluctuations these deposits are compacted and recrystallised to
ish to generate cheap renewable energy through HEP, in polar front jet streams — which may cause a form limestone. So the carbon is constantly moving
hich requires dams which change flows downstream, blocking anticyclone (e.g. lowering rainfall in through the ocean to the rock store.
psetting those countries (e.g. the Grand Ethiopian Western Europe), or cycles such as ENSO with La 166 Carbon stores and processes
enaissance Dam). Nina and El Nino bringing floods or droughts to 1 Sedimentary carbonate rocks are formed when
different regions of the world (e.g. El Nifio creates
59 Hard engineering and marine organisms, especially in warm tropical waters,
a dry South East Asia (June to January) and a wet fall to the seabed creating calcareous ooze with shells
ustainable water schemes southern USA (November to April), while La Nifia
ustainable water supplies are important to the and skeletons (over 30% calcium carbonate). When
makes South East Asia wet (June to December) and this layer is over 100 metres deep it is compacted
iture, as it is a resource that needs to meet the needs the southern USA dry (January to April)).
f people now and in the years to come. The UN by the weight above. At about 100 metres it is
However, over a longer period of time global cemented together, and by 1000 metres deep with a
commends using the natural hydrological cycle as temperatures have been increasing; part of this is a
uch as possible to achieve this, such as restoring or
temperature of 40°C recrystallisation takes place to
natural change linked to Milankovitch cycles but a form solid limestone rock.
nhancing the cycle in local areas. This can be achieved significant part is due to anthropogenic emissions of
y looking after existing forests and natural vegetation The calcium carbonate of limestone rocks is
greenhouse gases since the industrial revolutions in dissolved by rainwater, which is a weak carbonic acid,
r reforestation so that interception, absorption and Europe. Global average temperatures have increased having absorbed CO, when falling through the air.
vapotranspiration processes can help control runoff by about 1°C since and are predicted to continue This chemical reaction releases some of the calcium
nd encourage infiltration and percolation, which will to increase (current rate 0.2°C per decade). Some carbonate to be carried by groundwater flow and
elp store water until it is needed. Reconnecting rivers changes associated with this increase are: intense runoff to the sea, where it sinks to the seabed; it also
ith their floodplains by allowing them to flood helps and heavy precipitation globally (greater convection) releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. These
laintain wetlands and encourages infiltration so that creates higher river discharges and more flooding are part of the annual fluxes in the carbon cycle.
ater is retained in a local area. Water harvesting can in some areas in winter (e.g. the UK); summers can
e used to collect rain falling on impermeable surfaces be drier because higher air temperatures enable it to 167 Biological and oceanic processes
ich as roofs in barrels or directing it into storage areas. hold more moisture leading to lower precipitation 1 Phytoplankton are plants and photosynthesise;
eplacing impermeable surfaces with green areas can and even short-term droughts, more significant in therefore, they take CO, out of the atmosphere as
bsorb rainfall rather than losing it to systems of drains. subtropical high pressure zones (e.g. Sahel); higher they float on the sea surface to use with the Sun’s
arming uses 70% of all water, so action to conserve evapotranspiration rates decrease infiltration rates; energy to grow (create carbohydrate). They store
ater by using drip irrigation or limiting the supply to higher evaporation from open water surfaces and the carbon in their mass until they are eaten by
lants can save water, or grey water can be directed to soil increases condensation and cloud cover, and zooplankton; when they or the zooplankton die,
rops instead of using new supplies. increased precipitation in low pressure regions they sink to the bottom of the ocean to become part
60 Drainage basin management (tropics — ITCZ — and mid-latitudes). of a calcareous ooze (which is eventually turned
There are several human and physical geographical into limestone rock). Some plankton have shells or
he effectiveness of water treaties and frameworks
factors that may cause water insecurity because skeletons which are made from calcium carbonate.
epends on the cooperation and agreement between
it can be caused by economic, social and The physical and marine carbonate pumps move
lany countries, such as 10 countries in the Nile River
environmental factors. carbonate deposits. Warm and cold ocean currents
asin Framework. This is not easy to achieve because
Global population has grown rapidly from 3.7 bn move carbon laterally but also vertically between
etting effective monitoring and resolving conflicts is
in 1970 to 7.6 bn now. The UN predicts that it shallow and deep waters. The thermohaline
ot easy, as shown by the 37 violent disputes over water
will reach 9.8 bn by 2050. Therefore more water circulation carries dissolved carbon from equatorial
nce the 1960s. Also, situations are changing all the
is required and water scarcity results when annual areas and deposits it in cold water sinks in sub-polar
me due to human pressures, such as population and
supplies fall below 1000 m? per person. Wealth and areas such as the Weddell Sea. The carbon taken
sonomic growth and climate change, which is changing
standard of living are also increasing so water is from the atmosphere then sinks (the remains of sea
ipplies and demand for water. The Berlin Directives
being used. Population growth rates are highest in creatures) to form calcareous oozes (but only up to a
re now part of international law, which helps countries
developing countries, such as in sub-Saharan Africa, depth of about 6000 metres) to be eventually fixed in
ek peaceful resolutions to treaty and framework
(Figure 2 shows that here there is water scarcity due limestone rocks.
isputes through international courts.

303
 ANSWERS

168 Terrestrial and 172 Access and consumption developing country these technologies can be used at a
biological processes 1 Different cultural and political priorities create small local scale and do not have expensive fossil fuels to )
\
different approaches towards, and views of, energy. buy, helping small farmers and local businesses.
1 Land-based plants use the process of photosynthesis
to grow and during this process they store carbon. In some countries the natural environment is seen 176 Alternative energy
Photosynthesis uses CO, from the atmosphere mainly as a provider of resources for people and The IPCC may not be entirely correct about the future
together with water and the Sun’s energy to create therefore energy sources are exploited to their of biofuels, especially in developing countries. There are
a carbohydrate and oxygen. In this way carbon is full potential, often to support economic motives issues, such as the very large area of land required to
stored within the biomass of plants and reduced in (e.g. Russia, Nigeria). In other countries there is a grow the biofuel crops, which may take land away from
the atmosphere. Some carbon is moved via the litter growing concern about how the exploitation and the production of food crops in countries with growing
arid decomposers to the soil store, and perhaps if production of energy is harming both the natural populations. Some of this land area may come from
the conditions are suitable into the rock store (e.g. environment and people, such as the emission of extending the agricultural margins into natural areas,
coal formation). pollutants from fossil fuels that are continuing such as forests, adding to deforestation, which is still
2 Decomposers in soils digest dead biomass (litter) to cause global warming and the radioactivity having widespread environmental impacts on the planet.
and break it down into basic minerals, one of from nuclear power (e.g. Japan). For example, Land ownership patterns may be forced to change,
which is carbon. They respire a little CO, into decarbonisation is happening in many European infringing the human rights of the people that own the
the atmosphere, but most of the carbon that they countries and some emerging countries. land, taking the livelihoods of disadvantaged people
produce becomes part of the organic matter store (or 2 Oil TNCs are one of the major energy players — away from them.
humus) fixed within a soil layer. Eventually some of examples are ExxonMobil and BP or state-owned
this carbon store may be moved by water deeper into ones like Gazprom (Russia). Oil and gas is big 177 Environmental health
the soil or rock, or into rivers by throughflow. business and these TNCs have made a lot of Global warming is affecting the ability of forests
money from prospecting, extraction, transport and to sequester carbon because rainfall patterns are
169 Natural greenhouse effect refinement of these energy resources. They prioritise changing so that there are more severe droughts;
Greenhouse gases— such as CO,— are found in making these energy resources available and so usually this is affecting tree survival and there is large-scale
the atmosphere and these absorb most of the heat create availability. They wish to keep trade flowing dieback-(e.g. Amazon). The drier conditions also
radiated from the Earth’s surface; the heat is then through the established pathways and maintain a increase the frequency of wildfires, with further
recycled within the atmosphere and helps to keep profit. Much of this profit is put into exploration for tree deaths. With fewer trees, less carbon dioxide is
the Earth’s average temperature higher than it would more oil reserves, often unconventional sources that absorbed from the atmosphere (via photosynthesis)
otherwise be. Scientists have found evidence in ice are more expensive to extract (e.g. deeper water), and and so levels in the atmosphere increase adding to
cores that shows that, in the past, there was a positive without their ability and willingness to invest these atmospheric warming. The fires also release carbon
correlation between CO, concentrations and the average resources would go undeveloped. They construct from the biosphere store back into the atmosphere.
temperature of the planet; these correspond to Ice pipelines and own tankers that transport oil and gas If grasslands replace the forest then carbon
Ages and interglacial periods. When CO, atmospheric to refinery areas or demand areas. sequestration is reduced by 70%.
concentrations are high, then the Earth’s average
temperature is also higher. 173 Fossil fuel reserves 178 Ocean acidification
1 The map of global oil trade and flows shows that 1 Ocean acidification is where the water becomes more
170 Natural carbon pathways in 2017 there were major flows out (exports) from acidic because it is absorbing more carbon dioxide
Organic matter (or humus) collects in soils through the the Middle East (861.4 million tonnes (mt)), Russia from the atmosphere, forming a stronger carbonic
process of decomposition of litter. Decomposers release (345.7 mt), Africa (e.g. Nigeria) (246.2 mt), and the acid. This increases the acidity to a point where
nutrients from litter. Organic matter has the ability to USA (199.2 mt). The major flows in (imports) were to wildlife is affected.
absorb and hold moisture, which dissolves the nutrients Europe (646.8 mt), the USA (451 mt), China (440.5 2 Any four impacts, such as:
released by decomposition; once dissolved the nutrients mt), India (204.9 mt) and Japan (154.9 mt). The main * The dissolving of the hard calcium carbonate
and water are absorbed by plants through their root providing areas are those with reserves, especially the that makes up the base of coral reefs, the most
systems to help them grow. This growth, or increase in Middle East that has the largest oil reserves in the biodiverse marine ecosystems. If these collapse,
biomass, is also known as productivity (measured in world; they are also countries with a surplus to their whole coral reefs could be lost.
GPP: Gross Primary Production — the total amount of own needs. These flows are long distance and cover Sea creatures that build shells will have greater
CO, fixed by plants in one year, or NPP: Net Primary all continents and are especially more complex in the difficulty doing so, as the acid will make it more
Production — GPP minus losses due to respiration). northern hemisphere, where most developed countries difficult to make strong large shells, so they may
171 Energy consumption are found. The level of economic development is a be smaller. Shellfish may also be smaller and more
1 The average wealth of people is increasing worldwide key factor in deciding which countries are importing vulnerable to predators. '
because they need energy to support their economies. The acidity will affect the young of all marine
and therefore people are using more energy directly
in their homes and travel or indirectly by purchasing Europe is the largest importer because it has many creatures, dissolving them before they are strong
products. The use is greatest in developed countries big economies, such as Germany, France and the enough to withstand the conditions.
UK. China and India are both emerging economies . The speed of change may be so great that marine
due to higher wealth levels and more manufacturing
industries and tertiary businesses. However, and are pushing their development, so their energy life does not have time to adapt, so some species
due to environmental concerns and legislation needs have increased. Japan has no fossil fuel energy may become extinct.
resources of its own and so relies on imports, and
to decarbonise and review nuclear power safety 179 Threats to human wellbeing
(after Fukushima 2011), energy use per person has the USA imports more than it exports because of its
significant economic needs. The Kuznets curve shows that the trend for more
declined significantly (e.g. Japan —15% between developed countries is towards the sustainable level,
2000 and 2014). Those countries with large reserves 2 Energy insecurity may occur in some places if they
have a dependence on imports and their supplies while those emerging economically are increasing the
of energy resources, especially oil, make a lot of loss of forests. As countries develop economically there
money and so have a lot to spend on activities that are disrupted. A lot of oil and gas is transported
long distance by tanker or pipeline, perhaps passing is greater efficiency in using resources and reduced
use energy — such as construction and desalination reliance on biosphere resources. Education levels and
plants. Developing countries are poorer and have through several countries, and there is potential for
disruption. For example, political disagreements scientific knowledge increase, so there is an appreciation |
fewer manufacturing industries and businesses, so of the important role that forests play in Earth’s
energy use is much lower. The fastest increase in between two countries may mean that sanctions are
imposed so that countries stop buying gas supplies systems, such as storing carbon. Economic foresight
energy use per capita is in economically emerging also shows that if resources are looked after, they
countries such as China (+149% between 2000 and or the supplying country decides to cut supplies off.
Piracy or armed conflicts at certain points, such last longer. However, in developing countries poverty
2014), where western-style industrialisation and may force people to overuse the resources that nature
trade has increased average wealth and the demand as the Suez Canal, may prevent supplies getting
through. Internal conflicts may disrupt production, has provided, and emerging countries may use forest
for energy. China has also improved its efficiency at resources to support their economic development.
using energy to increase its GDP. such as in Venezuela, or wars such as in the Gulf
2 Inthe EU between 2000 and 2016 the use of coal, oil may stop supplies. Also, increased demand and 180 Impacts of climate change
and nuclear as primary fuels decreased. Natural gas willingness to pay higher prices may cause a seller to Freshwater stores may change:
increased slightly. HEP stayed the same. Renewables divert their shipments to a new location (e.g. China). * Smaller cryosphere store, due to melting ice and
increased overall, especially biomass/waste. Wind, solar 174 Unconventional fossil fuels snow due to warmer temperatures.
and geothermal all make up a small proportion of the Any two, such as:
° Surface water store changes depend on whether
total but had big increases between 2000 and 2016. * There are uncertainties about the impacts on they are in drier or wetter areas — desert and
Reasons for these patterns include: the safety of people and the natural environment subtropical dry areas may have less surface water
EU stocks of fossil fuels running out and an of new technologies used to extract and process in the future due to even less precipitation and
increasing dependence on unstable areas (e.g. the fuels. greater evaporation, while higher latitudes will
Middle East and Russia) for imports, creating the ° The fuels are still from a fossil source and are have more runoff due to saturated ground and
need to find alternatives carbon based, so when they are used (combustion) more melting.
natural gas being the least polluting of the fossil fuels greenhouse gases will still be emitted, adding to Soil water store depends on the amount of
decarbonisation policies and regulations, with the rate of climate change. evaporation from it, and this is likely to increase
targets to reduce fossil fuel emissions more everywhere.
stringent than those of international protocols 175 Renewable and Groundwater store depends on intensity of
and agreements recyclable energy rainfall; if it is too intense, most will run off and
the number of HEP locations being limited by Renewable and recyclable energies will lead to the not infiltrate and percolate, so it will reduce.
physical factors development of new technologies and new employment 181 Uncertain future
renewables being recognised as the main way of opportunities. Dependence on expensive fossil fuels is
replacing fossil fuels in electricity production 1 With Arctic areas warming the most, all types of
reduced or eliminated, saving costs. Costs of electrical
permafrost are melting. There is decayed organic
and so governments have encouraged their energy will eventually reduce below current levels, saving
material frozen within the permafrost and once é
development, and technologies have improved over businesses money. These points will lead to a country
there is melting the gases stored within this organic
a short time period. generating greater wealth and more GDP. Even ina
material escape into the atmosphere. One of the

304
 ANSWERS
main gases is methane, a more efficient greenhouse other world regions and countries. The Middle East migration to grow its economy, which can lead to
gas than CO,. The release of this gas into the has the world’s largest amount of conventional oil major social problems.
atmosphere increases the amount of heat energy reserves, The largest share of Middle East exports A very large population can be an obstacle to a
trapped, and so raises the average temperature are to the Asia Pacific region, especially Indonesia country becoming a superpower if those people
higher. This is a positive feedback loop, as this will (276.4 mt), China (201.3 mt) and Japan (154.9 mt). are poor, or if many of the people have political
then cause more melting. This is because these areas have great demand due ideas that are strongly opposed to the ruling
to economic growth and therefore industries and government, leading, for example, to a civil war
transport need the energy security. There was also that weakens a country. That is why culture is a
a significant pathway from the Middle East to key characteristic: when a country has a unifying
Europe (166.3 mt) and to India (153.8 mt), again culture — like the ‘American way of life’ — everyone
for economic growth and transport reasons. The in the nation knows what they are working
second largest exporter CIS (Russia) only had an towards, whether they are recent immigrants to the
outflow about one-third that of the Middle East in country or have lived there all their lives.
2017 (416.6 mt), and it uses oil as a political tool. All You may well have come up with alternatives — just
other export flows were relatively small, for example make sure you have explained why they are key
from Canada to the USA or from West Africa (e.g. characteristics for you.
Nigeria) because production was smaller. The world
lo) $4 + +. regions with the largest inflows of oil are those with
189 Hard and soft power
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 1 This answer will depend on the brand you chose to
the greatest economic development, mainly Europe
a certain extent, but it is likely that your answer will
182 Adaptation strategies (646.8 mt), the USA (451 mt) and China (440.9 mt).
make some of the following points: an iconic brand
Water conservation and management can reduce These countries buy oil from at least five different
sources in order to achieve energy security. such as Apple is an example of soft power because it
the impacts of global warming but work best when is a desirable brand that is strongly associated with
everyone takes part; this can reduce the pressures The oil pathways are important to maintaining
energy security, especially where manufacturing the USA, which develops positive associations. As a
on water supply if the climate has become drier or product it ‘sells’ aspects of US culture: for example, it
demands are exceeding supplies (e.g. when groundwater (e.g. plastics) or road transport rely on it. The world
has been in an oil age but, as conventional reserves is an individualistic product rather than one you share
is not being replenished). To work on a large scale, with friends, it is linked to purchases (e.g. through the
such as in northern China, expensive schemes may be become depleted, supplies become unreliable due
to political and conflict factors, and restrictions are App store and iTunes) and reinforces the aspiration to
needed, which may be too costly for some countries own and consume, which is a US value, and it is linked
to implement, or too costly for people if the costs placed on CO, emissions; this is coming to an end. So
oil pathways may become less important in the future. to style and image as set by US consumer culture.
are passed on to them through water rates or other An example of soft power being effective could be the
charges. There are disputes over water in transboundary Energy security also depends on the ability to use
the energy resources available, and this may depend London Olympics and Paralympics in 2012. Through
| drainage basins such as the Nile and the Colorado. these Games, the UK had access to a worldwide
on technologies (such as oil refining capacity, or
183 Mitigation strategies renewable technology, or fracking and deep-water audience of people watching the opening ceremony
Carbon taxation can be an effective way of mitigating technology). A country with low energy demand will and the sporting events, and also the opportunity
climate change because the extra costs for people and be less dependent on pathways. to influence visitors to the Games themselves. The
businesses make them think about avoiding this cost The fossil fuel pathways may become less important as opening ceremony portrayed some familiar themes
by moving to low-carbon alternatives. For example, energy mixes change towards renewables, but currently about the UK to remind the global audience of its
people may change vehicles to electric or hybrid types, most developed and economically emerging countries historical, political and cultural importance — for
which reduce carbon emissions. But a problem is that have energy mixes that have about an 80% reliance example, putting the queen and James Bond together.
these low-carbon technologies are often more expensive on fossil fuels and those without significant stocks of By promoting the UK in this way, the UK extended
initially, and not everyone is able or willing to make their own will depend on the oil (and gas) pathways. its soft power influence in, for example, encouraging
this investment and simply accept the extra costs; and a 2 Plan: people to visit the UK as tourists, encouraging
business may also pass on these costs to the consumer. Developing unconventional fossil fuels has the foreign investment in the UK, etc.
advantages of matching existing technologies, An example of soft power being less effective could
186 Exam practice 1 reducing costs to businesses as they do not have to be Ukraine: the European Union used its soft
1 The main link is the two-way diffusion of carbon change technologies, providing economic benefits to power to try to bring Ukraine closer to the EU — for
at the meeting point of the ocean surface and the the countries that have these reserves, maintaining example, by allowing it to co-host the European
atmosphere. The ocean absorbs 80 PgC/yr from the benefits of trade between countries, and Football Championship and by proposing a trading
the atmosphere while the atmosphere absorbs securing energy pathways for the future. agreement with Ukraine. However, Ukraine has
78.4 PgC/yr from the ocean, so the ocean is storing But there are also disadvantages, such as the historic and recent ties with Russia, which felt
carbon over a long period of time. continuation of carbon emissions from fossil fuels; as threatened by the EU’s attempts to gain influence
(a) 123 — 118.7 = 4.3 PgC/yr the 2018 IPCC report stated, it is important to keep with Ukraine. A revolution followed in Ukraine
(b) Add all PgC/yr = 207.1 + 6 = 34.5 the global temperature increase to +1.5°C to avoid after the Ukrainian president blocked the agreement
Oceans absorb more carbon from the atmosphere major problems. Spread of environmental damage with the EU, led by Ukrainians who wanted closer
than diffuses to it; ocean currents then move this due to extraction and transport technologies. ties with the EU, leading to further conflict in which
carbon over time. Cold deep water (under pressure) Developing renewable energy resources has Russia responded with hard power — effectively
is able to store more carbon than warm shallower advantages such as reducing carbon emissions, invading parts of Ukraine to maintain its hold
waters, so the Southern Ocean is an important carbon which should allow natural processes to slowly over the country. The EU’s soft power approach
sink, such as the Weddell Sea and Ross Sea, with the rebalance the carbon cycle. Producing sustainable destabilised Ukraine and made relations with Russia
Antarctic bottom current moving carbon northwards energy. Developing new economic opportunities and the EU much more difficult — not what the EU
along the bottom of the Atlantic. Iirithe Southern through new technologies, a new range hoped to achieve in any way.
Ocean there are upwelling and downwelling currents of businesses. 190 Geo-strategy
which move dissolved carbon (physical carbon However, there are disadvantages such as 1 The Heartland for Mackinder was the centre of the
pump); at upwelling places carbon diffuses back into dependence on natural systems, such as clear skies Eurasian landmass, which was controlled by Russia
the atmosphere. The thermohaline conveyor moves for solar energy or wind for turning turbines. at the time he was writing in the early 20th century.
carbon compounds over long distances between all of There are times when an energy mix relying on Control over this enormous area, in Mackinder’s time,
the oceans (except the Arctic). Much of the carbon just renewables may not be capable of meeting meant control of 50% of all the world’s resources,
eventually sinks to the bottom of the oceans, partly demand. Renewables are less flexible energy which would give any country controlling this area a
through the marine carbonate pump. sources and are mostly converted into electricity. significant advantage as they could use the resources
The seasonally corrected values line shows a steady Conclusion that evaluates based on these and to build a powerful military, develop wealth through
upward trend from about 391 ppm in 2012 to about other points. industrialisation and support a large population. It
402 ppm in 2016; this is because of the cumulative
188 Superpowers would be very difficult for any other nation on its
effect of carbon emissions into the atmosphere from
own to defeat a country that controlled the Heartland
the combustion of fossil fuels dating back to the The specification states that the characteristics of
(making it a superpower in effect), so unless other
19th century — natural processes are unable to superpowers include economic, political, military,
cultural, demographic and access to natural resources, countries worked together against the Heartland
transfer carbon to medium- (e.g. vegetation) or
so your three key characteristics should be selected from country, it would become globally dominant.
long-term stores (e.g. ocean) quickly enough. The
this list. Arguments can be made for all of them being Reasons could include:
monthly mean values trend shows a seasonal pattern
In terms of resources, the Heartland region is
which is linked to northern hemisphere ecosystems; ‘key’ in contrast to other characteristics. For example:
* Economic power is key, because without a
no longer dominant: there are important oil and
during the growing season there is greater absorption
powerful economy a country cannot afford a gas reserves in northern Russia, but the main
of carbon from the atmosphere by plants, especially
powerful military and will not have the political oil-producing countries of the Middle East, for
trees, and the CO, concentration level drops
influence through trade deals to take on a example, are not part of the Heartland, while
(by about 4 parts per million), whereas in the winter
China and Japan have become global powers
the CO, level increases again when the majority of dominant role in global politics.
without having the same resource advantages as
plants are dormant and are not absorbing CO, from Access to resources is key because even if a
country is an important trading nation, it might Mackinder’s Heartland.
the atmosphere as part of their photosynthesis.
end up spending almost all of its GDP on
The Heartland was seen as being safe from
There are some minor variations in the moving
invasion by other countries because it extended
average, which will be linked to the climate providing resources if it doesn’t have access to the resources
inwards so far from the sea, and sea power was the
more ideal growing conditions for plants in certain it needs for energy and raw materials.
early 20th century’s supreme military force. Now,
7 years, such as the spring/summer of 2013. A very large population is a key characteristic,
however, air power means that this would not be
because it means a very large workforce to build
187 Exam practice 2 a strong economy and a large internal market to
an advantage and missile technology, including
1 Figure 2 shows that the largest oil pathway (1137.8 nuclear missiles, means nowhere on Earth is
buy products made by the nation. Without a large
million tonnes (mt)) is from the Middle East to protected just by being a long way from the sea.
population, a country might become reliant on

305
 ANSWERS

¢ The internet and other innovations in global influenced to reduce emissions if the rate of climate low-wage economies, and the core countries are able
communications technology mean that change is to be reduced. to get periphery countries to compete to sell their raw {
materials to core countries for the lowest prices. \
geographical factors are much less important now Second, the emerging powers are still growing and
than they were in the early 20th century. Being able their demand for energy is still increasing. While the
196 TNCs: global influencers
to profit from and control flows of trade through most developed countries now generally have slow
rates of economic growth and are able to achieve some 1 Reasons could include: a historical legacy — that many
these communications is probably as important as
reductions in emissions relatively painlessly through, for of the patents still held by western patent holders
where in the world a country is located.
example, switching public transport to electric vehicles, were developed a long time ago when the majority
191 Uni-polar power this would not be the case for emerging powers, which of R&D took place in western countries; TNCs do
Hard power was the main way in which the British might experience lower growth if they reduce emissions. around half of the world’s R&D, and many TNCs
achieved control of its colonies, for example by using have their headquarters in the USA and the EU;
That means compromises have to be achieved in global
its naval power (e.g. gunships) to take control of ports. climate change policy, for example to recognise that patents were developed by the western legal system
The threat of its hard power was also important in emerging powers should be allowed different, lower
and there could be a cultural acceptance of the
maintaining power, since any rebellion or opposition advantages of the patent system that is not present to
targets for cutting emissions than the most developed
to British control could mean that British ships in countries that have emitted the most greenhouse
the same degree in other parts of the world; western
the trouble area could rapidly deploy troops and the gases over time. Third, the rapid development of education may have been better than education in
opposition could be supressed by force — hard power. technological expertise in the emerging powers means other parts of the world until recently, meaning a
Soft power was also important in maintaining power to that effective global responses to climate change are greater proportion of R&D was done in the west.
some extent: people in British colonies could get jobs increasingly likely to be developed in India, Indonesia 2 IGOs such as the IMF and World Bank helped
in the British administration of their countries and the or China rather than in France, the UK or the USA. It countries agree on international standards for
chance to develop careers; some colonials got to benefit is therefore very important that emerging powers have finance, which made it easier for TNCs to operate
from British education. The British introduced sports the opportunity to contribute to and to take leading across more than one country. IGOs like the World {
like cricket to many colonies, and held competitions and roles in global efforts to tackle climate change. Bank lent money to developing countries to develop
sporting tournaments like the Empire Games. British the infrastructure that TNCs needed to see (e.g. f/

media encouraged the idea that all the subjects of the 194 Development Theory ports, reads and rail, energy supplies) in order to
Empire were part of something good and successful. There is no single correct answer, but any argument you invest in production in developing countries. The
British missionaries converted people to Christianity, give should bejustified. Looking at changing patterns WTO and other IGOs have encouraged all countries,
and especially to the Church of England. of power from uni-polar (British Empire) to bi-polar including developing countries, to open up their
(Cold War) to multi-polar: markets to foreign investment and free trade and it is
192 Bi-and multi-polar power * Modernisation Theory works well in explaining this, more than anything, that enabled TNCs to use
The most effective form of indirect control would be why Britain, by industrialising first, was in a their transnational status to maximise their profits.
the one that would enable the superpower to have the world-leading position that enabled it to directly
most influence over another country. Arguments could 197 Decision-making
control large areas of the world. It explains why
be made for each of the four types, so your answer will other countries were able to challenge Britain’s 1 Powerful countries often take a leading role in
need to justify your choice. For example: dominance as they also followed the same crisis response: for example, in providing funds and
* Political indirect control means that the superpower modernisation path: the USSR deliberately expertise for disaster relief, especially when a disaster
is able to influence the leadership, policy, political implemented massive rapid industrialisation occurs to a neighbouring country or ally. This can
decision-making, etc. of the other country. This programmes in the 1930s to achieve just the sort influence the way other countries respond. Powerful
can be very effective because this can then influence of ‘take off to a modern society that the model countries can also make decisions to intervene
economic, military and cultural aspects of the sets out. However, it does not explain why some in conflicts, for example the USA led a coalition
relationship between the two countries. However, it
countries have not been able to follow the same of countries in opposing the invasion of Kuwait
can lose effectiveness if the citizens of the indirectly path to modernisation, and it does not account for by Iraq in 1990-91. The decisions that powerful
controlled country resent the influence of the the decline of countries such as Britain once their countries make about environmental issues can
superpower over their leadership. global dominance began to fade. strongly influence the response of other countries:
Military indirect control is very effective in e Dependency Theory is the strongest theory for for example, China has taken a leading role in
achieving strategic objectives and extending explaining unequal power since it sets out how climate change negotiations and in its investment
military ‘reach’ around the world, and has trade the core of most developed countries operate to in renewables and innovative adaptation measures. __
benefits too, as selling arms is very lucrative. deliberately block the development of what Frank The United Nations Security Council recognises the’
However, there are potentially high costs for the saw as underdeveloped countries. This model leading role of powerful countries in its permanent
superpower: it costs a lot to have military bases accounts for the development of neo-colonial membership: the five permanent members include
scattered all over the world and the superpower relationships of power and may be part of an the USA and China — the world’s leading powers.
may get dragged into local conflicts, which can be explanation for why emerging powers have not 2 Global geopolitical stability means that the world’s
unpopular and lose it influence. reached superpower status on a par with the USA. economy and the peace and security of countries
Economic indirect: the superpower gets influence However, it does not explain how emerging powers around the world are not threatened by political
and increased trade with other countries that it have been able to emerge despite being from the crises and instability such as global financial crises or,
can arrange to benefit its own businesses, farmers, periphery, or why it might be that once dominant world wars. The UN is very important for attempts to
etc. Having other countries indebted to you means core countries can begin to take on more peripheral keep global politics stable because it is the forum that
that you have the option to put pressure on them characteristics (e.g. a low-wage economy). countries can use to settle disputes: the International
by calling in loans or raising interest rates if World Systems Theory is the strongest theory for Court of Justice provides a court for settling legal
they decide to act in ways that do not suit your including change into a theory of development, disputes between countries, while the Security
objectives. However, if economic indirect control is
as it recognises how long-term cycles in the Council makes decisions about how the UN should
over-used, countries can become more of a burden. deal with international conflicts and crises, which can
global economy create opportunities for some
Corruption can make the countries unstable peripheral countries to develop rapidly, for some include sending peacekeeping troops to trouble spots
because the population get angry, which is bad core countries to decline as recession strips and helping resolve conflicts, preferably before they
for investment. Interest payments can get too high out their competitive advantages or they make flare up and destabilise countries and regions.
for the countries to afford the loans, and financial
instability risks spreading back to the superpower.
the wrong choices about investments or other 198 Resource demands
economic priorities. However, World Systems 1 The main human activities contributing to carbon
Poorer countries that are forced into dependence on Theory does not have a strong explanation for
richer countries through economic indirect control dioxide emissions are generation of energy and
why these changes happen, why the patterns of heat, industry, transportation, farming and
do not develop effectively, which means global trade power that emerge take the form they do, or why
is less than it could be, risking economic recession. deforestation. Because of their large economies, the
some countries seem able to deal with economic USA and China generate a lot of electricity, both
Cultural indirect control has none of the risks of opportunities and challenges better than others, or
political or military indirect control: it is soft power. for industrial/business and domestic use, and create
better at some times compared to other times. a lot of carbon emissions from their large industrial
In the Cold War, young people in the USSR and
Eastern Europe were often strongly influenced by 195 Global economy sectors. Both have large populations and both have
western fashion, films and music that reached them On the face of it, IGOs appear to be above the interests climate requirements for heating in the north in
through Radio Free Europe (despite censorship) or of any one country and aim to serve all countries — for winter and air conditioning in the south in summer.
which were smuggled in. This increased resentment example, the World Bank aims to reduce poverty around Both have large farming sectors that are fully
against the Soviet regime and its ideology. However, the world, as does the IMF, rather than aiming to make mechanised in the case of the USA, and increasingly
while cultural indirect control can change attitudes, the most powerful countries more powerful — so how mechanised in the case of China.
on its own it is not strong enough to ensure that could they help superpowers to influence the global 2 Advantages of the Earth Overshoot Day concept
another country’s politicians make the choices economy? The current leader (at the time of writing) of could include:
a superpower wants, that its businesses produce the world’s superpower, President Trump of the USA, is * creates an easy-to-understand comparison that
the materials the superpower needs at the price in favour of ‘America First’, which involves protecting helps people to grasp a complex problem
it demands, or that another country fights the US manufacturing and services from competition from allows comparison between countries (if the world
enemies or allows access to the strategic locations other countries. However, there has been widespread all lived like...), which shows the disproportionate
that the superpower wants. criticism over many decades about the role of IGOs resource use of developed countries
in promoting capitalism and free trade. Capitalism allows comparison year on year so it is possible to
193 Emerging powers see if the situation is improving or deteriorating
is the ideology of the USA and its western allies, as
The emerging powers are very important to global over time.
opposed to the socialist and communist ideologies of
attempts to reduce the rate of climate warming and the Disadvantages could include:
the USA’s Cold War enemies. Free trade favours the
impacts of climate change. First, the emerging powers * it implies that the Earth’s resources are renewed,
core, in Dependency Theory terms, and disadvantages
are themselves responsible for a large proportion of which is not the case (at least not in the timescale
the periphery, since it opens up the markets of
global greenhouse emissions — for example, China is of human civilisations) for non-renewable resources
developing countries to global trade, meaning that
now the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases. the target of not overshooting does not appear
local manufacturers are forced out of business by
It is therefore crucial that the emerging powers can be foreign competition, foreign TNCs move in and exploit realistic because to achieve it, everyone in the

306
 ANSWERS

world would need to live in the way people do in 202 Changing relationships While interest rates are low, a very large national
Vietnam, which people in developed countries are China might be interested in turning African nations debt may not be a problem, but there is always the
unlikely to agree to and which people in Vietnam into the next ‘world’s factory’ because Chinese risk that interest rates increase, in which case a large
might want to move away from national debt poses greater challenges. If it looks as
companies are looking for low-wage economies to shift
° it does not identify who the most significant over- their manufacturing to, in the same way that developed though a country cannot repay the interest it owes,
users of the world’s resources are: for example, countries shifted their manufacturing to China in the investment in that country will reduce and investors
Qatar and Luxembourg are small countries and 1990s. As China’s economy turns more towards the will demand higher interest rates, making the
are unlikely to be using as many resources overall service sector, and its industries towards higher tech, situation worse.
as China or the USA. high-skilled work, the expanding Chinese middle class It is more difficult for the USA to continue to give
tax cuts to the wealthiest Americans as the national
199 Willingness to act will still want to buy consumer products at a good
price, but Chinese wages will be too high for China’s debt increases. This is because if the government
There are arguments on both sides (and no single
industries to maximise their profits. African countries, does not get the money it needs from taxes, it
correct answer): certainly the future growth of
where wages are still often very low, therefore represent borrows more money to pay its bills, making the
middle-class consumption in emerging superpowers
a good place for China’s industries to invest in new national debt bigger.
such as China and India is a significant environmental
production facilities. It is challenging to reduce national debt without
threat, since that consumption inevitably means
raising taxes because the way this is done is by
increasing demand for increasingly less available 203 Changes in influence cutting back government spending. This has major
resources, risking environmental degradation on a
1 The location of the world’s economic centre is a impacts on the lives of Americans — as the UK has
major scale — all of which could still happen even if
reflection of where the most economic growth is experienced with its austerity programme from
the emerging superpowers were able to reduce their
occurring in the world. Since the 1950s, the economic 2008, crime may increase as police numbers are cut,
greenhouse gas emissions to their 2030 targets under education may suffer as funding for schools fails
centre has moved rapidly from a Jocation off the
the Paris Agreement. Although the USA as a whole has to keep pace with rising student numbers, health
east coast of the USA, reflecting the strongest
withdrawn from the Paris Agreement, some of the 50 care can become more expensive as government
growth being in the west of the northern hemisphere,
states that make up the USA have decided to continue support for health insurance schemes is reduced.
towards the east, reflecting a much stronger ‘pull’
to work towards reducing their carbon emissions
from the rapidly industrialising and urbanising These changes can have political implications, with
anyway, which is an important point to make about the
Asian countries of Japan, China, India, Malaysia, more people, on the one hand, choosing to support
USA’s willingness to act.
Indonesia and others. political candidates who are pushing for increased
However, the reluctance of the US government to
China’s Belt and Road initiative is investing $1 state aid to help those in need (left wing) or, on the
commit to reducing carbon emissions — and the other hand, choosing to support political candidates
trillion in a huge array of infrastructure projects in
continuing scepticism in sections of American society
70 countries across Asia, Africa and Europe. The who push for greater protection for those who have
about climate science — could be seen as more-of a
project aims to strengthen trade between China against those who have not: stricter police controls,
threat, since the USA is the second largest contributor reductions in immigration/a ‘hostile environment’ for
and these countries, to help develop countries (e.g.
to greenhouse gas emissions: the USA’s reluctance to illegal migrants (right wing).
Pakistan) that can become markets for Chinese
cut emissions therefore puts an extra burden on the Economic restructuring in the USA has mainly
companies, and to boost global trade generally. By we
rest of the world. The USA is also the world’s leading meant the shifting of manufacturing from the USA
strengthening trade relations across these regions,
superpower, a position that in the past has involved a
China is buying influence with many other nations. to cheaper locations, often in Asia. This has not
leadership role in the global community. The USA’s caused long-term unemployment in the USA, as
This is worrying for powers that also have interests in
actions may convince other powers, for example jobs have shifted from manufacturing into services,
these regions, for example India. India has a hostile
Russia, that they also should not risk damaging their relationship with Pakistan, which is potentially but it has created communities that took their
' economic position by cutting emissions. Alternatively, a major partner in the Belt and Road initiative. identity from secondary sector industries (such as
the USA’s position on climate change may risk it losing car manufacturing) that feel ‘left behind’. Many
India relies on Pakistan being weaker than India
a lot of its global influence and may permit another Americans feel that ‘their’ jobs were given away
economically, demographically and politically, so
emerging power, such as China, to take the lead in global China’s actions through the Belt and Road initiative to Asia, and this is why China has grown so fast.
governance, which would potentially mean a major could strengthen Pakistan and perhaps make war Comparing the USA of today with the USA of
shift in geopolitics that could sideline the USA and end between India and Pakistan more likely. the 20th century, in which America dominated
up damaging not only its soft power influence but its the world, has made many Americans feel that
economic growth. 204 Middle East tensions economic restructuring has caused the USA to lose
200 Resources and rights Your three reasons could include: its way — hence President Trump’s rallying call to
* The Middle East is strategically very important ‘Make America Great Again’. The challenge facing
1 These countries are largely where TNCs located
to superpowers and emerging powers because of the USA as a result of economic restructuring is
production in order to take advantage of lower
its vital energy resources. However, countries in how to negotiate the political fallout of economic
wages and a less stringent regulatory environment,
the Middle East use their importance as energy restructuring’s impacts on those communities that
which meant higher profits — for example,
suppliers to control oil prices by increasing or feel left behind, and how to recover the USA’s
environmental regulations or health and safety
decreasing world supply. This can sometimes dominant global influence, which caused such
regulations were not really enforced there. However,
trigger global recessions, which damage national pride in Americans of the 20th century.
this less strict regulatory set-up meant there was less
superpowers and emerging powers.
protection for TNCs from police and the legal system
Superpowers and emerging powers would like 206 Global military power
against counterfeiting, while low-paid workers, 1 Arguments for the economic costs being worth it:
to have energy security — not to be dependent
working long hours in sometimes uncomfortable or The USA’s ability to project its military power
on unstable nations in the Middle East for their
even unsafe conditions, had little incentive to anywhere in the world has enabled it to take a
energy supplies. Attempts by powers to source
show loyalty to the TNC and refuse to make leading role in geopolitics because of its ability
alternative or substitute energy supplies can lead
counterfeit products. to back up its position with overwhelming
to more tensions in other regions — for example,
2 Itis likely that China will take an increasingly serious hard power.
China’s territorial claims in the South China Sea.
attitude to international law protecting intellectual The USA’s military power acts as a global police
The Middle East is economically very important to
property rights, if only because China is now force, reducing the chance of tension turning
superpowers and emerging powers, but the region
developing many more innovations itself, protected into conflict all round the world, which benefits
is politically unstable due to the many competing
by the international patent system, which it will wish millions of people.
ethnic groups (e.g. Kurds vs Turks, Jews vs Arabs)
to protect from counterfeiting by others. The USA’s spending on its military creates jobs
and religious groups (such as between Shia Islam
201 Spheres of influence and Sunni Islam or between Christianity, Islam and in the USA, which benefits its economy, and
Building structures on disputed land is a flash point for Judaism in Israel and Palestine). Superpower or accelerates technological developments, which
conflict because it implies ownership. If an uninhabited emerging power investment in the Middle East risks benefits the rest of society when civilian spin-offs
island is disputed by several different powers and one drawing powers into conflicts between these groups. are developed.
Superpowers and emerging powers have Arguments for the economic costs not being worth it:
builds something on it, this helps to make a case in
international opinion that the land should be considered historically competed with each other for * The USA is spending huge amounts of its citizens’
in that power’s sphere of influence. China’s construction influence in the Middle East, for example Egypt money on a role of global policeman that benefits
of military bases, airstrips, artificial reefs and other allied with the USSR against the USA in the other countries rather than the USA.
Cold War. This can increase tensions between The cost of the USA’s overseas military forces is
types of building in the South China Sea sets out a very
clear claim to the islands that, because the buildings are superpowers or emerging powers. For example, money that could be spent on domestic US issues
military, would be difficult for other powers to remove Russian intervention in the Syrian civil war has such as reducing inequality.
significantly aided the current leader to stay in The threat from other countries today is more
without provoking open conflict, and which give China
power, against the wishes of the previous US about cyberwarfare than traditional warfare, and
a strategic advantage in the area. Russia’s construction
leadership, while the USA is aiding its ally Saudi terrorism rather than combatting enemy armies. The
of a bridge between mainland Russia and the peninsula
Arabia in a civil war in Yemen, where opposition USA%s global military power is not a deterrent to
of the Crimea is an example of Russia constructing
forces are funded by Iran. cyberattack or a terrorist dirty bomb, for example.
something that integrates or links the Crimea to Russia
Arguments for are likely to reference the
and looks to replace the Crimea’s existing connection 205 Economic challenges technological, scientific, engineering and medical,
by land with the rest of Ukraine. It makes it harder for
1 A very large national debt is not a terminal situation etc. advances that have come as a direct and indirect
Russia’s claim to the Crimea as part of its federation to
for a superpower, because the USA is seen as a safe effect of solving the problems of sending machines
be thrown out, even though the majority of countries
place to invest money. However, all debts involve and humans into space. Satellite technology, for
see Russia’s actions as an annexation of what should be
interest payments, which the federal government of example, has brought immense benefits to every
part of Ukraine. Another example not on this page but
the USA has to pay. Money that it spends on interest nation through communications, entertainment,
which you may know about is the building of houses
payments is money that the government is not mapping and every technology that relies on GPS.
on contested land in the Israel/Palestine conflict. These
spending on infrastructure or social care, or funding Arguments against are likely to reference the
houses back up Israel’s claim to the land, even though
for education and skills development or university staggering cost of space exploration and argue that
no legal decision has awarded it to Israel.
research grants. technological advances linked to space exploration

307
 ANSWERS
eS
caeeet
that meet human demands would have been in carbon emissions with the aim of keeping rivers, lakes or the ground and do not go through
developed anyway, while other similar technological global warming below the 2°C ‘tipping point’. The artificial treatment to take out harmful bacteria. If
adyances haye been made without requiring space USA was the only country to withdraw from the sewage, or farm or industrial pollutants, contaminate —
exploration: medical discoveries linked to the Agreement and the USA's reasons were in terms these water supplies, then human health will be affected
unlocking of the human genome, for example, owe of maintaining the USA's superpower dominance with the consequent increases in mortality rates.
little to space exploration, Space exploration to (whatever the global cost), 2 You should draw a best-fit line as follows;
discover the chemical make-up of distant planets 5 Challenges:
may one day pave the way for human life on other * Interdependence risks becoming dependent
planets, but arguably the money could be better on China, i
spent on protecting the planet we have from further * If China lends more money than an African
damage by its human inhabitants, country can afford to repay, that country risks
becoming something similar to a colony,
207 Future power structures + Chinese investment is made through top-down
Arguments for the USA's continued dominance are loans to national governments, which risks money capita
per
GOP
scale)
flag
(5)

likely to refer to its dominance in cultural, political not reaching local people and businesses, especially
and military spheres as well as its economic strength if governments in some African countries continue ‘50 55 60 6 70 75 00 65 80
emerging powers have experienced rapid economic to have problems with corruption, Lite expectancy at birth la years

growth but arguably have serious challenges in moving * Some Chinese projects have caused excessive The graph shows a positive correlation, so as GDP
-
out of @ regional power status to achieve anything like environmental degradation, which is not under per capita increases, life expectancy at birth also
parity (equality) with the USA's global power, even if it control because African governments have not set increases, A log scale for GDP data has been used
is declining, in the short or medium term, up suitable environmental regulation, or it is not because there is a large difference between the
Arguments for a bi-polar power structure in the properly enforced, poorest and richest countries. (
future are likely to evidence China’s rapidly growing * There is the risk that without proper government
influence in regions outside East Asia — for example,
214 Ethnicity and poverty variations /
control over working conditions, Chinese
in Africa, South Asia, Central Asia and Europe, management of projects will not show due regard
1 Ethnic. minority groups can find themselves ata
Unlike in the Cold War when the USA wanted to disadvantage compared with the majority of a
to employment rights and health and safety,
destroy the USSR because of US anti-capitalist population when it comes to health matters, In
Opportunities;
ideology, the USA has no apparent objections to Australia the Aboriginal people have problems ;
* China is providing huge amounts of investment
communist China, perhaps because China has no because of lifestyle changes away from traditional
which African countries might otherwise struggle
objections to integrating China fully into the capitalist ways of life, including changes in diet and smoking,
to get;
system and is making no attempts to convince other which have introduced health problems such as
* China wants to see African countries develop
countries to come under the leadership of the Chinese higher obesity, including among children, and cancer
so they can be markets for Chinese products,
Communist Party, In faet, the two countries are rates, Many indigenous Australians still live in
Development through trade will bring higher
closely linked together through trade and debt, which remote areas and do not have access to appropriate
GDP, opportunities for local businesses to make
means to some extent that both need the other to health care, and many are poor and cannot afford
money, more government tax revenue to spend
maintain their superpower status, health care, Consequently life expectancy is 10 years
(potentially) on health care, education, security.
Arguments for a multi-polar power structure in the shorter for both Aboriginal males and females than
* Infrastructure projects create jobs for local people,
future are likely to point to the USA’s economic for the non-indigenous Australian population.
develop skills and transfer new technology from
problems (high national debt), trends towards 2 Different lifestyles can lead to a disparity in
China to African nations,
protectionism (protecting American businesses behind health across a country, In the UK different
* Chinese investment in new ports and other
tariffs) instead of increasingly free global trade, and regions have different health levels, as reflected
infrastructure increases trade,
reluctance to net as the world’s policeman in areas such in life expectancies. For example, the difference
* Chinese money does not have ‘strings attached’,
as Syria or Yemen, At the same time, there are more between Dorset and Glasgow is over 10 years for
unlike the IMF or World Bank that often require
emerging powers than China alone — India for one males, and about four years for males and females
corruption controls, environmental safeguards and
which argues for an increasingly multi-polar world, between Liverpool (poorer urban) and Kesgrave,
an opening up of national economies to free trade,
Globalisation may make a multipolar world more likely Suffolk (richer semi-rural), These differences reflect
BRICS are Brazil, Russia, India, China and
(oo, since international capital (investment money) is combinations of factors, such as the type of work,
South Africa,
not tied to national interests but goes wherever reliable air pollution, life stress levels, eating habits, alcohol —
* They are increasingly important to global
returns on investment are highest, which varies as global consumption and smoking habits. Health is lower in
economic and political systems, to the
economic cycles create areas of opportunity and areas areas such as Glasgow and Liverpool, where some
environment, to migration and they also project
of declining profitability, people have manual jobs, live in polluted areas,
power through military might,
experience employment-related stresses (low pay,
210 Exam practice * Your answer might view the rest of the world in
unemployment), eat fatty or sugary foods (higher
terms of a focus on a challenge to the USA as the
| Your reason is likely to be that some oil exporting obesity levels), drink alcohol every day and smoke
countries in the Middle East have the capability to
only remaining superpower, or more broadly to
excessively, Opposite lifestyles tend to be foundin |
act together to affeet world oil prices, with major
include developed and developing countries,
* Threats could be in terms of projection of power,
rural areas such as Dorset and East Anglia. |
consequences for economic growth in the rest of the
world, Political tensions within the region make it
but also prices of energy, food and other resources. 215 Socio-economic development ;
Opportunities could be new markets, contribution There are significant differences in government
challenging because conflicts can affect the supply of
to global wealth, innovations, contributions to spending between the UK (a welfare state) and Russia
oll and gas to the rest of the world, Desire for energy
global leadership. (an authoritarian state); the UK has larger spending
security has led some superpowers to attempt to gain
* Your answer could take a country approach or by on both education and health, only a small difference
influence in the Middle Bast, That has meant some
theme, or threats/opportunities, in education as schooling is compulsory at primary
nations allying with the USA (e.g, Saudi Arabia) and
some nations opposing the USA (e.g, Iran), 211 Measuring human development and secondary levels, but a much larger spending
2 Modernisation Theory sets out a path for countries (approximately 9% higher) on health care than a
Alternative measures of deyelopment have arisen
(o follow in modernising, and assumes that different Russia, However, Russia spends more on welfare (by
because some people and governments believe that
countries will be at different points on it at different approximately over 17%) as it has to support a larger
economic development is not the only path that
times, As new countries succeed in modernising, these poorer population and those that were not assisted by
countries could take, There are other ways in which
emerging powers will change the pattern of power, the health-care system, Much more of Russia’s spending
people’s lives could improve, such as haying democracy
Dependency Theory sees existing superpowers as is directed towards its military budget than the UK
and freedom of speech, but some aspects of this are
exploiting their dominance to prevent developing (around 2.5 times higher) and so this leaves less money
difficult to colleet objective data on, The natural
countries from competing on a level playing field; available for spending on education and health care.
environment also provides resources and services, so
ihe implication here would be that changing patterns damage to it harms human wellbeing, such as climate 216 UN MDGs and SDGs
of power would come as emerging powers find new change; the Happy Planet Index considers this but does | Some world regions and the countries within them
routes to challenge superpower dominance, for not consider socio-political factors, did not meet some MDG targets because they started
example the BRICS’ moye to establish a rival funding from a very low base, with extreme poverty and very
body to US-dominated 1GOs, World Systems Theory 212 Contrasting views high mortality rates, as found in sub-Saharan Africa.
has changing patterns built into it, in its semi- Feonomie growth may the best way of improving Developing countries are poor and so between 2000
periphery where change and tensions occurs, and also socio-political conditions for people because as a and 2015 did not have sufficient wealth to invest in
recognises the importance of long-term economic country generates more wealth from its businesses and social infrastructure, and instead devoted money to try
eyeles, such as Kondratiev eyeles (alternate intervals industries the government becomes wealthier through to develop their countries economically, which would
of high and low growth rate), which give advantages the ability to raise tax revenues, With these revenues also have affected success in meeting environmental
to some countries over others, the government can invest in health-care systems, and targets, Countries experiencing conflicts would have
4 Westernisation is one example of the global cultural the health of the population improves and people live had difficulty improving living conditions, especially
influence of superpowers, One reason for its longer, The lives of people also improve because there in the semi-arid areas of the Sahel and western Asia,
importance Is likely to be because of the success will be investment in infrastructure such as water supply where the climate and climate change would have
of the spread of ‘western’ (,e, US) values since the and education; with education people recognise the increased the difficulties. Gender inequalities are
end of the Second World War across the globe; importance of freedom of speech and the rights of entrenched in some cultures and it takes more than
consumerism, capitalism, wealth-creation, English disadvantaged groups such as women, 15 years to bring about socio-cultural and political
language as the dominant language, ‘western’ brands change, The Asia-Pacific region shows the difficulties
(Apple, Microsoft, Nike), 213 Health and life expectancy
1 Clean freshwater is essential to people’s health; they in meeting all targets, especially for those countries that
4 Your answer is likely to foous on the USA's decision are more deprived.
under President Trump to withdraw from the Paris need enough of it on a daily basis to live but also
for personal hygiene and for cooking, In developing 2 Progress towards the SDGs may depend on the fs |
Agreement (2015), in which nearly 200 countries, availability and use of technologies, and needs to
including China, agreed to voluntary reductions countries some water supplies are taken directly from
be appropriate to each country and its financial

308
 ANSWERS
resources (e.g. money to train teachers). The world higher rates of disease such as TB and more injuries. may change the way in which a country is governed,
recession (starting in 2008) has made funding In addition it is difficult to provide the best health and sometimes in a way that was not predicted (e.g.
SDG programmes more difficult, and reconciling care and education because the tribal areas are often Libya). Social and economic aid may be tied
economic targets and environmental sustainability remote and isolated, which creates difficulties getting to conditions that the external provider imposes,
is not easy. There are a number of conflicts in world fully qualified staff. Also, the curriculum and type of forcing the country to make changes or not receive
regions, such as in the Middle East and Africa, and health care may not be the most appropriate for this the aid. Direct military action can bring a change
genocide (e.g. Rohingya), which increase mortality population, such as not covering traditional culture, in government, but legitimacy is not always clear
rates through interrupted food and water supplies knowledge and skills — which is also not helped (e.g. Yemen).
and greater incidence of disease. High birth rates when indigenous people move to other areas of the
also introduce large numbers of youths into a country because it is not economic or practicable
224 Development aid
population, and there may not be enough jobs for to provide what is needed for a small scattered 1 Three differences include the following:
them when they need to work. Political changes, indigenous population, so educational achievement « The amount of money given; IGOs have more to
especially greater isolationism and nationalism in the is 10% below where it should be. However, fresh give than NGOs.
. NGO aid does not usually have conditions
last few years, may increase the incidence of human injections of money may help to improve the
rights tensions and violations. situation in future, by providing schools and health attached to it, while IGO aid may be linked to
centres with more relevant resources (e.g. equipment) conditions such as trade.
217 Human rights laws NGOs usually work directly with local people that
and better pay and training of staff.
1 Several possibilities, such as: need help (bottom-up approach), while IGOs work
Strengths: makes countries include human rights 221 Equality with governments (top-down approach).
within their own laws and cultures; provides The conflict situation in Afghanistan greatly affects 2 Australia’s development aid was largely to
international protection for all groups of people women’s ability to improve their position. The developing countries relatively close, especially
wherever they are in the world. opportunities for work and education are greatly countries in South East Asia such as Indonesia and
Weaknesses: not all countries agree with every reduced, as there is an emphasis on survival and the Vietnam. This is so that Australia can build positive
aspect of the UDHR and have been selective in the wars destroyed many businesses. Despite the role of relationships with these countries, benefiting from
parts that they have adopted freely; some people international organisations, especially those of the UN better trade and control of immigrants. Australia’s
and countries believe that the sovereignty of a and women’s groups within the country, improvements development aid also supports some countries, often
country is reduced by international laws. have only been slow, as shown by the country’s GI], slightly further away, that have internal conflicts
2 The ECHR is sometimes controversial because it which only gives the country a low rank position overall. affecting people’s wellbeing (humanitarian issues),
has brought together 47 countries with contrasting The number of girls attending secondary school has such as Afghanistan. The level of aid is usually
cultures, and some may disagree with the loss of actually fallen in recent years, which does not help higher the closer the country is to Australia, so
sovereignty that occasionally seems to result from the next generation of women to improve their rights Indonesia and Papua New Guinea have the highest
the decisions of the European Court. The EC and position. However, Afghan women’s groups offer by far (the latter three times higher than the
also takes a long time to go through each case, some support, although it is unlikely that they can help 3rd-ranked country).
and this can be frustrating to those awaiting a everyone. Also, the government is not really supportive,
decision. However, others see it very positively as
225 Impacts of development aid
despite passing several laws that should improve women’s
it promotes a uniformity to rights across the whole There is controversy over development aid because while
rights. So only very slow progress is being made.
of the European continent; also, the number of there have been major successes, such as helping South
cases brought to the EC reflects the areas where 222 Geopolitical interventions Korea and Taiwan to develop economically and improve
improvements need to be made. 1 Development aid has a wide variety of purposes, the lives of their population, there are negatives such as
but mostly it is based on human welfare such as large sums of money going to authoritarian countries
218 Differing priorities health and education, and so helps with this aspect (e.g. North Korea from Russia). Aid given to countries
Countries approach human rights differently depending of development. A large proportion is also devoted with corruption reduces its effectiveness, and large sums
on their priorities, and this often links to the state of to ‘Government and Civil Society’ to help promote may be diverted to support ruling elites rather than
their economic and political development. Established democracy and human rights within a country, going to ordinary people suffering from human rights
democracies and developed countries are more likely to such as 17% of EU aid worldwide. The amount of issues. Humanitarian aid is regarded as a success, as it
support and promote human rights, both within their aid given to help economic development is smaller provides essential help to those caught up in emergency
countries and internationally, especially through the and is usually indirect, such as improving transport situations, such as natural disasters, and to refugees;
United Nations. New democracies or developing and infrastructure in Pakistan (DFID — Economic in addition, humanitarian projects improve living
economically emerging countries may place economic Corridors Programme). Humanitarian aid (Disaster conditions and health (e.g. by providing clean water).
motives first, and this may cause conflicts with human Relief) has the highest amount from both the EU Criticisms include the small scale and lack of funding
rights, for example with indigenous peoples when their and the UK, and this will help people in the short for these projects, however some small-scale bottom-up
areas contain resources that the country wishes to use and medium term to recover from natural hazards, schemes exactly match the needs of local people.
to help develop the economy. Some countries have but is not aimed at long-term development. So 226 Economic development
greater access to international forums than others, for development aid helps with social development
example Canada has close ties with two permanent and human rights, and to some extent with
impacts
members of the UN Security Council (the USA and the economic development. 1 Economic development may have serious impacts
UK) (although Indonesia will be an elected member for 2 Interventions can be controversial because of the on minority groups because there is a lot of money
two years from 2019). The strength and independence purpose behind them, especially as attempts may be to be made from extracting resources, selling them
of the legal system may also play a role, by successfully made to hide the true purpose. Some people think or making products from them to sell. Developing
prosecuting breaches of human rights or by being that development aid creates dependency or forces countries wish to trade in order to make money to
corrupt and favouring ruling elites. “westernised’ standards on developing countries, develop the country, and TNCs are keen to help.
and that not enough aid is being given to make a So if the resources or infrastructure or industries
219 Freedom and corruption significant difference. Military action can increase need to be located in the land areas of minority
Corruption threatens human rights because it removes the number of civilians at risk (e.g. Russian activity groups, such as the Ogoni in Nigeria, then they
money from the system, redirecting it to benefit a in Syria) and threaten the independent sovereignty have little say and protests are often dealt with
minority rather than being used to improve the wellbeing of a country or create civil divisions within a country through imprisonment or killing. Their area could
of the population or disadvantaged groups. It also (e.g. Libya). There are covert operations, such as be contaminated or the resources they depend on to
restricts political freedoms because elections are ‘rigged’ Russian involvement in DR Congo, perhaps to live removed (e.g. deforestation). The people of the
through bribery or misuse of police and security forces, obtain the diamond wealth. Sanctions may harm minority group also come into contact with modern
to support the continuance of the ruling elite. Protests the ordinary people of a country by decreasing the ways of living, which may change the traditional
are often dealt with by force and deaths may not be supply of goods, which increases prices and creates lifestyle, especially among the young.
uncommon. To save costs the business elite may apply shortages (although countries are careful to target 2 Oil spills from drilling and pipelines in the Niger
pressures on authorities to overlook or not enforce health economic goods and not food and medicines). Delta area of Nigeria have entered river systems
and safety regulations, or to ban trade unions, in this way and soils, contaminating the area, which will kill
Military aid may be misused if given directly, such as
damaging people’s health and freedom to protest. to supress a minority group in a country.
the natural vegetation and aquatic life. The local
Ogoni people will lose the quality of their living
220 Differences in rights 223 Interventions and sovereignty environment and may suffer health problems, the
1 There are fewer rights for women in some countries 1 NGOs, such as Amnesty International, have an area with their fishing boats is contaminated so fish
because there is a lack of democracy and laws important role to play, as they are often independent are likely to be killed or contaminated, reducing
creating equal rights. In some countries there are and mostly concerned with the wellbeing of ordinary food supplies or passing the contamination on to
also historical cultural and religious beliefs (e.g. people, therefore not heavily influenced by a political people when they eat the fish. Their way of life is
Arab countries such as Yemen) that create a divide viewpoint (although they may still operate from a being threatened.
between the rights of men and women; these “‘westernised’ set of values). They are also important The clearance of forests in Malaysia for a
differences may also be enshrined in laws. Developing sources of information, as they usually have commercial crop, palm oil, destroys the forest
countries, especially those in sub-Saharan Africa, are operatives ‘on the ground’ in problematic countries structure and reduces biodiversity. This removes
the worst for gender inequality, and women have few and provide first-hand observations of what is local resources from the indigenous people, such as
opportunities in these countries. The 2015 to 2030 happening. This can alert international communities foods from the forest, and disturbs their way of life.
SDGs may offer some hope of change. and organisations to the need for interventions to It is unlikely that they will have been consulted even
2 Indigenous peoples in North America have poorer protect people and prevent situations getting worse. though they have lived in the area for thousands of
health and education levels because they often live 2 Any external influences can bring threats to the years, and their rights to ownership of the forest
in remote areas with harsher physical conditions national sovereignty of a country, but interventions have not been considered.
(e.g. northern areas of Canada, or semi-arid areas in can directly threaten autonomy and decision-
» USA), which create difficult living conditions. They
227 Military interventions and aid
making. Interventions may be justified on the
are also poorer and may live in inferior housing. Human rights appear to be a low reason for military
grounds of protecting innocent people or ethnic
Both of these combine to create poorer health intervention or aid, and they are sometimes used as a
groups from human rights abuses, but whatever form
overall than the non-indigenous population, with convenient excuse to justify these types of intervention.
they take — whether aid or military actions — they

309
 ANSWERS

The main reasons appear to be strategic: for the resources or to gain political affiliations in organisations labour exposed to dust and danger, population
superpowers and their allies to gain some influence such as the UN (e.g. China); often this aid is for density to spread infections and disease (e.g. London
in countries in key positions and to ensure security in large-scale infrastructure schemes and does not help has highest rates in the UK). Higher education
world regions to protect resources or stop problems poorer people in the short term. The income share of levels can help people access health care or avoid
such as terrorism spreading to home territories. poor people in Vietnam decreased despite a very large problems through understanding, and income can
Sometimes, as a secondary benefit, human rights do increase in ODA. help wealthier people access private health care. Life
improve in the countries where intervention and aid expectancy continues to increase in the UK, faster
233 Military interventions: for males than females, perhaps because of less
have been given, such as reducing the persecution in
Iraq and improving the health of Iraqis. In other places, mixed success physically denianding jobs for males in a modern
such as Jordan, military aid appears at the moment to The costs of military intervention can be severe, with consumer society, and continued improvements in
have made little difference to human rights within the deaths of civilians who get caught up in the fighting health care and lifestyles (e.g. decrease in smoking).
country due to the strong control of the king. or their displacement to safer areas or other countries 2 Suggested possible plan, fully develop each point:
(refugees), their lives are disrupted and there may be no What ODA is and its aims. Problems with using aid
228 Military intervention jobs, pay, food, power and clean water. However, before (reference to the statement). Benefits of aid. Should
Any military action is likely to affect non-combatants the intervention, minority groups may have experienced ODA be avoided or not? Comparisons of ODA
as well as killing terrorists. Civilians are often caught human rights abuses and in the long term there may with alternative ways of helping countries; do these
up in the fighting, and in any war situation some are be benefits for the society. Foreign armed forces may alternatives avoid the problems of dependency and
killed by ‘friendly fire’. The fighting will also destroy also impose a change of regime, which may cause a corruption? A conclusion that answers the question:
people’s homes and cut off water, food and electricity loss of sovereignty for the country or may help enforce should official development assistance be used?
supplies — necessitating humanitarian aid. Terrorism is the results of democratic elections (as in Céte d’Ivoire Do interventions always lead to problems such as
often in the form of covert operations and is difficult in 2011). The costs of other forms of aid are largely dependency and corruption? What about the players
to detect, therefore intelligence gathering is an essential tied to the fact that not enough aid is made available, involved, what about the attitudes and actions, what
part of the fight. During the military action terrorists probably due to lack of funding, and therefore while about the future? Answer could also include points
(or suspected terrorists) may be captured; some of improvements are made in living conditions this may such
as — is there enough evidence to link ODA to |
these have been detained without charge, for example only affect a small number of people and last a short the problems? Do other types of intervention have
in Guantanamo Bay by the USA, and some have been time if aid is then withdrawn, especially if dependency the same problems and issues?
tortured to reveal information. However, this breaches has been created. However, if directed carefully to 3 Suggested possible plan, fully develop each point:
the Geneva Convention. include involvement of local people in planning and The UDHR was set up after Second World War
229 Measuring success implementation, development schemes can have long- to help unify countries in terms of agreeing basic
lasting positive impacts. There are definite benefits of human rights to create a ‘better’ peaceful world
Changes in life expectancy can help reveal the success
short-term disaster relief, which saves lives and helps for the future. People’s rights to freedom, justice
of interventions, because if safety and living conditions
people to start rebuilding after a human-made or and to not be persecuted were established within
have improved, or ethnic minority groups have been
natural disaster, including an outbreak of disease such international laws, protecting people all around the
protected, it would be expected that life expectancy
as Ebola. world by the incorporation of the International Bill
(years from birth) would increase. This is because if
conflicts have been stopped then there will be fewer 234 No action: impacts of Rights into national laws. Minority groups in
deaths from fighting, aid may have helped improve particular gained from this and it also encouraged
To intervene or not is likely always to be a controversial
water, food and shelter, and development aid may have countries to be more democratic. But some countries
debate, as shown by the Srebrenica massacre and
improved the health-care system. The table of indicators feel that the UDHR infringes on national sovereignty
Rohingya genocide in Myanmar, where no effective
of intervention success shows that half of the countries and suggests different decisions to ones that their
action was taken, and Céte d’Ivoire, Iraq, Libya and
featured significantly improved their life expectancy socio-cultural background would make. For example,
Syria, which had action. When people’s human rights
(but that does mean half did not). However, this may Islamic countries have created their own version to
are affected, the UN clearly lists military action as one
take a generation to become evident, as the health of more closely represent their religious beliefs (Cairo
of the options, and it does not have to be the last option
adults may have already been affected by poor health Declaration). There are also inconsistencies in
if the situation is deemed serious enough. However,
care or conflict. Obtaining accurate data is also difficult, interpretation in international courts as situations
there are other countries and NGOs that believe foreign
as records of births and deaths may not be kept in a are not always clear and depend on the point of view.
countries should not interfere with internal matters, as
developing country, and estimates may be inaccurate. There may be instances of misuse of the UDHR to
this affects the sovereign rights of that country. Whether
justify aid or interventions. So there are strengths
230 Economic growth as success international action takes place often depends on the
and weaknesses with the UDHR, but it provides a
Some countries prioritise economic development, such strategic position of the country and the geopolitical
sound base for promoting human rights globally and
as China; in China’s case this is partly to improve its alliances that have been established. Consequences of no
with further improvements in the future should lead
position as a world superpower. Other reasons include action mean that human rights abuses may continue and
to a better life for all global citizens.
a historical legacy of authoritarian control based on a many people suffer; there may be political consequences,
system that the ruling elite believe has worked, such as with authoritarian rule lasting for much longer than 239 Globalisation
the communist system in China. By prioritising economic it may have otherwise done, or damage to the natural The right of free movement is restricted to citizens of
development the wealth that a country makes could then environment taking place through neglect or overuse. EU member states and allows them to move to another ©
lead to improvements in quality of life and human rights. EU member state and get a job there and/ or live there,
237 Exam practice 1
In particular, trading with the rest of the world can earn subject to any restrictions on this right that the country
1 (a) Shading of the four countries must match the in question might have added (though the EU is not
foreign currency, which makes the country wealthier, and data range shown in the map key.
this allows greater spending to improve infrastructure keen on there being any restrictions on this basic EU
(b) Reasons are to be suggested so knowledge of the right). It explains why the UK, as a member of the EU,
and services (a multiplier effect). However, if the exact countries is not expected. Reasons are likely
government system is too authoritarian then human received a large increase in Polish migrants after the
to include the level of: expansion of the EU to include Poland (in 2004). The
rights may be suppressed during the stage of economic * democracy within a country
development and for some considerable time afterwards. Schengen Agreement is different — it is an agreement
public sector corruption among 26 EU countries to remove internal border
231 Success and failure of aid e conflict within a country or world region
checks for people travelling between EU countries — in
There are two-way links between aid, development, GDP growth effect to create a passport-free zone. It made migration
health and human rights, but these links vary in their social inclusion between countries quicker and easier, but it did not
strength between different real-world situations. * crime. enable free movement for EU citizens — they already had
Development may be a key factor, as it enables countries 2 Indigenous populations often have poorer health and that — and it did not remove borders between the EU
to become aid donors rather than recipients, releasing lower educational levels because of discrimination and non-EU countries.
funds for use elsewhere. Democracy also creates a and marginalisation, lack of access to jobs and
wealthier society and some have predicted that once decision-making processes, poverty and the presence 240 Different migration policies
GDP per capita (PPP) is above $10000 then democracy of abuse and atrocities. Only officially recognised 1 The main reason why highly industrialised countries
also occurs, and with this human rights improve. Greater tribes may have access to services, and perhaps only such as Singapore and Japan need international
wealth can also be used to improve education, which in tribal areas. The indigenous population may migrants is because their populations are not growing
gives people understanding of human rights, and also be spread over a very large area, often in isolated rapidly enough to sustain the countries economically
increases the amount of spending on health care. There areas. Lack of funding and inferior services. Higher or socially. An ageing, long-living population does not
are ‘knock-on’ effects and feedback such as a healthier incidence of certain diseases (e.g. TB) and dietary contribute taxes to the government once people have
workforce contributing more to economic development. issues such as diabetes. retired, but the support elderly people require from the
Aid can also play an important role in maintaining state is paid for from taxation. Because immigrants
238 Exam practice 2
human rights and health levels through interventions, tend to be younger, and because immigrants tend
1 One possible answer is: In the UK generally people to have more children, immigration provides the
even though there can be problems, as shown in Haiti. in southern regions have a longer life expectancy
Aid can be used to provide funding for large-scale top- population growth these societies need, including
than northern ones, e.g. Dorset 83 years for the younger workers to provide the care older people
down schemes, such as HEP or transport infrastructure,
males compared with Glasgow’s 73 years. Cities need, and to pay the taxes the government has to have
to help countries reach the next development stage have shorter life expectancies than rural areas,
(Rostow’s model), or fund small-scale bottom-up to provide the care in the first place.
e.g. Liverpool 76 years for males compared with 2 Both Singapore and Japan want to control who stays
schemes that meet the needs of local communities.
Kesgrave’s (East Anglia) 81 years. The gap between in their county long term, becoming a permanent
232 Aid and superpowers males and females is greatest in the cities and resident or even a citizen. They do not want low-
Some development aid does not reduce economic in northern regions (4-6 years) compared with
skilled workers to stay because low-skilled workers
inequality because it may be targeted at social schemes southern and rural regions (3-4 years). The reasons do not contribute the qualities these countries want
rather than economic ones, and countries that have for these differences include lifestyles and living permanently — they just want to be able to use
received aid still have inequalities in income within conditions, such as cleaner air and less pollution in
low-skilled workers when they are needed. They
them and widespread poverty (e.g. Afghanistan). Some rural areas than urban, smoking or non-smoking,
do want to increase the number of highly skilled
development aid is used for geopolitical purposes drinking alcohol excessively or not, obesity due to
immigrants, because these people have valuable skills
to gain a strategic advantage in terms of access to poor diet choices, office jobs compared to manual
that will benefit people in the country, and they are

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 ANSWERS
usually high earners who pay higher levels of tax to want to do low-skilled jobs, or who are willing to do American citizens from illegal migrants who will work in
the government. Finally, countries want to control them well, which can cause problems for employers low-skilled jobs for low wages. They threaten the global
who stays in the long term, so they can try to select who depend on migrant labour, for example fruit economic system because they do not facilitate the free
people who seem likely to integrate into their society and vegetable pickers in the UK. movement of money, goods (products) and people,
rather than those who will become alienated and may (b) The advantages of points-based immigration which is at the heart of a globalised economy: instead,
cause problems in society. systems in origin countries are that they make it they seek to protect individual nations from the negative
241 Changing migration patterns easier for potential migrants with the right skills to impacts of the global economy, potentially at a high cost
immigrate, helping skilled workers see what different for global economic growth.
Impacts of climate change are likely to include
countries might be able to offer them.
increased sea level rises, which would change 252 The United Nations
The disadvantages could be that points-based
international migration by increasing the migration 1 Global governance is about countries working
immigration systems offer nothing to low-skilled
of people from low-lying islands (such as Kiribati, a together to help resolve international challenges.
people in origin countries, who may therefore
Pacific Island group) and low-lying coastal areas, for The United Nations was set up in 1945 after
be forced to turn to illegal migration and people
example in countries such as Vietnam, Bangladesh, the the Second World War had ended with the aim
traffickers, who demand a lot of money for their
UK and the Netherlands. of providing a forum for working out peaceful
services and whose routes into host countries are
Some areas are likely to become drier as climate change solutions to international problems and tensions,
often very dangerous.
increases: this could increase migration away from areas so that future generations would not have to suffer
that are increasingly drought-stricken, for example 247 Nation states and their origins a world war again. The UN’s General Assembly is
Australia and the Sahel in Africa. Areas that rely on Your three reasons could include: where countries can take disputes and problems for
glacier meltwater in their river regimes, such as Pakistan, + if migration has created cultural/ethnic discussion, and the UN can then make decisions
could see greatly reduced river flows, which might increase diversity in the country that has not been about the best way to tackle these disputes. In cases
out-migration. There could be changes in food supplies reduced by assimilation where UN resolutions are not sufficient to prevent
— for example, for areas that rely on fishing, if climate + if a nation has been created out of different ethnic conflict or tension from escalating, the UN can agree
change leads to changes in fish stocks. Furthermore, the groups, which may have a past history of tension economic sanctions against a problem country, using
tensions resulting from climate change impacts may make or conflict its members’ powers over trade to block a problem
conflicts over resources more intense, especially over + if a nation has developed regional identities over country from exporting or importing specific
water, which could produce political changes that increase history, such as between the north of England and products or services, until the problem country
migration as people try to escape violence and war. the south of England. agrees to negotiate a peaceful solution. The UN
242 Causes of migration even has powers to intervene militarily to try to stop
248 19th-century nationalism
conflict, using combined military and police forces
1 Three possible causes of migration could include: Nationalism increased in countries that had empires, of its member countries.
* economic motives — people moving to earn more such as Britain or France, because people in those
As well as conflict resolution, the UN also provides
money or better career opportunities countries felt part of a common purpose and were global goals for countries to work towards, for
* family members moving to be with someone who proud of their country’s achievements. Because example goals for sustainable development and
has migrated for economic reasons their country had managed to take control over other targets for reducing carbon emissions. This is global
* people who are forced to move because of fear for territories they often felt that their nation had a special governance because it is about influencing and
their own safety or the safety of their family. purpose, for example to ‘civilise’ other countries. managing the global issues affecting all countries. The
2 A refugee is someone who has been forced to leave Nationalism also increased in colonies of empires UN’s agencies then provide assistance and funding
their country to escape war, persecution or natural because the shared experience of being colonised for meeting those goals, for example the WHO (World
disaster. An asylum seeker is someone in a foreign brought people together and made them conscious Health Organization) has helped member countries to
country who is seeking to persuade officials in that of their shared history and the future that they almost completely eradicate diseases such as polio.
country that they qualify to stay in that country as could create together as an independent nation.
2 Individual countries, especially superpowers, have
a refugee. Some people who claim asylum are not
genuine refugees. If they are not recognised as
249 New nation states since 1945 geopolitical aims and interests in other countries that
The map shows that a significant number of countries are not always shared by other countries, especially
such, they become illegal immigrants and might
speak English as their first language or as one of their other superpowers. This is a situation that causes
then be deported. problems in the UN Security Council, whose five
official languages. The link with colonisation is likely
243 Migration and economic theory to be that these were countries that were colonised by permanent members are the USA, the UK, France,
(a) Wages for low-skilled work should increase, because Britain and therefore where English became the language Russia and China. For example, the USA and
there will be fewer people willing to do the work, so of administration and education. In the case of the USA, France disagreed about intervening in Iraq in 2003
businesses will have to pay more to attract people to the nation became independent several centuries ago (in and France used its veto to block the UN from
fill their vacancies. 1776), so the continuation of English after independence authorising military intervention. As a result, the
(b) This will not be good for businesses that rely on might also be due to the migration of large numbers USA side-stepped the UN and led an invasion of
low-skilled workers, as higher wages will cut into of English people or English speakers. The same is Iraq without UN approval. Therefore, one answer to
their profits. true for Australia, which saw the forced migration of the question is that countries still intervene in other
English people. The continuation of English in other countries when they are powerful enough to do so,
244 Consequences of nations where the majority of people spoke other even when other UN Security Council members do
international migration languages as their first language, such as in India, could not accept their decision.
Singlish would help migrants get over one of the major be because English was used as a common language in 253 IGOs and world trade
obstacles for assimilation: language proficiency. Since new nations with several different languages, or because
Singaporeans speak a language that is made up of Advantages include:
the administrators of the country had been educated in * tariff-free access to other countries’ markets (e.g.
English plus immigrant languages, it is not privileged English and trained in English government systems and the EU provides its members with free access to a
(special to) any one ethnic group, and everyone would therefore continued to use those after independence.
find parts of it that they find easy to learn. market of 500 million people)
Singlish also represents an attitude in Singapore that 250 New state forms free movement of products and people within
they have benefits for TNCs and business generally the bloc
recognises the contribution of migrant cultures to
(they generate a lot of economic growth and make standardisation of trade rules and regulations, which
Singapore culture, rather than expecting migrants
companies more productive) facilitates easy trade between member countries
to assimilate into a ‘host’ culture. For example, it is
they are a consequence of deregulation of rules on protection for certain economic activities within
difficult to pin down what is specifically ‘British’ about
foreign investment that are central to globalisation, the bloc (e.g. the EU’s tariffs protect EU farmers
British culture in a way that different British people
which most governments and IGOs see as a good from competition from very cheap food from other
would agree with.
thing for global growth parts of the world)
245 Migration and tensions they bring benefits to the countries that offer low pooled expertise in trade negotiations with
One reason why people have different perceptions of the tax regimes. other countries
impacts of migration could be that they are considering For example, a low corporation tax of 12.5% helped financing and funding from a development budget
different impacts; for example, some might be talking Ireland to recover from the 2008 recession due to the that all member countries pay into (e.g. the EU’s
about economic impacts and others about cultural or social massive FDI received by Ireland from companies wishing 2017 budget was €157.86 billion), which can be used
impacts. People in different countries or different regions to take advantage of its low rates (the USA’s corporation to, for example, improve trading infrastructure and
of the same country could have different perceptions of tax was at 35% until very recentiy), while Luxembourg reduce inequalities within the bloc
the impacts of migration because of different experiences —a tiny European country — has generated thousands of the size of the trading bloc helps it to negotiate the
of migration, or because of different migrants — for jobs for its population by encouraging businesses to take most favourable deals with other nations outside
example, migrants with yery different cultural or ethnic advantage of its very unusual tax breaks. the bloc, because of the large market that it offers.
characteristics from the host culture compared with Disadvantages include:
migrants of the same ethnic group or with a similar 251 Growing global inequalities * limits on member nations from trading
culture. Another reason could be that the different media Growing inequality creates a sense of social injustice (a independently outside of the bloc, which could
they follow or read shapes their perceptions. perception of unfairness) among those who are losing mean member nations get fewer benefits than
out and seeing others getting rich at their expense. might otherwise be possible
246 Variations in opportunities This sense of social injustice has increased political richer nations (as with the WB and IMF) have to
(a) The advantages of points-based immigration systems polarisation within countries, as people who feel they are contribute more to the bloc budget than they may
to host countries are that the host country can losing out or being left behind back populist politicians get back in bloc development spending
control immigration so that only people with skills who offer common-sense solutions. These solutions decision-making on important issues such as
that the country needs are allowed to migrate to the are generally anti-globalisation: for example, President immigration may no longer be under the sovereign
country. Reducing low-skilled migrants may protect Trump’s campaigns to ‘put America first’ are about control of individual nations if the trading bloc
residents of the host country from competition with bringing back production to the USA of products that has decision-making powers
new migrants who are willing to work for less or are currently imported from other regions at a cheaper some member nations may be perceived to be
work longer hours. A disadvantage may be that there price tc the American consumer, while his wish to getting a better deal from the trading bloc than
are not enough residents of the host country who build a wall between the USA and Mexico is to protect others — for example, Mexico was perceived by

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 ANSWERS

the USA as taking jobs away from the USA under 257 Challenges to national identity 261 Exam practice
the old NAFTA agreement, while the USA felt Your answer may include the following points: 1 (a) Your answer is likely to suggest that the EU
Canada’s dairy industry was unfairly protected It is a challenge to national identity: countries/EEA organisation had stricter regulation
from competition with US dairy producers. * The sale of iconic ‘British’ brands to foreign on the production of ozone-depleting substances
254 IGOs: the environment companies is a signal of British failure to after 1986 because the EEA curve on the graph is
Some reasons for your answer could include compete or to safeguard these symbols consistently below that of the world as a whole.
the following: of national identity. Alternatively, the world as a whole could have
If some countries do not ratify an agreement, There is a perception that foreign owners will not included a few remaining countries with high
_ especially if they are powerful and important have the same sense of responsibility to British consumption of ozone-depleting substances which
countries, it weakens the chance of managing workers as British companies. skewed the global results above those of the EEA.
the problem successfully, because: (a) those Foreign ownership of large parts of the London (b) The Montreal Protocol (1989) has succeeded
countries may continue to do whatever it is that is property market is important symbolically in its goal for several reasons, including
causing the environmental problem; and (b) other because of the importance of London to British the following:
countries may be encouraged not to ratify the national identity. * Aclear problem to fix: scientists had shown that
agreement either — perhaps because they do not Foreign ownership is particularly challenging CFC gases destroyed ozone and the discovery
want to be disadvantaged economically, when it is foreign governments taking ownership of a ‘hole’ in the ozone layer over the Antarctic
Not all countries will agree on the right course of because foreign governments have the interests was easily verified. There was little complexity
action. For example, some countries may want a of their own nation in mind — parts of London and uncertainty about causes and effects
radical approach (especially those that are most are perceived as no longer being British. This is (compared to global warming, for example).
impacted by the problem) while others may take a shown in the jokey name of ‘Londongrad’, in There was strong public demand for action
more conservative line. reference to Russian ownership of London high- against the thinning of the ozone layer because
If resolving the problem has economic costs end property. people could easily understand the direct threat
then countries will be reluctant to commit to it, as It is not a challenge to national identity: to them and their families from increased
it might lead to, for example, job losses, increased * There would not be a British car industry on UY radiation.
prices, slower economic growth — all of which any significant scale if it was not for foreign The USA had already developed alternatives
could make citizens of the country unhappy. investment: while the British were once the for CFCs in refrigeration, so a solution to the
Some countries may be expected to contribute second largest exporter of cars after the USA, problem was easy to find.
more/sacrifice more than others, perhaps because competition from Germany and Japan in the UNEP gave strong leadership and coordinated
of their increased contribution to the problem. 1970s and 1980s was too strong for British campaigns to convince the largest emitters of
This makes those countries less likely to agree. manufacturers. It is therefore deindustrialisation CFCs (USA was top of the list) and the largest
There may be doubt about the best way to tackle that is the challenge to national identity. manufacturers using CFCs to follow the plans
the problem, especially if the results of research London has maintained its cultural identity — UNEP had put together to phase out CFC
into the problem are disputed. it is one of the world’s most visited tourist production and consumption.
Major international players such as TNCs destinations because of its museums, art galleries 2 One major reason why SAPs were criticised is that
may be opposed to the agreement and may use and landmarks. If the rest of the world identifies the investment (more loans) to help the struggling
their political influence to stop the agreement London as British, British national identity should countries came with conditions — most of which
from happening. not feel itself under threat. involved removing barriers to free trade, which
Foreign investment in British companies and benefitted developed countries. The IGOs thought
255 The Antarctic Treaty property is under tight control by British law that the trade barriers, for example tariffs to protect
Reasons could include: and the British government, which means the the developing country’s farmers, were slowing
* It has preserved Antarctica as a continent of extent to which foreign investment can change or down the country’s development, but it turned out
international scientific cooperation rather than damage British interests is limited. For example, that removing these protections did not make the
allowing different nations to divide it up and the government worked hard to prevent TNC car economy stronger in the short or medium term.
exploit it in different ways. companies from changing location of production Another major reason was that SAPs often required —
. The Treaty has acted to manage the amount of away from Britain after Brexit. austerity-style cuts to public services. For example,
human activity in Antarctica: Treaty signatories Foreign investment is something British the SAPs agreed with Jamaica in the 1980s involved
meet annually to discuss projects, all expeditions governments are keen to attract and do so wage cuts for all government employees, cuts to
and research visits have to be notified in advance, by promoting British values (innovation, spending on health care and education, and the
protocols conserve key species (such as Antarctic trustworthiness, education, long history of devaluation of the currency. All these had very
seals) and environments, and tourist numbers manufacturing) along with tax incentives, Foreign negative short-term effects on people, which were
are managed to minimise human impacts. investment is a source of national pride, therefore, strongly criticised: people could not buy enough to
More nations have signed up to the Treaty: the not a challenge to national identity. eat and there were riots against the government.
original 12 nations have now increased to 53. Points in support of the statement might include:
* The Antarctic Treaty has succeeded in keeping the
258 Disunity within nations
Migration changes the cultural and ethnic
Antarctic peaceful: no military bases have been set Factors that increase disunity might include: composition of nation states; that must affect
up, no weapons have been tested there including * Demands for independence from regions within national identity.
nuclear weapons, no military weapon waste has nation states, because these threaten national People experience migration as a threat to national
been dumped or stored there. unity. An example is Catalonia’s movement for identity and this perception of migrants as a
independence from Spain. If Catalonia did achieve threat to national identity is often expressed in
256 National identity independence, Spain would lose an important part increased nationalism.
1 Ways could include: of its economy (20%); a city seen as integral to National identity is built on distinctive legal
* through education: students are taught about Spanish identity, Barcelona, would no longer be systems, certain religious traditions, national
national values and encouraged to consider ways part of Spain. In order to address independence ‘character’: migration can threaten all these if,
in which they should be proud of their nation demands, Spain has devolved state powers to for example, migrants identify with different legal
through sport: the population may be brought Catalonia, which in itself weakens national identity systems (e.g. Shariah law or the European Court
together by pride in a nation’s sporting as it weakens the authority of the state. of Justice) or different religious traditions, etc.
achievements, hope of success, past Disunity because of inequality, for example an Points to counter the statement might include:
sporting triumphs unequal sharing of the benefits and costs of * Migration includes internal migration, which is
through politics: politicians making reference to globalisation. If one region or one social group people from the same nation moving from one
nationalist symbols, policies that seek to boost or is perceived to have benefitted much more than place in the nation to another. Since they are
conserve national values, campaigns to recover or others from globalisation’s wealth-increasing and from the same nation, they should share the same
reassert national strengths, etc. job-creating effects, or if some regions perceive national identity.
through threats (perceived or real) to the nation; their jobs or cultural identity as unfairly impacted National identity is not the same as nationalism:
for example, rhetoric about the dangers of by deindustrialisation or increased immigration,
many states are multinational as a result of
immigrants changing national culture or rejecting disunity can increase. An example is Brazil, where migration, and still have a strong national identity
the national identity of a host nation, or terrorist many resented the way the increased national that migrants share. The USA is a good example
threats motivated by ‘hatred of British values’. wealth earned through globalisation was spent, of this: the vast majority of its residents are
Reasons for this might be because being British is such as on hosting the World Cup, and the high migrants or the descendants of migrants, and the
perceived to be a less ethnically specific national levels of corruption that Brazilians faced in their USA’s national identity is stronger because of this.
identity than English, Scottish, Welsh or Northern everyday lives. Disaffection with Brazil’s left-wing The most severe threats to national identity do
Irish, which are frequently associated with White governments led to the election of a far-right not involve migration but are when unbridgeable
ethnicity for cultural and historical reasons. British president in 2018, whose promises included an end gaps grow between the population and elite
is frequently combined with other identities, such as to corruption, a crackdown on crime, an end to
groups that run the country in their own
British Asian for example, so one reason might be that environmental protection of the rainforest and a interests — failed states.
people in ethnically diverse areas are identifying as rejection of western cultural influences in regards to 4 Points in support of the statement might include:
British as part of a combination of identities. There LGBT rights.
* The Security Council of the United Nations is
might be some element of rejection of an English The collapse of government control can create outdated because its five permanent members
identity because of the association of White ethnicity failed states — the ultimate example of disunity. reflect the countries that were important post-
and English identity that has sometimes taken In failed states there is no working government Second World War, while France and the UK have
on racist aspects: that might be why people more for the whole nation, but instead a patchwork of
since lost some of their global importance.
often identity as British Asian, for example, rather competing power groups (often backed by
The veto powers of the five permanent members
than English Asian. There could possibly be some regional powers or superpowers fighting a proxy mean that they can block UN resolutions if they
connection between British identity and the legacy of war) that leaves the population without support
go against their strategic interests. Russia and
the British Empire, for example Caribbean migrants in and at serious risk from conflict, malnutrition
China have used this veto to block UN sanctions
the 1950s were invited to Britain as British citizens. and disease.

312
 ANSWERS
in Syria, for example, following chemical weapon 2 Calculation notes: A + B = 1250 small squares on This mixture of ethnicity in Kuwait is due to the
attacks there. graph paper. wealth and job opportunities created by oil wealth.
Countries have chosen to sidestep the UN in B = 820.75 small squares. A = 429.25 small squares. 2 USA ethnic diversity (2010)
some situations, seeing it as an obstacle to Formula: A + (A + B) = 0.3434 (Your answer should 100% ;—— =
their goals. This was the case with the USA be close to this.)
|
in the Second Gulf War, for example, and the (Note: The World Bank estimate of India Gini 20% @ Other
UN was powerless to prevent these kinds of coefficient in 2011 was 0.351. For comparison, the ®@ Native Hawaiian and
unilateral actions. World Bank estimate for the UK in the same year Pacific Islander
The UN has failed to find a way, to date, of was 0.333.) @ American Indian and
convincing countries to reduce carbon emissions Alaskan
to the levels that are required to avoid significant 266 Synoptic chart interpretation
@ Mixed race
climate-related problems both currently and in 1 In Figure | the storm centre (depression) is well B Asian
the future. to the north now (over Scandinavia) and a trailing @ Black and African
Points to counter the statement might include: warm front brought continuous heavy frontal rainfall American
* The UN has had a significant impact on increasing to northern England, with its intensity increased @ White
environmental protection, for example the 1989 by orographic uplift (mountains and hills forcing
Montreal Protocol, 1992 Rio Summit and the the air upwards, so increasing condensation). There
2016 Paris Agreement were all brokered through was a lot of runoff and the rivers flooded. Winds
UN institutions. were also very strong, as shown by the closeness of
The UN’s World Health Organization (WHO) the isobars. (Cumbria had a month’s rainfall in one
has spearheaded many important global health day — December 2015.)
2 In Figure 2 very warm dry air (tropical continental 270 Use of proportional circles
initiatives, including its worldwide vaccination
air mass) has moved from the Mediterranean area 1 Services (70%) dominated the economic output of
campaign against smallpox which resulted in that
to East Anglia, with the high pressure system (1024 the UK in 2016, being nearly 4 times larger than the
deadly disease being eradicated by 1980.
mb) (clockwise movement of air around the high manufacturing output (19%), and well over 100 times
The United Nation’s role in protecting children
pressure system). As well as high temperatures larger than the agricultural output (0.5%).
(UNICEF) has saved the lives of 90 million
the clear skies brought very sunny conditions and 2 Diameter of circle should be 1.9 cm. £9.5 billion
children since 1990.
higher evaporation rates; without clouds there was divided by 0.5 = 19 mm (or 1.9 cm).
The United Nation’s work on Sustainable
Development Goals and its earlier Millennium no rainfall. The high pressure over northern central 271 Preparing for Paper 3
Development Goals provides an accessible Europe (Germany) blocked depressions from the
1 No one correct answer. A possible answer could be:
blueprint for all those involved in development west, forcing them to move northwards from west
* completing practice questions using resources to
to follow. to east, and so there was no frontal rainfall in East
get used to the style of questions and making use
Anglia. (Central London maximum temperature
262 Statistical tests of several resources in one answer. In addition the
reached 29.1°C on 19 April 2018.)
benefit of this is the feedback from teachers once

ee
l
267 Satellite image interpretation marked, to show where improvements in writing
In 2000 the area was still dominated by tropical style are needed.
rainforest but with straight lines representing 2 The list could include the following:
Krakatoa 0.25
roads along which there is clearance of forest for * Critically investigate the issue — What is the issue?
Unzen smallholdings at right angles. By 2012 all of these How serious is it?
clearances had greatly extended, especially around * Coherent interpretation of the evidence — What do
2 Calculation using Spearman’s rank formula: Buritis, where there were hardly any patches of forest the facts tell us? Are the data reliable? How do the
1 — ( (6 X 976.5) + (18?— 18) ) remaining. In the direction of Nova Mamoré the data link together? Do the data show agreement?
1 — (5859 + 5814) deforestation pattern has followed the road from Buritis, * Make meaningful connections to relevant ideas —
1 — 1.008 but not quite joined (protected area or unsuitable land/ Are there links between different areas of physical
= —0.008 (close to 0 = random, no correlation) soils?). There had been considerable new deforestation geography? Are there links between different areas
to the north-west of this area, along what may be a of human geography? Are there links between
263 Mass balance and GIS physical and human geography areas?
new road and a new settlement. In 2012 the area was
| (a) Martial Este: 1.163 + —1.108 = +0.055 * Reach a final judgement and write a conclusion.
dominated by cleared land. As the patches of cleared
Sarennes: 1.720 + —3.230 = —1.520
forest appear to be relatively small individually, the 212 A: The Nile River Basin 1]
(b) The glacier closest to equilibrium in 2016 was
land-use change is probably due to smallholdings where
Martial Este in Argentina, being closest to 0 mass 1 The upper course of both tributaries (White and
poorer people in Brazil have cleared patches of forest
balance with +0.055. Blue) are in wetter highland areas, while the middle
(slash and burn) to farm to feed themselves (subsistence)
2 The Quelecaya ice cap and its glaciers have shrunk course is mostly semi-arid (Sahel) and lower course
and make a living from selling surplus crops.
between 1988 and 2010. Melting is shown by the is mostly desert (Sahara). The upper courses
number of meltwater lakes that have appeared (8) 268 Analysing climate model maps have a wet (monsoon) season and a dry season.
and the movement of glacier snouts back towards 1 Figure C shows that most continents and world Water availability is generally higher in the upper
the centre of the ice cap. Barren land has been regions may face water shortages in the future; only courses and decreases downstream, with increasing
revealed where the ice has retreated. The amount of northern latitudes of North America and Eurasia, dependence on the Nile River, especially in Egypt.
snow on the ice cap has reduced, as shown by the India, East Africa and around Uruguay and 2 Aswan High Dam in Egypt, and GERD (Grand
decrease in the bright white area and the increase in Indonesia are significantly wetter. The driest areas Ethiopian Renaissance Dam) in Ethiopia. (There
the darker blue colour. are projected to be in the Mediterranean Sea region, are also ones near Khartoum in Sudan, Kampala in
from Spain to Turkey (—10), western and central Uganda, and Lake Tana in Ethiopia.)
264 Map analysis: connectivity 3 This is a transboundary river system with parts of the
Europe (—5), USA (—4 to -10), Central America
| There are long inlets (fjords) on the coast, which cause river basin in 11 countries. Most countries only have
(—5 to -7), West Africa (—4 to —6), Amazon Basin
roads to follow the coastline rather than going straight a small area of upper catchment or headwaters within
and southern Africa (—3 to —6). These areas of
between settlements; this adds considerable distances their boundaries, but what happens upstream is very
water shortages will include developed, emerging
to any travelling. There are mountains and high land, important to those countries that are downstream,
and developing countries.
which will block modern communication signals. especially Egypt and most of Sudan. So, tensions and
2 Figure D shows that there is a projected flood
There are large areas of wilderness (e.g. bare rock), conflicts are possible. Locations of urban centres in
frequency increase in most of Central and South
which shows that people are isolated and cut off from relation to the Nile and its tributaries and agricultural
America (except for the northern and southern parts
modern living. Lakes, rivers and ice provide barriers to areas that require irrigation water are important to
of this region), West and Central Africa, South East
land transport, causing detours. Asia including India and China, eastern parts of Asia water supply but also the possibility of pollution.
’ Two likely human obstacles: and a small part of North West Europe (including Rates of urbanisation are high in many countries.
* Settlements are small and there is a sparse population, England and Ireland). North America has a very Dams have been built across the river for HEP, flood
therefore the transmission of ideas, information, control and irrigation water.
mixed pattern of decrease and increase in flood
finance and other economic activities is limited. frequency, while most of Europe and western Asia is
* Roads are often unpaved, which slows journey 273 A: The Nile River Basin 2
projected to have a decrease in flood frequency. The countries with the highest urban population
times, and there appears to be only one main road,
with others reaching ‘dead ends’ at the edge of the 269 Divided bar graphs increase, which are also above the means for the world
‘moors and heathland’. 1 The UK is dominated by the ‘white’ ethnic group and world regions, are Tanzania, Uganda, Burundi,
(over 87%) with small proportions of other ethnic Ethiopia and DR Congo. These also have the largest
265 Lorenz Curve and datasets overall population growth rates. The smallest urban
groups, mainly black (3%) who immigrated
mostly from the Caribbean, and Indian (2.3%) population growth rates are found in Egypt and
from South Asia who migrated for better jobs Rwanda and overall in Egypt and Eritrea (but both
and lifestyle. Thailand has a much larger original above the MENA and world growth rate).
population (Thai = 96%) and so has experienced 274 A: The Nile River Basin 3
less immigration, the main ethnic minority group 1 Reasons may include the following:
is from neighbouring Myanmar (2%) which may * HDI combines economic and social indicators.
be a refugee movement. Kuwait contrasts with the * Egypt has the highest score because it is the most
UK and Thailand, the original Kuwaiti population economically developed and most globalised of
(36%) is outnumbered by immigrant groups, the Nile River Basin countries and close to the
especially the non-Arab Asian ethnic group (38%), MENA average.
with people also from other neighbouring Arab * Kenya is similar, being more economically advanced
countries (20%). Kuwait also has immigrants from and ‘free’ than other sub-Saharan countries and
developed countries, such as Europe and Australia. with a relatively high globalisation index.

313
 ANSWERS

* Incontrast Burundi and South Sudan are low greatly increases and large areas of land could be 2 Risks are higher in the future for all countries as
on the HDI scale because of lower economic lost without the construction of defences. With conflicts are predicted to increase. This is because
development and also lower literacy and higher higher sea levels salt water will penetrate further up there are tensions over water supplies within and
mortality rates due to poorer living conditions, the distributaries in the delta and into groundwater, between countries, pressures from climate change are
well below the sub-Saharan average; they both contaminating freshwater and groundwater used by reducing natural resources and crop yields, and there
score poorly on the freedom index. people and farmers. are continuing ethnic tensions within countries such
2 All HDI scores are below the world and MENA as South Sudan and DR Congo.
218 C: Global connections 1
averages and only four countries (e.g. Egypt) have a Other factors include lack of democracy within
1 Students complete the table as follows: countries andterrorism.
globalisation score of over 50.
Two explanations from: South =13.85) Tie) OL 16 283 D: Future challenges 2
¢ Some countries have a low Human Development

Ei hoes
ee There are more water resources in the upper basin than
Index score (e.g. Burundi about 0.41), which shows
lower due to higher precipitation (highlands and wet
that economic and social development needs
season) and large lakes compared to the lower basin,
improvement; only Egypt has a higher score.
2 In
eae s rank correlation analysis the answer which is dependent on the River Nile (flowing through
Eight of the 11 countries are rated ‘not free’ on the
is a number and may show a positive or negative an arid and semi-arid area). However, the demand for
Freedom Index, showing that greater democracy
correlation (or no correlation). Geographers usually water is increasing everywhere due to industrialisation
and freedom of speech is needed in the region.
use the 95% confidence level (95% certain that it is not and urbanisation, as well as population increase.
Some countries are not connected well to global
a chance result) as the world is a very complex place Figure 21 clearly shows that the water stress caused by
systems (such as Eritrea and South Sudan)
and there are always anomalies that introduce chance these pressures, availability and use is higher on the Blue
and they need this if they are to improve their
into the calculation. The significance of an answer is Nile than the White. (This has created some geopolitical
economic positions and have money to spend on
judged in relation to the null hypothesis (H, = there is instability between Egypt and upstream countries such
improving living conditions.
no correlation), can it be rejected and the alternative as Ethiopia.) Tanzania and Kenya are exceptions on the
Only one country, DR Congo, has freshwater
hypothesis (H,) accepted? Tables of significance based White Nile, but most of the area of these countries is
resources above the world average; others are well
on sample size (number of items) show the level at not in the Nile River Basin and so water stress may be
below (and below the sub-Saharan average) so
people’s quality of life will suffer from a lack of which the null hypothesis can be rejected. - due to factors outside the basin.
this essential resource. a” Ge 289 Exam practice 1
So Tressil 1 Either: (human geography reason): Egypt will be
275 A: The Nile River Basin 4
i Overall Egypt, in the lower course of the River Nile, = | 936 concerned about its water security because it is in
1320 the lower course of the River Nile with 10 countries
is the country that is “better off’ for water, although it
has fewer water resources because it is mostly desert = 1 -0.709 upstream, such as Ethiopia and Uganda, that could
= + 0.291 (not significant) control the flow of water to Egypt. This concern
and relies on the Nile for its water supply. Access is
may increase as the countries upstream experience
high because Egypt built the Aswan High Dam to 279 C: Global connections 2 economic development and/or population increase,
regulate the river’s discharge. Ethiopia and Uganda
1 The Nile River Basin countries are mostly (eight) as then their demand will increase. Countries
are in the upper course of the river and both score
in the top-left quadrant, which means that they upstream already have some dams on the tributaries,
lowly on the five indicators, partly because there is
have high vulnerability and low readiness to combat which could hold back water if those countries
a dry season and a lot of poverty, which means that
climate change. Rwanda has high vulnerability to experience shortages and if more dams are built the
people and governments have trouble managing
climate change but is mostly ready. Egypt has lower situation gets worse for Egypt.
water supplies. (Sudan is mostly in the middle course
vulnerability (just) but needs to do more to be ready Or: (physical geography reason): Egypt is totally
and is desert or semi-arid, and so is also reliant on
for climate change. within the Sahara desert so the only freshwater
Nile water resources. It is a poorer country and so
2 (a) Sudan (b) Rwanda supply for the country is the River Nile. Egypt has
has problems with access and managing the riparian
environment. Use is high due to irrigated farmland, 280 C: Global connections 3 already created a reservoir behind the Aswan High
similar to Egypt.) Dam to help provide a constant supply downstream
1 There was a greater amount of US ODA to Egypt
The data for Sudan should appear as follows: to big cities such as Cairo, the capital. Rainfall is
(2.3%), Ethiopia and Kenya, and least amount to
low because the country is under the descending
Burundi, Eritrea and Sudan. This is partly linked to
Resources part of the northern hemisphere Hadley Cell and
geopolitical motives, with support for Egypt to keep
moisture from the air has fallen near the equator
an ally in the Middle East (and help keep the Suez
(at the ITCZ), and then the air has warmed as it
Canal open to international shipping), and support
descends near the Tropic of Cancer, so holding
for Ethiopia to combat China’s influence. Burundi
Environment <a Vacas Access any moisture still in it, leading to no precipitation.
\\ and Eritrea (0.2%) are smaller inland countries and
Egypt will therefore always be concerned about its
\
=—- Egypt are rated as ‘not free’ on the 2018 Freedom Index
water security, as the only input to the country is the
=—— Ethiopia (however, Egypt and South Sudan are also in this
runoff of the River Nile.
wwe Uganda category). South Sudan is a new country and so
2 Figure 2 shows that there is a very high population
—— Sudan needs help developing, and has internal conflict and
density around Lake Victoria in Uganda, Kenya and
humanitarian issues, but so does DR Congo. There
Use | . Capacity Rwanda and Lake Tana in Ethiopia, where there is a
is no Clear single reason for the pattern of US ODA.
plentiful supply of freshwater and a more equitable
Figure 8 shows 71% of the world population has 2 China’s aid through projects is mostly to developing
climate. There is a denser patch around Khartoum at
access to safely managed water that is clean and countries, especially to sub-Saharan Africa, Pakistan
the confluence of the White and Blue Niles, perhaps
available when needed. A further 17% have access and Argentina in South America, and some to
because of trade routes converging as well as water
to water that is an improved supply but is not economically emerging countries such as India, Russia
supply in a semi-arid area, Population is also dense
guaranteed to be safe to drink. Some 12% of the and Brazil. These projects are designed to expand
along the River Nile in Egypt because the rest of
world population have problems with access, either China’s geopolitical influence around the world,
the country is desert and so is not hospitable (e.g.
because people have to make long journeys to go and especially through lots of smaller projects in Africa —
no agriculture and food, no water). It is very dense
collect it or it is unclean or taken straight from rivers the largest being about $5 billion. China is also trying
near the mouth of the Nile, where the delta provides
without treatment. to build alliances with neighbouring countries such
fertile soils and there is access to the Mediterranean
as Russia (largest financial size of $15 billion and
276 B: Change in the Nile River Sea for trading. The Sahel zone, which experiences
over $20 billion), SE Asia, Pakistan, and along the
Basin 1 new ‘silk road’ route from western China across Asia.
frequent droughts, also has fewer people (fewer than
Evaporation is likely to increase from open water 10 persons per km’).
Other ideas such as helping countries to develop
surfaces and the soil due to higher temperatures. economically and socially (health and education) could 3 Calculation using Spearman’s rank formula:
Precipitation patterns are uncertain, but dry areas could also be suggested rather than just the geopolitical 1-((6 x 156)
+ (113-11))
get drier and wet areas wetter. Runoff may increase reasons (although these are perhaps the strongest).
during the wet season due to more intense rainfall, 1 — (936 + 1320)
wh ich quickly saturates the ground or due to the hard- 281 C: Global connections 4
1 — 0.709 = +0.291
baked surface of semi-arid areas (25% higher on Blue No one correct answer; one possibility is:
Nile). Evapotranspiration from vegetation will increase * benefit = provision of freshwater in an area with Weak positive correlation, not significant so null
due to higher temperatures. uncertain precipitation and growing population, hypothesis cannot be rejected, i.e. there is no
because without this more people would die correlation. This is a starting point for a closer
217 B: Change in the Nile River * problem = these dams are hugely expensive and as geographical analysis of the data. The biggest
Basin 2 developing countries they are difficult to afford, anomaly is Eritrea, which has a faster GDP annual
1 As the population size of an area increases, more putting the countries at risk of international debt growth rate than expected when matched to a low
resources are needed to support it, and an essential or dependence on richer countries for support. amount of ODA; perhaps because it started from a
resource is freshwater. Demands for clean drinking very low base so that even a small improvement is
water, water for washing and for services such as a 282 D: Future challenges 1 a large percentage. Also, its relations with Ethiopia
sanitation system all increase as each person needs 1 Of the 11 Nile River Basin countries, seven are in have improved recently after a war over disputed
a certain amount. So a larger population size may the very high risk for both droughts and floods, for territory. Ethiopia and Tanzania have a strong
lead to water insecurity because there may not be example Sudan is rated 7/10 for drought and 7.6/10 positive correlation between GDP growth and
enough supplies of water for everyone and some for floods. Some are much higher in one category amount of ODA received.
will go without clean water or have enough for than the other, for example DR Congo rates 7.4 4 One possible outline is:
other purposes. for floods but only 2 for drought. The other four Climate change is affecting physical and human
2 The Nile delta has a dense population and fertile countries are in the high-risk category, clustered processes in the Nile River Basin. Water cycle
farmland and the land is only just above sea level, close together, so have a similar rating for both processes are being changed, with wetter conditions
so, as sea levels rise, the risk of coastal flooding floods and drought (e.g. Uganda). during the wet season in the highlands of Ethiopia

314
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