Research study design is a framework, or the set of methods and procedures used to

collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research problem.

Research study designs are of many types, each with its advantages and limitations.
The type of study design used to answer a particular research question is determined
by the nature of question, the goal of research, and the availability of resources. Since
the design of a study can affect the validity of its results, it is important to understand
the different types of study designs and their strengths and limitations.

Descriptive Research Design (or non-analytical) studies, as the name suggests, merely
try to describe the data on one or more characteristics of a group of individuals. It aims
to systematically obtain information to describe a phenomenon or situation. These do
not try to answer questions or establish relationships between variables. A descriptive
study is one that is designed to describe the distribution of one or more variables,
without regard to any causal or other hypothesis. Examples of descriptive studies
include case reports, case series, and cross-sectional surveys.

Descriptive studies are useful for estimating the burden of disease (e.g., prevalence or
incidence) in a population. This information is useful for resource planning.

Based on the direction of inquiry, study designs may be classified as forward-direction

or backward-direction. In forward-direction studies, the researcher starts with
determining the exposure to a risk factor and then assesses whether the outcome
occurs at a future time point. This design is known as a cohort study. For example, a
researcher can follow a group of smokers and a group of non-smokers to determine the
incidence of lung cancer in each. In backward-direction studies, the researcher begins
by determining whether the outcome is present (cases vs. non-cases [also called
controls]) and then traces the presence of prior exposure to a risk factor. These are
known as case–control studies. For example, a researcher identifies a group of normal-
weight babies and a group of low-birth weight babies and then asks the mothers about
their dietary habits during the index pregnancy.

Exploratory Research is aimed at uncovering insights and forming hypotheses in lesser-

known areas. It serves as a precursor to more structured research. Exploratory
research is a methodological approach employed when there is limited knowledge
about a subject. It aims to explore and understand phenomena, generating insights and
initial ideas rather than testing predefined hypotheses. This type of research is often
conducted during the early stages of a research project, setting the ground for
subsequent, more structured research. Standard methods include literature reviews,
case studies, interviews, and focus groups, allowing for an open, flexible examination of
issues. The findings from exploratory research help identify variables, create
operational definitions, and form a more precise research problem, paving the way for
descriptive or experimental research later on.

On the other hand, Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe
a situation, problem, phenomenon, service, or relationship among variables. It is used
to identify patterns or trends in a situation rather than to determine causal
relationships. This type of research can provide a snapshot of specific characteristics of
a large group or situation and is often used as surveys, observations, or case studies.
Methods employed include various surveys, observational methods, and case studies.
Unlike exploratory research, descriptive research is structured with a clear focus on the
aspects to be studied, with predefined variables and questions to be answered, making
it a crucial step in the broader research process.
 Comparative Table: Explorative and Descriptive Research

Aspect Exploratory Research Descriptive Research

To explore and understand To accurately and systematically
Objective phenomena, generating insights describe a situation, problem, or
and initial ideas. phenomenon.
May have predefined hypotheses but
Not aimed at testing predefined
Hypotheses focuses on describing rather than
hypotheses.
testing.
Stage in Follows exploratory research; more
Early stages when there is limited
Research structured with a clear focus on
knowledge about the subject.
Process certain aspects.
Utilizes open-ended methods like Employs structured methods like
Methodology literature reviews, interviews, or surveys, observational methods, and
focus groups. case studies.
Determining variables, creating It provides a snapshot of specific
operational definitions, and characteristics and identifies
Outcome
formulating more precise research patterns or trends but does not
problems. determine causality.
Level of
Broad understanding to guide Deeper understanding with detailed
Understandin
further research. descriptions.
g
Data Qualitative, more flexible, and Quantitative, more rigid, and
Collection less structured. structured.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

TRUE EXPERIMENTS

Experimental method follows a scientific routine and involves at least two groups: a
control group and an experimental group. This is concerned with the examination of the
effect of independent variable, where the independent variable is manipulated through
treatment or interventions, & the effect of those interventions are observed on the
dependent variable. Experimental method is more controlled than other methods and
allows psychologists to claim that behaviour is a result of the Independent variable. An
experimental design is the laying out of a detailed experimental plan in advance of
doing the experiment.

The experimental group receives the planned treatment or intervention & a comparison
is made with the control group to observe the effects of the treatment or intervention.

True experimental design is regarded as the most accurate form of experimental

research where researchers have complete control over the extraneous variables & can
predict that observed effect on DV is only due to the manipulation of independent
variable. For an experiment to be classed as a true experimental design, it must fit all
of the following criteria.
  Randomization: The sample groups are selected and assigned randomly to the
control and experimental group. Everyone has an equal chance of being
assigned to experimental or of study subjects on a random basis. Randomization
eliminates the chances of any selection biases. (Can be done with a flip of a coin
or chit system)

 There must be a control group. Controlling the effect of extraneous variables on

the DV is essential in true experiments. The subject in the control &
experimental groups are similar in number & characteristics, but the subject in
control group receive no experimental treatments or any interventions at all.
 Manipulating: Making intentional variations and consciously controlling the IV
through an intervention to observe its effects on the DV.

Advantages

 The results of a true experimental design can be statistically analyzed and are
considered the most powerful designs to establish the causal relationship
between IV and DV.

Disadvantage

 Manipulation of variables is sometimes not possible.

 Sometimes it is very difficult to get cooperation from students because study
may involve medical or surgical treatment or interventions about which subjects
will be reluctant to follow.
 In experimental studies conducted in natural settings, like hospital or
community, it is very difficult to control extraneous variables.

QUASI- EXPERIMENTS

This type of experimental design have elements of manipulations but lack at least one of the
other two properties that characterizes true experiments; randomization or a control group.
They are used in the situations where we can’t randomly assign the subjects to the groups or for
various reasons no control group is available for an experimental study. This type of experiment
is used when manipulation or controlling of IV is not possible.

Sub-categories of this design: Nonrandomized control group design; time-series design.

Example of this method: to study the effects of integrated care in the nursing home sector & its
effects on the quality of work to the caregivers.

Time-Series Design: Important when the experimenter wants to measure the effects of a
treatment over a long period of time. The measurement happens a number of times during the
course of the experiment. This is a single group design, where the experiment can be carried
out by alternating between administering & then withdrawing the treatment to determine the
effectiveness of the intervention.

Example: measuring a child’s school performance on a weekly basis & then introducing a new
teaching techniques. Then again measuring on a weekly basis.

Ex Post Facto Research design:

Also known as "after-the-fact" research, is defined as a research method that looks into how an
independent variable (groups with certain qualities that already exist prior to a study) affects a
dependent variable. This entails particular characteristics or traits of a participant that cannot
be manipulated. Ex post facto design is considered a quasi-experimental type of study, which
means that participants are not randomly assigned, but rather grouped together based upon
specific characteristics or traits they share.

The term ex-post facto according to Landman (1988: 62) is used to refer to an experiment in
which a researcher, instead of finding a treatment, examines the effect of a naturally occurring
treatment after it has occurred. In other words it is a study that attempts to discover the pre-
existing causal conditions between groups. Therefore, a researcher cannot manipulate or modify
actions or behaviors that have already occurred, or specific traits and characteristics a
participant embodies. This type of research study tests hypotheses to locate a cause-and-effect
relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

For example, if a child is delinquent (that is, one who indulges in criminal activities), then in
order to find the basic reason behind such delinquency, the researcher would try to find out the
various events that have occurred and the many possibilities that could have contributed to the
concerned delinquent behaviour. The expected possibilities may be lack of discipline at school/
family history/ peer effect/ neighbourhood or socialisation.

The researcher predicts a cause on the basis of a controlled effect (since no variation can be
done on the effect which has already taken place on the basis of the independent variable or the
cause). Thus, an ex-post facto research can be defined as an empirically based investigation
which does not involve the researchers’ direct control over the independent variables because
they have already led to effects which can no Ex-Post Facto Research more be manipulated. The
conclusions regarding the relationship between the variables are inferred without intervening or
varying the independent or dependent variable.

Characteristics:

 The research has a control or a comparison group

 The behaviour, action, event or the treatment or the independent variable of the
research cannot be manipulated or changed
 The research focuses on the effects
 The research tries to analyse the ‘how’ and ‘what’ aspect of an event
 Explores possible effects and causes

It should, however, be pointed out that the most serious danger of ex-post facto research is the
conclusion that because two factors go together, one is the cause and the other is the effect.

CORRELATIONAL DESIGN

A correlational research design is the measurement of two or more factors to determine or

estimate the extent to which the values for the factors are related or change in an identifiable
pattern. It is used to identify the extent to which values for two or more factors are related.
The correlation coefficient is a statistic used to measure the strength and direction of the linear
relationship, or correlation, between two factors. The value of r can range from -1.0 to +1.0.

A correlation reflects the strength and/or direction of the relationship between two (or more)
variables. The direction of a correlation can be either positive or negative.

Positive correlation Both variables change in the As height increases, weight

same direction also increases
Negative correlation The variables change in As coffee consumption
opposite directions increases, tiredness
decreases
Zero correlation There is no relationship Coffee consumption is not
between the variables correlated with height

Correlational research can provide initial indications or additional support for theories about
causal relationships.

Example: You want to investigate whether greenhouse gas emissions cause global warming. It is
not practically possible to do an experiment that controls global emissions over time, but
through observation and analysis you can show a strong correlation that supports the theory.

The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, also known as Pearson’s r, is commonly

used for assessing a linear relationship between two quantitative variables.

Correlation coefficients are usually found for two variables at a time, but you can use a multiple
correlation coefficient for three or more variables.

Correlation and causation

It’s important to remember that correlation does not imply causation. Just because you find a
correlation between two things doesn’t mean you can conclude one of them causes the other for
a few reasons.

Directionality problem

If two variables are correlated, it could be because one of them is a cause and the other is an
effect. But the correlational research design doesn’t allow you to infer which is which. To err on
the side of caution, researchers don’t conclude causality from correlational studies.

Example: You find a positive correlation between vitamin D levels and depression: people with
low vitamin D levels are more likely to have depression. But you can’t be certain about whether
having low vitamin D levels causes depression, or whether having depression causes reduced
intakes of vitamin D through lifestyle or appetite changes. Therefore, you can only conclude that
there is a relationship between these two variables.

Correlational design Experimental design

Purpose Used to test strength of association Used to test cause-and-effect
between variables relationships between variables
Variables Variables are only observed with no An independent variable is manipulated
manipulation or intervention by and a dependent variable is observed
researchers
Control Limited control is used, so other Extraneous variables are controlled so
variables may play a role in the that they can’t impact your variables of
relationship interest
Validity High external validity: you can High internal validity: you can confidently
confidently generalize your draw conclusions about causation
 conclusions to other populations or
settings

OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH

An observational study is used to answer a research question based purely on what the
researcher observes. There is no interference or manipulation of the research subjects, and no
control and treatment groups.

These studies are often qualitative in nature and can be used for both exploratory and
explanatory research purposes. While quantitative observational studies exist, they are less
common.

Observational studies are generally used in hard science, medical, and social science fields. This
is often due to ethical or practical concerns that prevent the researcher from conducting a
traditional experiment. However, the lack of control and treatment groups means that forming
inferences is difficult, and there is a risk of confounding variables and observer bias impacting
your analysis.

Types of observations:

Naturalistic observation The researcher observes how a researcher may observe

the participants respond to how animals behave in a dog
their environment in “real- park to study interactions
life” settings but does not between dogs in the park
influence their behavior in while sitting discreetly on a
any way bench in the park
Participant observation Also occurs in “real-life” Spending a few months in a
settings, but here, the hospital with patients
researcher becomes an suffering from a particular
active participant in the illness
group or subject they are
researching/observing.
Systematic observation Utilizing coding and a strict Counting the number of times
observational schedule, children laugh in a classroom
researchers observe
participants in order to count
how often a particular
phenomenon occurs
Covert observation Hinges on the fact that the Observing interactions in
participants do not know they public spaces, like bus rides
are being observed or parks
Quantitative observation Involves counting or Observations related to age,
numerical data weight, or height
Qualitative observation Involves “five senses”: sight, Observations related to
sound, smell, taste, or colors, sounds, or music
hearing
Case study Investigates a person or Observing a child or group of
group of people over time, children over the course of
with the idea that close their time in elementary
investigation can later be school
generalized to other people
or groups
Unstructured Observation This involves the researcher Cultural studies
to go into the field with some
broad notions but no precise
knowledge of what will be
observed.