Received 18 June 2024, accepted 8 July 2024, date of publication 16 July 2024, date of current version 29 July 2024.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3428860

Digital Disturbance Observer Design With

Comparison of Different Discretization
Methods for Permanent Magnet
Motor Drives
KULASH TALAPIDEN 1 , YUSSUF SHAKHIN 1 ,
NGUYEN GIA MINH THAO 2 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
AND TON DUC DO 1 , (Senior Member, IEEE)
1 Department of Robotics and Mechatronics, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences (SEDS), Nazarbayev University, Astana 010000, Kazakhstan
2 Department of Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Shimane University, Matsue, Shimane 690-8504, Japan
Corresponding authors: Ton Duc Do ([email protected]) and Nguyen Gia Minh Thao ([email protected])
This work was supported by Nazarbayev University under the Faculty Development Competitive Research Grant Program (FDCRGP)
with Grant No.11022021FD2924, and in part by the Research Project of Shimane University under Grant No. FY2024SDGs.

ABSTRACT Control techniques for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) drives rely
significantly on digital systems, and control system discretization is essential for stability and robustness.
While continuous-time analyses are widely employed for stability analysis, generally, they fall short of
describing phenomena such as the waterbed effect and understanding system dynamics, especially in servo-
drive applications. Consequently, discrete-time systems play a crucial role. The use of discrete-time analysis
in digital motion systems of control allows for a more accurate study of system stability while addressing
the abovementioned difficulties. Despite the vital role of discrete-time analysis in maximizing stability,
robustness, and performance in digital PMSM implementations, there is a significant research gap in the
complete analysis and investigation of discrete-time control systems. This research focuses on improving
digital disturbance observer (DOB)-based speed control via discrete-time analysis by investigating various
discretization techniques. Analyzing widespread discrete-time approaches that rely on analog-to-digital time
conversion demonstrates that some strategies outperform others. The paper indicates that constructing a
digital DOB-based control utilizing the implicit Adams approach and applying it to PMSMs enhances
performance by increasing control accuracy and significantly reducing undershoot when compared to
popular discrete-time methods such as Euler’s, Tustin, Al-Alaoui, and others. The experimental results
show that this chosen discrete-time approach has a significant impact on the efficiency of the PMSM
control system. The outcomes of this research highlight the critical relevance of selecting an appropriate
discrete-time conversion in improving the performance of a digital DOB motion control system with an
application to PMSM drives.

INDEX TERMS Bode integral, digital disturbance observer (DOB), discrete-time methods, motor control,
permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), proportional and integral (PI) controller.

I. INTRODUCTION various factors, including friction and cogging torques,

Disturbances, nonlinearities, and sampling mistakes may all as well as uncertain load torque within the speed loop control,
result in a negative impact on motor control. Furthermore, can exacerbate the degradation of closed-loop performance in
servo drive systems. Each motor control system includes two
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and primary functions: synchronization, which ensures a steady
approving it for publication was Feiqi Deng . state, and maintaining it during the transient situation [1].

2024 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.
100892 For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ VOLUME 12, 2024
K. Talapiden et al.: DOB Design With Comparison of Different Discretization Methods

In addition, for motor control applications, robustness stability and resilience. Previous research, for example,
criteria can be reached using practical disturbance rejection [12], focuses on the augmentation of disturbance observers
approaches and by implementing an effective control method. employing alternative DOB designs, such as for position and
The conventional one-degree-of-freedom control approach acceleration in the discrete-time domain. The move to digital
fails to ensure precise speed-reference tracking and cancel- platforms has revealed stability difficulties, influencing
lation of load torque, which shows the limitation of the decisions regarding design for nominal plants and bandwidth
considered approach [2]. Thus, disturbance rejection and its in the control mechanism. In [13], the Bode Integral Theorem
regulation are widespread research subjects in the control was used to demonstrate improved system sensitivity to
theory field, and they are used in real-world applications. noise ratio and the presence of the waterbed effect using
Ohnishi found the Disturbance Observer (DOB) method velocity- and position-based disturbance observer designs.
in the 1980s to ensure the robustness of motion control The paper [14] improved the nominal model to address the
applications [3]. This method uses the estimated disturbances robust stability issue of DOB. In [15], a speed-adaptive full-
in order to guarantee exact compensation and also the restora- order observer’s stability and dynamic behavior are examined
tion of the system’s operation process. DOB method is widely using Bode and locus diagrams for induction motor drives.
used in a range of domains, which includes motion control The control analysis of direct current motor parameters
of different applications such as four-rotor helicopters [4], using Bode diagrams and Nyquist plots is shown in [16].
steering wheel mechanisms [5], electric motors [6], robot In [17], the authors use a bode diagram to optimize controller
manipulators with different degree-of-freedom [7], and many design for wind turbines with varying speeds. In [18],
others. DOB is an accurate compensator constructed to a discrete-time flux observer is examined for stability and
measure the total impact of external forces on a mechanical robustness using bode plots in a theoretical application
structure [8]. Using expected fluctuations for input signals to alternating current (AC) machines. In [19], a discrete-
enables it to be more accessible to correct variations across time model of the PMSM drive is applied and studied for
the system and ultimately restore it to its target state of exact rotor position control. They developed a discretized
operation. [9]. DOB technique is widely used in speed loop back-EMF model to considerably improve the accuracy
control for Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor (PMSM) of the defined problem. The article [20] proposes the
drives for disturbance estimation and prevention, especially Discrete Generalized Bode Criterion (DGBC), a new stability
for speed-based DOB functions in which disturbances are criterion combining Nyquist and Bode criteria. It provides
evaluated by contrasting the measured system velocity with user-friendly assistance in controller design, especially for
what is predicted in its absence; this evaluation provides the discrete systems, while accurately defining stability zones.
generation of a compensated signal included in the control In [21], the authors employed the Euler approximation in
signal to mitigate the disturbance’s impact [10], [11]. the high-frequency region for discrete-time observer design.
Robust motion controllers are often implemented using They contrasted it with classical observer design techniques
computers or microcontrollers, and continuous-time analysis across various speed ratios, intending to surpass classical
and synthesis methods are frequently used for their simplicity DOB designs. Their discrete-time synchronous-frequency
in such applications. However, because all physical systems adaptive observer (SFAO) provided a significantly more
operate in the continuous-time domain by convention, stable reaction, particularly at higher speeds, as proven by
producing control signals directly in the discrete-time domain their comparison with a surface-mounted PMSM drive.
may not meet performance constraints. In addition, in the The impacts of discretization methods on control strategies
high-frequency range, continuous-time analysis falls short and the parameters of discretization remain unexplored
of describing certain unanticipated dynamic behaviors and in existing literature. None of the existing studies have
the appearance of the waterbed effect. The difficulty occurs delved into the detailed exploration of various discrete-time
because creating control signals in the discrete-time domain techniques specifically aimed at enhancing the performance
demands an understanding of discrete-time dynamics rather of motion control systems, particularly when applied to
than the system’s initial continuous-time dynamics. As a permanent magnet motor drives with a thorough analytical
result, investigating discrete-time approaches becomes crit- and experimental evaluation.
ical in order to get a more accurate implementation of control
systems in servo-drive applications.
In this work, the enhancement of the digital control B. CONTRIBUTION AND EXTENT OF WORK
system for PMSM performance, as well as stability analysis, This work thoroughly studies and analyzes ten discrete-time
is shown. Related literature on state-of-the-art analysis of techniques in the context of control systems managed by
discrete time control methods with an application to servo digital platforms. Specific methods for reducing ineffective
motor drives is described. discrete-time approaches have been identified. A thorough
Bode Integral analysis was conducted due to insufficient
A. RELATED WORKS performance and unstable results, particularly in the context
Control methods for PMSMs rely significantly on digital sys- of the current application. Notably, a key conclusion in
tems, including control system discretization, which affects this study focuses on analysis and the identification of

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 K. Talapiden et al.: DOB Design With Comparison of Different Discretization Methods

an effective discrete-time technique. This approach can

improve stability and performance across a wide range
of bandwidths, especially those suitable for motor control
systems. Furthermore, the study advises looking at advanced
observer designs as a possible technique for investigating
larger applications inside motor control systems that could
result in increased performance rates. This study thoroughly
analyzes and compares numerous discrete-time techniques
utilized in control systems for electronic equipment in
experiments.
It also investigates the possibility of upgraded observer
designs to broaden their use in motor control systems
and achieve greater levels of performance and efficiency. FIGURE 1. Block diagram of speed-based disturbance observer in
continuous-time domain.
Furthermore, it offers practical and theoretical insights that
will help advance the field of PMSM motion control and
automation. This paper contributes to the field by identi-
- inertia, TL - load torque, Ls and Rs stator’s inductance and
fying and advocating for different discrete-time techniques,
resistance, Iq - phase current, Zp - pole pairs
proposing an inquiry into observer limits, and demonstrating
the possibility for improved performance and efficiency in
B. SPEED-BASED DISTURBANCE OBSERVER ANALYSIS IN
experimental PMSM motion control systems.
CONTINUOUS-TIME DOMAIN
The structure of the paper unfolds as follows: Initially,
it delves into the implementation of the disturbance observer, The DOB technique is extensively employed in speed
conducting its analysis within the continuous-time domain loop control for PMSMs, with the purpose of assessing
and subsequently comparing it with its discrete-time coun- and reducing system disturbances [3]. The speed-based
terpart. Section III presents a comprehensive examination DOB, for instance, detects disturbances by comparing the
of ten discrete-time methods, employing the Bode Integral system’s actual speed ratio to the target value in the absence
Theorem to ascertain the optimal discrete-time approaches. of a perturbation. Fig. 1 depicts a block diagram of a
Additionally, the robustness of the outer loop control system continuous-time domain speed-based DOB, demonstrating
is demonstrated. Section IV elucidates and showcases the the interrelationship between the servo dynamics of the
experimental results derived from the selected discrete-time PMSM and the DOB. In this figure, Jm , Jmn – inertia and its
techniques, particularly in the PMSM application context. nominal, s – Laplace variable for continuous time domain,
Sections V and VI provide discussion and conclusions, gB – bandwidth of the speed-based DOB, b τ d , τd and η – total
recommendations, acknowledgment of limitations, and sug- disturbance, input disturbance and noise, w, ẇ – speed and
gestions for future research. acceleration of PMSM. A transfer function is used in control
engineering to describe the connection between the input
and output values of a linear time-invariant system [20]. The
II. DISTURBANCE OBSERVER FOR SERVO DRIVE SYSTEM
following equation will be derived for the transfer function of
A. MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF PMSM
the motion control system:
The first stage in establishing a motor control system is
to create a complete mathematical model [22]. This model G(s)Gn (s)
GTdes (s) = (5)
demonstrates how distinctive parameters affect the operating Gn (s) + Q(s)(G(s) − Gn (s)
setting, notably our speed-based disturbance observer control Gn (s)(1 − Q(s)
mechanism. Following is the relevant equation governing the S(s) = (6)
Gn (s) + Q(s)(G(s) − Gn (s))
d-q reference frames and electromagnetic torque Te : G(s)Q(s)
Tη (s) = (7)
Gn (s) + Q(s)(G(s) − Gn (s))
3p2 B p2
ω̇ = φm iqs − ω − TL (1) G(s)Q(s)
2J J 2J Lv (s) = (8)
Gn (s)(1 − Q(s))
˙ = − Rs iqs − φm ω + 1 vqs − ωids
iqs (2)
Ls Ls Ls where G(s) - system’s plant; Gn (s) - system’s nominal; Q(s) -
R s φ m 1 low pass filter. In particular, the transfer function of DOB in
˙ = − ids −
ids ω + vds − ωiqs (3) the context of the Inner Loop is expressed as follows:
Ls Ls Ls
3
Te = Zp Ke iq (4) ω(s) = GTdes (s)Tdes + Jm S(s)Td + Tη (s)η (9)
2
where ω - the rotor’s speed, p - number of poles, ids and where sensitivity transfer function is S(s) = s+gs B α and
iqs stator current for corresponding frames, vqs , vds - stator parameter uncertainties α = JJmnm
. Complementary sensitivity
gB α
voltages, φm - magnetic flux linkages, B - stator resistance, J function Tη (s) = s+g Bα
, phase-lead/lag compensator GTdes =

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TABLE 1. Discrete time Methods and their equations, 1s .

FIGURE 2. Frequency response of speed-based disturbance observer in

continuous time domain.

gB +s
Jm (s2 +sgB α)
and the control system’s open-loop transfer
function is Lv = gBsα .
The analysis of system stability and resilience can be
facilitated by using the Bode integral theorem [21], which can (ZOH), Backward difference, and bilinear transformation on
be derived by: the PI position controller with an application to the DC
π motors. In [26], the authors present an investigation of several
Z ∞ X
ln |S(ejω )| dω = − lim sLv (s) + π Re(pi ) discretization approaches for evaluating the elastodynamic
0 2 s→∞
i wave propagation performance, in which they show the
π
= − αgB (10) boundary limitations of approximations. The implementation
2 and evaluation of adaptive and learning control techniques
The speed-based DOB evaluation in continuous time using on DC motors show that the performance improves using
the Bode Integral yields no high sensitivity quantities. The first-order hold discretization and a large sample time [27].
Bode Integral result shows that the system does not suffer The backward rectangular rule is a numerical integration
from the waterbed effect, suggesting a stable system with technique used extensively in signal processing and control
no high sensitivity quantities. According to [12], continuous- systems. It is widely used to approximate the s-to-z transform
time disturbance observers exhibit oscillatory behavior, in discrete-time systems [28]. The Tustin approximation is a
leading to system instability as the plant’s bandwidth digital filtering technique that involves comparing two filters
grows. Evaluating the dynamic properties of DOB-based, in continuous time to discrete time. This strategy is referred
robust digital motion controllers highlights the limitations of to as the bilinear approximation approach [29]. The implicit
continuous-time analytical methods. Adams second-order hold approach is a numerical method
According to [23], discrete-time implementations limit for solving ordinary differential equations. An integral value
the DOB’s bandwidth stability. The higher bandwidth of is estimated using a numerical integration approach known as
the DOB may result in undesired dynamic aspects, such as Simpson’s rule. The Al-Alaoui technique [30] is a numerical
decreased performance and stability. As a result, the next approach for solving nonlinear algebraic equations. Upward
step is to assess the DOB’s robustness using a mechanism for Parabolic Integration is a numerical approach for discretizing
transitioning the system from the continuous to the discrete- control systems, an extension of the trapezoidal rule, and a
time domain. popular way to approximate integrals. As well as Downward
Parabolic Integration is a numerical technique used in
III. DISCRETIZATION METHODS discretizing control systems, referenced as an extension of
Discretization is the process of converting a continuous-time the trapezoidal rule. It’s recognized as a prevalent method
control framework into a discrete-time system appropriate for approximating integrals within control system contexts,
for use with digital computers. Discretization methods are mentioned in literature as a valuable tool for numerical
crucial in control systems, influencing precision, stability, integration [31]. Halijak discretization is used to digitally
and efficiency [24]. The input signal is sampled at regular reproduce all-pass, notch, and high-pass filters, even if
intervals, and its behavior is determined using a discrete-time they have zero initial input signals [32]. Simpson’s Rules
framework, transforming the continuous-time control system are approaches for estimating a definite integral within a
into a mathematically understandable discrete-time form. limited interval, t0 ≤ t ≤ t0 + T δ, by fitting an mth
According to [12], discretization is crucial in determining the order the polynomial via m values of the function inside
stability of control systems for electrical system applications. that interval and calculate the area under this polynomial
Different approximation techniques influence the system’s curve [33]. Among the discretization approaches evaluated,
performance behavior. In [25], they analyze Zero Order Hold the Tick integration rule stands out for its ability to handle

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critical damping ratios of 1.0, and frequencies ranging from

1.24 to 1.45 rad/TimeUnit, indicating stable behavior with
minimal attenuation or amplification. Exceptions include the
Simpson’s Numerical Integration and the Tick Integration
Rule, which exhibit higher frequencies (3.14 rad/TimeUnit)
and greater damping ratios (1.33 and 1.13, respectively),
indicating over-damping and unstable behavior.
The Bode Integral (13) formula in the discrete-time domain
can be found as follows:
Z 2π X
ln |S(ejω )| dω = 2π(− ln | lim L(z) + 1| + ln |pi |)
0 z→∞
i
FIGURE 3. Block diagram for inner loop speed-based disturbance (13)
observer in discrete time domain.

Suppose the open-loop transfer function exhibits precisely

one higher degree in the denominator compared to the
non-uniform data sampling. It provides a possible advantage
numerator. In that case, there is a penalty in waterbed effect
in situations with irregularly spaced data points [34].
to reduce or remove sensitivity peak with the following
Upper-defined existing transformations were employed
− ln | limz→∞ L(z) + 1| [36], otherwise this expression
specifically to convert the Laplace transform variable from
becomes 0 and suffers from waterbed effect.
the ‘s’ domain to the ‘z’ domain of the z-transform. The next
Now, let us delve into the examination of the speed-based
sections will look at ten of the most common and commonly
disturbance observer’s stability in control of PMSM using ten
utilized approximation approaches. The purpose of this
discrete-time techniques in this section of the paper. Table 2
analysis is to elucidate the trade-offs between robustness
indicates the transfer function of low-pass filter sensitivity (6)
and stability when using these discretization approaches
and complementary sensitivity (7) functions; it also displays
to develop motion control systems, as well as to provide
the calculation of the open-loop transfer function (8) and
insights into their practical application in dynamic systems.
Bode Integral (13) results in the discrete-time domain. In [37],
As stated in Table 1, the following investigation focuses
the connection of feedback control from Bode Integral (13)
on discrete-time approaches and their application for the
is shown. It describes that the influence of disturbances is
speed-based disturbance observer.
decreased in the case that |S| < 1 and in the frequency
range of |S| > 1 noise affects the system’s stability. The
A. STABILITY ANALYSIS OF DIGITAL DISTURBANCE
inner-loop controllers’ phase range and the velocity-based
OBSERVER
DOB’s bandwidth are determined by noise sensitivity and
Fig.3 depicts a block diagram for speed-based DOB-based
the waterbed effect limit. As the DOB’s bandwidth rises, the
control of the PMSM system. The general form of the transfer
waterbed effect might lead the control system to exhibit an
function of the control system can be found:
unstable response. In two out of ten approximations, bode
ω(z) = GTdes (z)Tdes + Jm S(z)Td + Tη (z)η (11) integral results show a waterbed effect, which will cause
instability issues in the high bandwidth range.
where Tdes - command input, Td - external disturbance, η - To evaluate different discretization techniques’ ability to
sensor noises. Representation of system’s uncertainties the suppress noises in the high-frequency range, the evaluation of
following parameter α = JJmnm
is applied. sensitivity and complementary sensitivity transfer functions
From the conventional control theory, the stability of is discussed. In motor drive applications, the sensitivity
a discrete-time system can be measured by studying the transfer function describes systems disturbance attenuation.
positions of its eigenvalues in the z-plane. According to [35] It essentially assesses the system’s robustness and ability to
the following eigenvalue criterion can be used for judging the reject disturbances, which is critical for retaining accurate
system’s stability: control over motor speed and position despite load or supply
max(|xi |) ≤ 1, i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n (12) voltage variations. On the other hand, the complementary
sensitivity transfer function measures how well the system
where xi is an eigenvalue of the discrete-time system. suppresses the noise. This analysis will help us to understand
Table 3 compares multiple discrete-time approaches for the DOB system’s stability and robustness against distur-
Open Loop BIBO analysis, emphasizing significant variances bances and noise, particularly in the high-frequency range.
in the absolute value of eigenvalues, damping, frequency, Fig. 4 shows the frequency response of each method’s
and stability properties. Most methods, including the Forward sensitivity transfer function on the left side. Here, the
Rectangular Rule, Backward Rectangular Rule, Bilinear discrete-time methods are compared starting from the band-
(Tustin) Approximation, and others, have similar charac- width of the system gB = 100 and parameter uncertainties
teristics, with magnitudes ranging from 0.98 to 1.0, (12) α = 1 until the gB = 900 and α = 2.5. In control

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TABLE 2. Discrete-time-method transfer function.

TABLE 3. Discrete-time-method open loop BIBO analysis. TABLE 4. Discrete-time-method transfer function.

systems and signal processing, bandwidth refers to the

range of frequencies that a system or component can work
successfully. Using these defined values, it is possible to
systematically test the efficacy of various discretization
algorithms over a wide frequency range.
Such that Halijak second-order and forward rectangular less as the design parameters decrease. For example, the
rule methods have sensitivity peaks in the middle and high system demonstrates enhanced noise suppression capabilities
frequency ranges due to the waterbed effect. In downward when gB = 100 and α = 1. When a frequency response plot is
parabolic integration, the bode integral equation shows that far from 0, it indicates significant amplification or attenuation
it cannot entirely decrease the sensitivity peaks. Moreover, of signals at specific frequencies, demonstrating the sys-
the others do not suffer from the waterbed effect. However, tem’s strong frequency-dependent responding characteristics.
implicit Adams and upward parabolic integration have better While, with the frequency range of gB = 900 and α = 2.5,
disturbance attenuation in middle and high-frequency ranges. Halijak’s order method and downward parabolic integration
As the complementary sensitivity transfer function (right show a lower ability to suppress noise. Other methods, such as
side of Fig.4) shows the system’s ability to attenuate the bilinear approach and implicit Adams, are highly effective
noise, it shows that discretization methods have similar in attenuating the noise of the measurement in the high-
performance. The noise of speed measurement is attenuated frequency range.

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FIGURE 4. Frequency response of DOB-based control with an application to PMSM (Left part: Sensitivity transfer function; Right part:
Complementary sensitivity transfer function).

Table 4 compares various discrete-time approaches, with open-loop stability. Because of the importance of BIBO
a particular emphasis on the waterbed effect as well as (Bounded Input Bounded Output) stability and the ability to

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presence of a closed loop has a significant effect on stability.

Fig. 5 demonstrates the control of PMSM using a proportional
integrator derivative (PID) control system and a speed-based
DOB.
PID control systems are a typical closed-loop control
technique used in PMSM control algorithms. Fig.5 depicts
the block diagram for PMSM’s digital speed control system,
which includes a feedback controller designated C(z) and
a low-pass filter Q(z). PID and DOB tuning are performed
to improve system performance and robustness. Different
methodologies for designing in the discrete-time domain
FIGURE 5. Disturbance observer-based control algorithm with application
might be utilized for the PI controller part.
to PMSM. However, in this study, in order to focus on DOB
performance and its robustness, we preserved the speed
controller design using Bilinear Approximation throughout
all systems. Such that the speed controller equation is
synthesized as follows:
Kp 2(z − 1)
C(z) = Kp + (14)
Tn Ts (z + 1)
in which servo drive controller gains are [0.057, 0.5] for Kp ,
and [0.04, 1] for Tn . The resulting equation of the speed
control system is as follows:
ω = Gωdes (z)ωdes (z) + Gτd (z)τd + Gη (z)η(z) (15)

FIGURE 6. Frequency response of speed-based dob applying six Outer loops for sensitivity and complementary sensitivity
distinctive approaches with gB = 100 and α = 1. functions can be obtained as:
Gn (1 − Q) + GQ
So (z) = (16)
characterize system behavior using Markov variables, BIBO Gn (1 − Q) + GQ + Gn GC
GGn C
stable systems are a basic topic in control theory [38]. While To (z) = (17)
maintaining BIBO stability, the Forward Rectangular Rule Gn (1 − Q) + GQ + GGn C
and Halijak second-order method exhibit a waterbed effect. According to (13), closed-loop performance influences
The Backward Rectangular Rule, on the other hand, exhibits the stability of motion control strategies for PMSM.
no waterbed effect and remains BIBO stable. The Bilinear Next, the Bode Integral Theorem is used for stability analysis
(Tustin) Approximation, Implicit Adams Second Order of the servo drive control algorithm. Because all systems
Hold, Al-Alaoui Method, Upward Parabolic Integration, do not have unstable poles, the Bode Integral equation is
and Downward Parabolic Integration all have no Waterbed simplified to the following form:
Effect and keep BIBO stable. On the other hand, Simpson’s Z 2π
numerical integration and Tick Integration Rule reveal no ln(|So (ejω )|) dω = −2π ln |1 + lim L(z)| (18)
z→∞
waterbed effect but cause BIBO instability. 0
Based on the waterbed effect and open loop stability, it is These (16)-(17) highlight the impact of bandwidth and α
clear that four options will be discarded for further inquiry on the sensitivity and complementary sensitivity functions,
and analysis due to their limits in ensuring stable behavior emphasizing the importance of constructing digital DOBs
and performance within the system. The purpose of this in defining the performance and stability of a speed control
part is to explain the decision to focus on techniques that system. This study attempts to investigate the system’s
exhibit BIBO stability as well as the absence of the Waterbed robustness in the control system. Fig. 6 shows comprehensive
Effect, emphasizing the importance of strong and dependable frequency response visualizations, illustrating the sensitivity
discrete-time methods for future research in this sector. So and complimentary sensitivity To functions for outer loops
utilizing speed-based DOB.
B. DIGITAL DOB-BASED SPEED CONTROL STRATEGY FOR The results show a consistent pattern across all techniques,
PMSM DRIVE with stable responses that converge to zero. In terms of
Outer-loop control in PMSM is primarily concerned with sensitivity transfer function analysis, the techniques perform
altering the motor’s speed, position, or acceleration. This similarly, with the exception of the implicit Adams approach,
often involves utilizing an encoder to measure the motor’s which is somewhat better at damping disturbances, showing
speed or position and comparing it to the desired result. The enhanced system responsiveness. This comparison gives

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FIGURE 7. Root locus of speed-based disturbance observer: applying six distinctive discrete-time approaches with gB = 100 and α = 1.

TABLE 5. PMSM technical characteristics.

FIGURE 8. Experimental setup for the motion control system.

light on the various performance characteristics of different

approaches, which are crucial for evaluating their usefulness The analysis provides beneficial insights into system
in real-world applications inside control systems. The most stability and performance. With the closed-loop analysis in
noticeable distinction between discrete time approaches is the discrete-time domain, the assessment and enhancement of
the complimentary sensitivity transfer function (Fig. 6, right the motion control system can be guaranteed in comparison
side) response, which implies speed reference tracking. All with the continuous time domain analysis.
approaches provide effective reference tracking at low fre-
quencies, with deterioration at middle and high frequencies.
Adams discretization has slightly greater tracking skills than IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
the others. A. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The stability constraints can be observed in the root loci The experimental phase of this research was conducted
of speed-based DOB employing six distinctive discrete-time using a 300 W PMSM setup manufactured by Lucas-
strategies with respect to α. Fig. 7 depicts the lower bound Nuelle GmbH, which incorporates a digital signal processor,
of parameter mismatch of the six techniques. Implicit Adams as depicted in Fig. 8. This arrangement in Fig. 8 showcases
method shows a broader range for parameter mismatch by the configuration utilized to regulate the PMSM’s speed.
having a lower bound equal to 0.02. While the stricter The setup comprises a surface-mounted PMSM connected
constraint can be needed for the backward rectangular rule to a 1024-pulse sequential motion encoder and a servo
with the lower bound equal to 0.0278, another method that machine controlled by ActiveServo software, serving as a
also requires such constraints with the lower bound 0.0255 is load. Detailed characteristics of the PMSM are outlined in
the Al-Alaoui method. Table 5 for reference.

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TABLE 6. Experimental parameters.

B. EXPERIMENTAL COMPARISON OF DISCRETE-TIME

FIGURE 9. Scenario 1: Current response using six discrete-time
METHODS approximations with gB = 10 and α = 1.
Six discrete time approximations are used to evaluate the
performance and stability of the PMSM’s control strategy
(Table 4). Experiments have been conducted with the
conditions in Table 6. This study established the proportional-
integral (PI) controller gains at Kp = 0.057 and Tn = 0.4.
Additionally, we fine-tuned the DOB parameters (bandwidth
and parameter uncertainty) to assess the effectiveness of
the discrete control system based on DOB (referenced in
Table 6). Consequently, for a comprehensive evaluation,
we conducted three distinct cases to thoroughly assess the
motion control system’s performance. The motor’s reference
speed is initially set to 2000 rpm in the experimental setup. FIGURE 10. Scenario 1: Speed tracking findings using six discrete-time
Once the motor reaches a steady speed, an unforeseen load approximations with gB = 10 and α = 1.
torque is introduced to the PMSM drive at 0.3 seconds.
To gauge the performance of these systems, various metrics,
such as the Integral of Absolute Error (IAE), Integral of
Time Absolute Error (ITAE), and Root Mean Square Error
(RMSE), were utilized.
In a complete experimental examination of speed control
employing six discrete-time approaches, the insights derived
from Fig. 10 are based on specific conditions: a system
bandwidth of gB = 10 and parameter uncertainties
represented by α = 1. The exhibited speed responses
demonstrate the efficiency of each discrete-time approach
in steering the motion control system, ensuring that the
desired speed of 2000 rpm is maintained despite disturbances
and nonlinearities. Notably, the Al-Alaoui-based control
emerges as the dominant, with superior speed response,
as seen by reduced undershoot and increased settling time.
In comparison, the backward rectangular rule lags far behind,
demonstrating markedly lower performance as evidenced
by significantly higher undershoot compared to the other
options.
Analyzing the current response in Fig. 9, it becomes
evident that the Tustin approximation exhibits a slightly
FIGURE 11. Scenario 1: Estimation errors of load change for speed
superior performance, achieving a value of 5.88 A. Inter- tracking (upper part) and disturbance estimation (bottom part) using six
estingly, the six discrete-time methods demonstrate nearly discrete-time approximations with gB = 10 and α = 1.
comparable performances, characterized by minimal varia-
tions and the highest value recorded at 6.212 A, attributed
to upward parabolic integration. This close similarity in the Fig.11 (top part) shows the estimation errors of the digital
performance of the discrete-time methods underscores their DOB control system utilizing the defined approximations.
comparable effectiveness in handling system dynamics, with The use of downward parabolic integration results in a slight
only marginal distinctions in current response magnitudes. performance improvement. In ITAE error estimation, speed

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FIGURE 12. Scenario 1: Total disturbance estimation using six

discrete-time approximations with gB = 10 and α = 1.

tracking errors obtain the lowest value of 9.94, while the

backward rectangular rule has the highest value of 15.4. The
Integral Absolute Error for downward parabolic integration
is 16.195, while the highest value is 24.53 for the backward
rectangular rule; nonetheless, the other four procedures
have values in the range of 18 to 19. The Root Mean FIGURE 13. Scenario 2: Speed tracking findings using six discrete-time
approximations with gB = 20 and α = 1.
Square Error (RMSE) indicates a consistent performance
order among the methods, with the smallest error at
9.95 and the highest at 15.41. In the lower part of Fig. 11,
disturbance estimation reveals nearly identical performances
with minimal differences among the approximations. Slightly
superior disturbance estimation is observed for the implicit
Adams technique, but overall, the variations between the
usage of different approximations are minimal.
Figure 12 provides a visual depiction of the disturbance
estimation capabilities of each system, offering insights
into their capacity to monitor and respond to disturbances
over time. Although slight variations between methods
are discernible, the differences in values are minimal,
FIGURE 14. Scenario 2: Speed tracking findings using six discrete-time
ranging from 3.6 to 2.96 Nm. Notwithstanding these subtle approximations with gB = 20 and α = 1.
distinctions, the graphical representation of the data suggests
that, on average, all six techniques showcase comparable
performance. They consistently track in alignment with
the speed reference, emphasizing the robust disturbance
estimation capabilities inherent in each evaluated method.
This visual insight underscores the overall reliability and
effectiveness of the techniques in maintaining stability and
responsiveness in the face of disturbances.
In the following case (Scenario 2), the experiment is
conducted with an increased bandwidth of gB = 20 while
maintaining the same parameter uncertainties at α = 1.
The implicit Adams approach demonstrates superior per-
formance in speed response (Fig. 14), showcasing minimal
undershoot. It also exhibits the least disturbance estimation FIGURE 15. Scenario 2: Total disturbance estimation using six
discrete-time approximations with gB = 20 and α = 1.
error at 3.7 Nm (Fig. 15). Moreover, the upward parabolic
integration displays commendable performance in both speed
tracking and disturbance estimation, achieving a value of
4.1. However, when the bandwidth is increased in both consistently demonstrates the most significant undershoot in
scenarios (see Figs. 14 and 15), the backward rectangular speed response. Upon reviewing Figs. 14 and 15 collectively,
rule consistently displays the poorest performance. It exhibits it becomes evident that among the six techniques, two exhibit
the highest disturbance estimation error at 5.579 Nm and superior performance in reference speed tracking, while the

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K. Talapiden et al.: DOB Design With Comparison of Different Discretization Methods

higher undershoot (1928 rpm). On the contrary, downward

parabolic integration displays the least favorable performance
in terms of speed track, marked by a higher undershoot
(1896 rpm). The results from Fig. 16 reveal the implicit
Adams method’s superior performance among the five
disturbance estimation approximations, exhibiting the lowest
value (4.2 Nm). The upward parabolic integration demon-
strates commendable performance (7.7 Nm), while the least
favorable outcome is observed with downward parabolic
integration (11.39 Nm). In summary, the implicit Adams
method emerges as the optimal choice, showcasing superior
performance, accuracy, and speed for both disturbance esti-
mation and speed tracking response, outperforming the other
five techniques. Conversely, downward parabolic integration
is discouraged due to its significantly inferior performance,
nearly three times worse than the Adams method.
The findings in Table 7 offer a comprehensive compar-
ison of error performances across three case experiments,
examining the effectiveness of various discrete-time methods
using three key evaluation criteria: Integral Absolute Error
FIGURE 16. Scenario 3: Speed tracking findings using six discrete-time
approximations with gB = 20 and α = 2. (IAE), Integral Time-weighted Absolute Error (ITAE), and
Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). The assessment focuses on
two critical categories: speed-tracking errors and disturbance
estimation errors.
The table comprehensively assesses discrete-time methods
across diverse conditions, meticulously scrutinizing their
effectiveness in speed tracking and disturbance estimation
across a spectrum of bandwidths (gB ) and parameter
uncertainties (α). This thorough evaluation aims to offer
insights into the methods’ adaptability and robustness under
varying scenarios, providing a nuanced understanding of their
performance characteristics.
FIGURE 17. Scenario 3: Speed tracking findings using six discrete-time
approximations with gB = 20 and α = 2. In the scenario with low bandwidth (gB = 10, α =
1), Downward Parabolic Integration demonstrated superior
speed tracking, closely followed by Upward Parabolic
Integration. Disturbance estimation indicated similar perfor-
mance among most methods, with Implicit Adams slightly
outperforming in ITAE while exhibiting comparable IAE
values, except for Upward Parabolic Integration.
Under higher bandwidth (gB = 20, α = 1), Upward
Parabolic Integration notably outperformed other methods in
speed tracking, registering significantly lower errors. Implicit
Adams followed as the second-best method, excelling across
IAE, ITAE, and RMSE. In contrast, the Backward Rectan-
FIGURE 18. Scenario 3: Total disturbance estimation using six gular Rule and Downward Parabolic Integration exhibited
discrete-time approximations with gB = 20 and α = 2.
sub-optimal performance in speed tracking, while the Bilin-
ear method showed promise in disturbance estimation.
remaining four demonstrate slightly inferior and comparable However, when faced with scenarios marked by increased
performance in the presence of disturbances. uncertainty, such as those defined by gB = 20 and α =
In Scenario 3, the system bandwidth remains consistent 2, Implicit Adams emerges as a leading method in speed
with Scenario 2 (gB = 20), and parameter uncertainty tracking, closely followed by Upward Parabolic Integration.
increases (α = 2). Examining the Speed Tracking (Fig. 17) Notably, Implicit Adams excels in providing superior Root
after introducing a load at 0.3 seconds, implicit Adams stands Mean Square Error (RMSE) in disturbance estimation,
out with the least undershoot (1957 rpm) and precise control showcasing its proficiency in handling uncertainties. Con-
system implementation. Another method with better perfor- currently, Al-Alaoui exhibits commendable performance in
mance is upward parabolic integration, albeit with a slightly terms of both Integral of Absolute Error (IAE) and Integral

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 K. Talapiden et al.: DOB Design With Comparison of Different Discretization Methods

TABLE 7. Error analysis of discrete-time methods in numerical approximations.

of Time-weighted Absolute Error (ITAE), adding to the ous approximation techniques utilized. The comprehensive
robustness of the overall approach in uncertain conditions. assessment in Table 8 delves into the efficacy of various
This comparative analysis underscores the importance discrete-time methods within motion control systems.
of method selection based on the nuances of applica- Theoretical assessments involved stability analysis,
tion contexts. Specifically, downward parabolic integration employing open-loop transfer function calculations and
exhibits favorable attributes for scenarios characterized by the Bode integral theorem. Four methods were deemed
low bandwidth ratios. However, when dealing with situations unsuitable for PMSM motion control due to the identified
resembling the given parameters of gB = 20 and α = waterbed effect and instability within the DOB. While
1, the use of upward parabolic integration consistently methods like Al-Alaoui exhibit computational prowess, their
outperforms other methods in terms of speed tracking applicability to highly intricate systems might be limited due
performance. Moreover, the distinct advantages observed in to computational burdens.
disturbance estimation through methods like implicit Adams Figure 19 represents the computational requirement for the
approximation and bilinear approximation highlight their discrete-time methods, which is found using the simulation
relevance in accurately estimating disturbances within the of MATLAB/Simulink. Simulations are conducted using the
system. Overall, Implicit Adams consistently showcased computer with Intel Core i9- 7Gen processor and 32 GB
robust performance across various bandwidth and uncertainty RAM specifications. The computation time is indicated in
scenarios, excelling in speed and disturbance error evaluation. microseconds (µs). The examination demonstrates that the
Upward Parabolic Integration displayed notable proficiency Al-Alaoui technique displays the most lengthy processing
in speed tracking, whereas the Bilinear method exhibited time, with an amount of 5.625 µs. The backward rectangular
competence in specific disturbance estimation contexts. rule is the quickest technique, which requires 1.758 µs.
These findings advocate for the practical application of The Tustin approximation and upward parabolic integration
Implicit Adams, particularly in digital DOB-based control, approaches have similar execution times, around 2.7 µs each.
especially in contexts involving PMSMs. The indicated computing time does not effect real-world
implementation since the most effective methods do not
V. DISCUSSION have big differences in processing time. Furthermore, these
This study delved into evaluating the effectiveness of findings can help selecting a suitable discretization approach
different discrete-time methods for controlling PMSM across based on specific application’s requirements.
varying bandwidth ranges and parameter uncertainties. These Despite the prevalent use of the Tustin approximation, its
factors were pivotal in distinguishing between the vari- efficacy within the inner loop control of PMSMs showed

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K. Talapiden et al.: DOB Design With Comparison of Different Discretization Methods

TABLE 8. Discrete-time-methods comparison.

Moreover, in speed response assessments, implicit Adams

and upward parabolic integration demonstrated minimal
undershoot, indicative of heightened stability—an advanta-
geous trait for disturbance-sensitive high-performance digital
control systems. These thorough theoretical and experi-
mental studies shed light on the advantages and limits of
discrete-time techniques in PMSM motion control applica-
tions. The results are relevant for technique selection, taking
into account unique system difficulties, performance needs,
and robustness considerations. Furthermore, the study’s
findings not only offer practical insights into control method
selection, but they also serve as a springboard for future
FIGURE 19. Processing time of various discretization methods. research. Incorporating DOBs into various motor system
control strategies is an attractive subject for future research.
The integration of more complex observer designs may pave
the way for even greater levels of performance and control
suboptimal performance. Conversely, methods like upward efficacy in motor control systems.
parabolic integration and implicit Adams demonstrated
promising post-response behaviors, indicating their potential
suitability for applications requiring rapid response. Root VI. CONCLUSION
locus analysis highlighted the robustness of implicit Adams, This research examines the use of a digital DOB to
closely followed by the bilinear approach. In experimental improve the stability and performance of PMSM drive
observation, scenarios with low bandwidth (gB = 10 and control systems. The theoretical assessments, together with
α = 1) applications and six discrete time methods show practical data, highlight each method’s nuanced strengths
successful performance in reference speed tracking with the and limitations, underlining its suitability for complex
maximum undershoot of 1895 rpm. In disturbance estimation systems. The highlighted limitations, such as the waterbed
error comparison, implicit Adams exhibited commendable effect and instability within the DOB, highlight the impor-
performance across two parameters. At the same time, higher tance of technique selection. While approaches such as
bandwidth scenarios (gB = 20 and α = 2.5) highlighted Al-Alaoui are computationally powerful, they can also be
upward parabolic integration’s prowess in speed error and used to construct reliable and robust control systems in
the bilinear method’s superior disturbance estimation are the digital platforms. Furthermore, the performance nuances
next best methods after the implicit Adams second order hold shown by the Upward Parabolic Integration and Implicit
technique. Adams approaches indicate their potential appropriateness

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[35] Y. Han, H. Sun, B. Huang, and S. Qin, ‘‘Discrete-time domain modal NGUYEN GIA MINH THAO (Senior Member,
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[36] M. Ruth, K. Lebsock, and C. Dennehy, ‘‘What’s new is what’s old: Use National University–Ho Chi Minh City University
of Bode’s integral theorem (circa 1945) to provide insight for 21st century of Technology, Vietnam, in 2009, and the Dr.-Eng.
spacecraft attitude control system design tuning,’’ in Proc. AIAA Guid., degree in electrical engineering and intelligent
Navigat., Control Conf., Aug. 2010, p. 8428. control from Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan,
[37] A. Emami-Naeini and D. de Roover, ‘‘Bode’s sensitivity integral in 2015. From 2015 to 2020, he was a Postdoctoral
constraints: The waterbed effect revisited,’’ 2019, arXiv:1902.11302.
Researcher with Waseda University and Toyota
[38] S. Bittanti and P. Colaneri, Periodic Systems: Filtering and Control,
Technological Institute, Japan. From 2020 to 2023,
vol. 5108985. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2009.
he was an Assistant Professor with Nagoya University and Toyota
Technological Institute. Since 2023, he has been an Associate Professor with
Shimane University, Japan, where he is currently the Head of the Electric
Motors and Energy Systems Laboratory. His research interests include
advanced control methods, electric motors and drives, power electronics,
electromagnetic analysis and evaluation, renewable energy, optimization,
and electric vehicles. He has been an Associate Editor of IEEE TRANSACTIONS
ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, since 2022. He has been the Guest Editor of
Special Issues on refereed journals, such as Electronics and The Journal
KULASH TALAPIDEN received the B.S. degree of Engineering (IET). Moreover, he has been an Editorial Member of the
(Hons.) in technological machinery and equipment Journal of Computer Science and Cybernetics, since 2021.
from Kazakh Agrotechnical University, in 2020,
Astana, Kazakhstan, and the M.S. degree in
robotics from the School of Engineering and Digi-
tal Sciences, Nazarbayev University, Astana. Since
2022, she has been a Research Assistant with the TON DUC DO (Senior Member, IEEE) received
Power Conversion and Motion Control (PCMC) the B.S. and M.S. degrees from Hanoi University
Laboratory for Motion Control Systems, School of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam, in
of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Nazarbayev 2007 and 2009, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree
University. Her research interests include control systems, feedback control from Dongguk University, Seoul, South Korea,
in motor drives, and robotics applications. in 2014, all in electrical engineering.
From 2008 to 2009, he was with the Division
of Electrical Engineering, Thuy Loi University,
Vietnam, as a Lecturer. He was with the Division of
Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Dongguk
University, as a Postdoctoral Researcher, in 2014. He was also a Senior
Researcher with the Pioneer Research Center for Controlling Dementia
by Converging Technology, Gyeongsang National University, South Korea,
from May 2014 to August 2015. Since September 2015, he has been an
YUSSUF SHAKHIN received the B.S. degree Assistant Professor and then an Associate Professor with the Department
in electronics and nanoelectronics engineering of Robotics and Mechatronics, Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan. His
from Ala-Too International University, Kyrgyzs- research interests include the field of control engineering, electric drives,
tan, in 2021, and the M.S. degree in robotics renewable energy conversion systems, and nanorobots. He received the Best
from Nazarbayev University, Kazakhstan, in 2023, Research Award from Dongguk University in 2014, the Most Cited Paper
where he is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree Award from Wind Energy in 2020-2021, and the Outstanding Associate
with the Department of Robotics and Mechatron- Editor Award of IEEE ACCESS in 2021 and 2022. He has been listed in the
ics. Since 2021, he has been with the Power top 2% of scientists based on the citation on the single-year table in 2020 and
Conversion and Motion Control (PCMC) Labo- 2021, and both single-year and career-wide tables in 2021, 2022, and 2023.
ratory for Motion Control Systems. Additionally, He has been an Associate Editor of IEEE ACCESS, since April 2017, and
from 2022 to 2023, he was a Research Assistant with the Smart Energy IEEE ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION LETTERS, since August 2023. He has been
Laboratory for Wireless Power Transfer Systems, School of Engineering recently promoted to a Senior Editor of IEEE ACCESS. He has been the Guest
and Digital Sciences, Nazarbayev University. His current research interests Editor of Special Issues on several journals, such as Mathematical Problems
include the control of electric machine drives employed in electric vehicles in Engineering, Electronics, Energies, Sensors, and Fractal and Fractional.
and mobile robots.

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