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Geography
Student’s Book

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Form Three

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Tanzania Institute of Education

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© Tanzania Institute of Education 2021

Published 2021

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ISBN: 978-9987-09-279-6

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Tanzania Institute of Education
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P.O. Box 35094
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Dar es Salaam

Mobile numbers: +255 735 041 168

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+255 735 041 170

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Email: [email protected]
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Web: www.tie.go.tz
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All rights reserved. No part of this textbook may be reproduced, stored in any
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retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means whether electronic,

mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the Tanzania Institute of Education.

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Table of Contents
List of Figures......................................................................................................v
List of Tables........................................................................................................x
Acknowledgements............................................................................................xi
Preface................................................................................................................xii
Chapter One: Structure of the Earth................................................................... 1
The concept of the structure of the Earth ..........................................................1
Internal structure of the Earth.............................................................................1
The external structure of the Earth.....................................................................4

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Rocks of the Earth’s crust...................................................................................6
A rock cycle...................................................................................................... 11
Simplified geological time scale ......................................................................13

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Chapter Two: Forces that affect the Earth......................................................... 20
Internal forces...................................................................................................20

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Internal Earth’s movements..............................................................................20
Vulcanicity........................................................................................................33
Earthquakes......................................................................................................43

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Chapter Three: Weathering and mass wasting................................................. 51
Weathering........................................................................................................51
Types of weathering..........................................................................................51
Mass wasting....................................................................................................58
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Chapter Four: The action of running water and ice on the Earth’s surface...... 65
The work of running water ..............................................................................65
The work of a river...........................................................................................66
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The long profile of a river.................................................................................68

River rejuvenation ...........................................................................................76
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Drainage system of a river................................................................................77

River capture ....................................................................................................80
River regime ....................................................................................................82
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Groundwater.....................................................................................................83
Action of ice.....................................................................................................87
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Chapter Five: The action of wind and waves on the Earth’s surface................ 94
The action of wind in desert areas....................................................................94
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Determinants of wind action.............................................................................94

Wind erosion.....................................................................................................95
Transportation by wind.....................................................................................98
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Wind deposition..............................................................................................100
Wave action and coastal features....................................................................103
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Coastal erosion ..............................................................................................104

Chapter Six: Soil............................................................................................. 115
Concept of soil................................................................................................ 115
Factors for soil formation............................................................................... 115

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Importance of soils......................................................................................... 117
Components of soil......................................................................................... 117
Soil properties................................................................................................. 118
Soil profile......................................................................................................121
Soil erosion.....................................................................................................124
Chapter Seven: Elementary Surveying........................................................... 129
The concept of land survey.............................................................................129
Chain or tape survey.......................................................................................129
Chain or tape surveying process.....................................................................133
Procedures in chain survey.............................................................................134

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Development of survey techniques today.......................................................149
The importance of surveying in social and economic activities.....................150
Chapter Eight: Map reading and interpretation.............................................. 152

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The concept of map reading and interpretation..............................................152
Importance of maps........................................................................................152

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Reading and interpreting topographical maps................................................155
Methods of representing relief on topographic maps.....................................158
Contours and associated landforms................................................................161
Cross section...................................................................................................174
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Intervisibility..................................................................................................176
Vertical Exaggeration (VE)............................................................................178
Gradient..........................................................................................................180
Map interpretation..........................................................................................182
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Chapter Nine: Photograph reading and interpretation.................................... 190
Concepts of photograph reading and interpretation ......................................190
Types of photographs......................................................................................190
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Uses of photographs.......................................................................................197
Reading and interpreting photographs............................................................199
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Chapter Ten: Application of simple statistics................................................. 208

The concept of statistics.................................................................................208
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Statistical data.................................................................................................208
Importance of statistical data to the user........................................................209
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Way of presenting statistical data...................................................................210

Summarisation of massive data......................................................................230
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Glossary........................................................................................................... 240
Bibliography.................................................................................................... 243
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List of Figures
1.1: Cross sectional view of the internal structure of the Earth..................................................1
1.2: Layers of the Earth’s atmosphere..........................................................................................4
1.3: Granophyre...........................................................................................................................7
1.4: Examples of plutonic intrusive igneous rocks......................................................................8
1.5: Sedimentary rocks.................................................................................................................9
1.6: Different views of sedimentary rocks...................................................................................9
1.7: Examples of metamorphic rocks.........................................................................................10

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1.8: Rock cycle...........................................................................................................................12
2.1: Compressional forces..........................................................................................................21
2.2: Tensional forces..................................................................................................................21
2.3: Formation of block mountains............................................................................................22

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2.4: Ria coast..............................................................................................................................23
2.5: Dalmatian coast...................................................................................................................23

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2.6: Estuaries..............................................................................................................................24
2.7: Fiords coast.........................................................................................................................24

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2.8: Anticline and Syncline.......................................................................................................26
2.9: Fold mountain.....................................................................................................................26
2.10: Simple/Symmetrical fold..................................................................................................27
2.11: Asymmetrical fold.............................................................................................................27
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2.12: Overfold............................................................................................................................27
2.13: Overthrust fold..................................................................................................................28
2.14: Normal fault......................................................................................................................29
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2.15: Reverse fault.....................................................................................................................29

2.16: Transform (Tear) faults.....................................................................................................30
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2.17: Overthrust faults...............................................................................................................30

2.18: Tor.....................................................................................................................................31
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2.19: Formation of a rift valley by tensional forces...................................................................32

2.20: Formation of a rift valley by compressional forces..........................................................32
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2.21: Dyke..................................................................................................................................34
2.22: Sill.....................................................................................................................................35
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2.23: Laccolith...........................................................................................................................35
2.24: Lopolith.............................................................................................................................35
2.25: Phacolith...........................................................................................................................35
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2.26: Batholith...........................................................................................................................36
2.27: Ash and cinder cone..........................................................................................................37
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2.28: Composite cone.................................................................................................................37

2.29: Volcanic plug....................................................................................................................37
2.30: Crater................................................................................................................................38
2.31: Caldera..............................................................................................................................38

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2.32: Acid lava cone...................................................................................................................38
2.33: Shield volcano...................................................................................................................39
2.34: Geyser...............................................................................................................................40
2.35: World map showing major volcanic zones.......................................................................41
2.36: Earthquake focus and epicentre........................................................................................43
2.37: World distribution of earthquakes.....................................................................................46
3.1: Exfoliation dome.................................................................................................................52
3.2: Block disintegration............................................................................................................53
3.3: Clint and Grikes..................................................................................................................54

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3.4: Action of plant roots in disintegration of rocks..................................................................56
3.5: Bending of trees due to soil creep.......................................................................................58
3.6: Talus creep..........................................................................................................................59

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3.7: Solifluction..........................................................................................................................59
3.8: Mudflow..............................................................................................................................59

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3.9: Earth flow............................................................................................................................60
3.10(a): Landslide......................................................................................................................60
3.10(b): Landslide......................................................................................................................60

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3.11: Rockslide...........................................................................................................................61
3.12: Rockfall ............................................................................................................................61
3.13: Avalanche..........................................................................................................................61
4.1: Sheet erosion.......................................................................................................................65
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4.2: Rill erosion..........................................................................................................................66
4.3: Gully erosion.......................................................................................................................66
4.4(a): Long profile of a river....................................................................................................68
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4.4(b): Cross section view of a long profile of a river...............................................................68

4.5: V-shaped valley...................................................................................................................69
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4.6: Interlocking spurs...............................................................................................................69

4.7: Rapids.................................................................................................................................69
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4.8: Waterfalls and plunge pool.................................................................................................70

4.9: Pot holes..............................................................................................................................70
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4.10: Meanders and bluffs..........................................................................................................72

4.11: Meander............................................................................................................................73
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4.12(a): Meander cut-off............................................................................................................73

4.12(b): Ox-bow lake.................................................................................................................73
4.13: Natural levees...................................................................................................................73
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4.14: Deferred junction and deferred stream..............................................................................74

4.15: Arcuate delta.....................................................................................................................75
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4.16: Digitate delta.....................................................................................................................75

4.17: Estuarine delta...................................................................................................................75
4.18: Cuspate delta.....................................................................................................................76
4.19: Paired terraces and incised meanders...............................................................................77

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4.20: Dendritic drainage pattern................................................................................................78
4.21: Trellis drainage pattern.....................................................................................................78
4. 22: Rectangular drainage pattern...........................................................................................78
4.23: Radial drainage pattern.....................................................................................................79
4.24: Centripetal drainage pattern..............................................................................................79
4.25: Antecedent drainage pattern..............................................................................................79
4.26: Superimposed drainage pattern.........................................................................................80
4.27: Drainage systems and patterns of a river..........................................................................80
4.28: Features formed by river capture......................................................................................81

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4.29: Aquifer..............................................................................................................................84
4.30: Surface features in limestone regions...............................................................................85
4.31: Ground features in a limestone region..............................................................................85

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4.32: Erosional glaciation features in highland..........................................................................88
4.33: Roche moutonnee.............................................................................................................89

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4.34: Crag and tail......................................................................................................................89
4.35: Moraines...........................................................................................................................90
4.36: Features of glacial deposition...........................................................................................91

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5.1: Rock pedestals....................................................................................................................96
5.2: Yardangs..............................................................................................................................96
5.3: Zeugens...............................................................................................................................97
5.4: Deflation hollow.................................................................................................................97
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5.5: Inselberg..............................................................................................................................98
5.6: Ventifacts (Dreikanter)........................................................................................................98
5.7: Barchans............................................................................................................................101
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5.8: Seif dunes..........................................................................................................................101

5.9(a): Constructive waves.......................................................................................................104
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5.9(b): Destructive waves........................................................................................................104

5.10: Cliff and wave cut platform............................................................................................105
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5.11: Cave and a ledge.............................................................................................................106

5.12: Blow hole........................................................................................................................106
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5.13: Geo..................................................................................................................................106
5.14: Stack, stump and natural arch.........................................................................................107
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5.15: Sandy beach in Zanzibar.................................................................................................108

5.16: Spit and Sand bar............................................................................................................108
5.17: Tombolo..........................................................................................................................109
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5.18: Mudflats..........................................................................................................................109
5.19: Fringing reef................................................................................................................... 111
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5.20: Barrier reef..................................................................................................................... 111

5.21: Atoll reef......................................................................................................................... 112
6.1: Soil texture triangle...........................................................................................................120
6.2: Soil profile........................................................................................................................121

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7.1: Rope..................................................................................................................................129
7.2: Measuring devices............................................................................................................130
7.3: Chain.................................................................................................................................130
7.4: Ranging poles...................................................................................................................131
7.5: Wooden pegs.....................................................................................................................131
7.6: Cross staff.........................................................................................................................131
7.7: Arrows...............................................................................................................................132
7.8: A note book, pencil and rubber.........................................................................................132
7.9 Stretches the tape towards B and C....................................................................................136

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7.10 Setting a right angle.........................................................................................................136
7.11 Making a semi-circle by using a rope..............................................................................137
7.12 Setting a right angle.........................................................................................................138

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7.13: School farm.....................................................................................................................139
7.14: School farm with measurements.....................................................................................139

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7.15: Booking sheet or page.....................................................................................................141
7.16: Overcoming a pond as an obstacle.................................................................................144
7.17: Overcoming a small river as an obstacle by congruent triangles...................................145

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7.18: Right-angled triangle......................................................................................................145
7.19: Overcoming an obstacle a forest along LT.....................................................................146
7.20: Overcoming a building as an obstacle............................................................................147
7.21: GPS machine...................................................................................................................149
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8.1: Linear scale.......................................................................................................................154
8.2: Using bearing and distance to find a place or point on a map..........................................156
8.3: Trigonometric station........................................................................................................158
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8.4: Spot height........................................................................................................................158

8.5: Layer tinting or colouring.................................................................................................159
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8.6: Shaded relief or hill shading.............................................................................................159

8.7: Hachures...........................................................................................................................160
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8.8(a): Mound 30 cm high.......................................................................................................161

8.8(b): Plan of the mound in contour.......................................................................................161
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8.9: Hill with steep and gentle slopes......................................................................................161

8.10: Valley and a spur on a hill side.......................................................................................162
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8.11: Saddle and a col..............................................................................................................162

8.12: Ridge...............................................................................................................................163
8.13: Escarpment......................................................................................................................163
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8.14: Plateau.............................................................................................................................164
8.15(a): Steep slope..................................................................................................................165
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8.15(b): Concave slope............................................................................................................165

8.15(c): Convex slope..............................................................................................................165
8.16: Gorge, V-shaped valley and cliff....................................................................................166
8.17: Levees.............................................................................................................................167

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8.18: Flood plains....................................................................................................................167
8.19: Delta................................................................................................................................167
8.20: Estuaries.........................................................................................................................168
8.21: Cliff................................................................................................................................168
8.22: Cliff, with overlapping contours.....................................................................................168
8.23: Coral fringed coastline....................................................................................................169
8.24: Two end points are marked AB.......................................................................................174
8.25: Straight edge of paper.....................................................................................................175
8.26: Framework......................................................................................................................175

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8.27: Straight edge of paper on a scale....................................................................................176
8.28: No intervisibility between A and B.................................................................................177
8.29: There is intervisibility between A and B.........................................................................177

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8.30: Contour map...................................................................................................................181
8.31: Settlement patterns..........................................................................................................185

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9.1: Horizontal photograph of Julius Nyerere International Airport Terminal 3.....................191
9.2(a): Panorama of Lake Manyara.........................................................................................191
9.2(b): Close-up photograph....................................................................................................192

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9.3(a): Angle of a low oblique photograph..............................................................................193
9.3(b): Low oblique photograph..............................................................................................193
9.4(a): Angle of a high oblique photograph.............................................................................194
9.4(b): High-angle oblique photograph of Dar es Salaam harbour..........................................194
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9.5(a): Angle of a vertical or aerial photograph.......................................................................195
9.5(b): Vertical or aerial photograph........................................................................................195
9.6: Photograph divisions for description purposes.................................................................199
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9.7: Photographs taken in the morning....................................................................................201

10.1: Coffee production from 2011 to 2015............................................................................. 211
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10.2: Crops production from 2016 to 2019..............................................................................212

10.3: Sisal production from 2003 to 2007..............................................................................214
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10.4: Cash crops production from 2011 to 2016.....................................................................216

10.5: Coffee production from 2010 to 2014............................................................................219
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10.6: Crop production from 1998 to 2000...............................................................................221

10.7: Sisal production from 2016 to 2020...............................................................................223
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10.8: Cash crops production from year 2017 to 2020..............................................................225

10. 9: Cotton purchase changes from 2010/2011 to 2013/2014..............................................227
10.10: Food crop production in 2004.......................................................................................229
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List of Tables
1.1: Simplified geological time scale .............................................................. 14
1.1: Simplified geological time scale (continues)............................................ 15
6.1: Soil particle size(s) and type(s)............................................................... 119
9.1: Differences between maps and photographs.......................................... 196
9.1: Differences between maps and photographs (continues)....................... 197
10.1: Grouped data......................................................................................... 209

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10.2: Coffee production from 2011 to 2015................................................... 211
10.3: Crops production between 2016 to 2019.............................................. 212
10.4: Sisal production from 2003 to 2007..................................................... 213

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10.5(a): Production of principal cash crops from 2011 to 2016 ................... 215

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10.5(b): Preparation of a compound ............................................................. 216
10.5(c): Cumulative showing total value of each crop................................. 216
10.6: Coffee production from 2010 to 2014.................................................. 218
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10.7: Crop production from 2018 to 2020..................................................... 220
10.8(a): Sisal production from 2016 to 2020................................................. 222
10.8(b): Sisal production from 2016 to 2020................................................. 222
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10.9(a): Cash crops production from 2017 to 2020....................................... 224
10.9(b): Cumulative table.............................................................................. 224
10.9(c): Cumulative showing total value of each crop................................. 224
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10.10: Cotton purchase changes from 2010/2011 to 2013/2014................... 226

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10.11(a): Food crop production in 2004........................................................ 228

10.11(b): Percentage of each food crop production....................................... 228
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10.12: Coffee production in ‘000 tonnes from 2011 to 2020 ........................ 231
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10.13(a): Height of people in Mahande Street............................................... 232

10.13(b): Calculation of grouped mean......................................................... 232
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10.14: Age of children admitted in Kidale Hospital...................................... 234

10.15: Weight of people in Mahande Street................................................... 236
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Acknowledgements
The Tanzania Institute of Education (TIE) would like to acknowledge the
contributions of all organisations and individuals who participated in designing
and developing this textbook. In particular, TIE wishes to thank the University of
Dar es Salaam (UDSM), the State University of Zanzibar (SUZA), the University
of Dodoma (UDOM), Dar es Salaam University College of Education (DUCE),
Mkwawa University College of Education (MUCE), National Examinations
Council of Tanzania (NECTA), school quality assurance offices, teachers colleges

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and secondary schools.

Besides, the following individuals are also acknowledged:

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Writers: Ms Beatrice Rulenguka, Ms Mariam Japhet, Ms Neema Kashindye,

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Ms Selestina Lwanga & Ms Blandina Francis (TIE)

Editors: Dr Deoscorous Ndoloi (UDSM), Dr Evaristo Haule (MUCE),

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Dr Asubisye Mwamfupe (UDSM), Dr Jackson Sawe (UDSM),
Dr Julius Mngumi (DUCE), Dr Mohamed Said (UDOM) &
Mr Anton Nzali (UDOM)
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Designer: Mr Anton Asukile

Photographer: Mr Chrisant Ignas

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Illustrators: Mr Fikiri Msimbe, Ms Rehema Maganga, Mr Godlove Kyando

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& Alama Art and Media Production Co. Ltd

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Coordinator: Ms Mariam Japhet

TIE also appreciates the secondary school teachers and students who participated
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in the trial phase of the manuscript. Likewise, the Institute would like to thank the
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology for facilitating the writing and
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printing of this textbook.

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Dr Aneth A. Komba
Director General
Tanzania Institute of Education

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Preface
This textbook, Geography for Secondary Schools is written specifically for Form
Three students in the United Republic of Tanzania. The book is prepared in
accordance with the 2005 Geography Syllabus for Secondary Education, Form
I-IV issued by the then Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MoEVT).
The book is divided into ten chapters, namely; Structure of the Earth, Forces that
affect the Earth, Weathering and mass wasting, The action of running water and
ice on the Earth’s surface, The action of wind and waves on the Earth’s surface,

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Soil, Elementary survey, Map reading and interpretation, Photograph reading and
interpretation and Application of simple statistics.
Each chapter contains illustrations, activities, and exercises. You are encouraged

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to do all activities and exercises. Doing so will enhance your understanding and
promote the development of the intended competencies.

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One Structure of the Earth

Introduction
The Earth is the third planet in the solar system after Mercury and Venus. It is

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the only planet where life exists. In this chapter you will learn about the internal
and external structure of the Earth, rocks of the earth’s crust and the geological
time scale. The competencies developed from this chapter, will enable you to

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utilize rocks and atmosphere sustainably for individual and national development.

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The concept of the structure of the Earth
The Earth’s structure is composed of two parts namely, internal structure and

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external structure. The internal structure is composed of three concentric zones
called core (barysphere), mantle (mesosphere), and crust. The external structure
consists of atmosphere and hydrosphere. The atmosphere is made up of a mixture
of gases which surround it. The gases act as an envelope around the earth. The
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hydrosphere is the water part of the earth.
Internal structure of the Earth
The internal structure of the Conrad discontinuity Mohorovicic
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earth is sometimes referred to

{ Sial discontinuity
Crust
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as the inner zone of the earth. Gutenberg

Sima discontinuity
It consists of three concentric
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layers, namely the crust,

mantle and core as shown in
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Figure 1.1. These layers are

classified on the basis of the
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density of their rock. The less

dense rocks float on the top
of the denser zones which are
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further down. The heavier

{
elements like iron and nickel
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Outer
are settled at the core of the core
Core

earth. Mantle
Inner core
Figure 1.1: Cross sectional view of the internal
structure of the Earth

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The crust Cambrian era about 200 million years
The crust is the outermost and the ago. The Gondwanaland and Laurasia
thinnest zone of all zones of the internal were separated by a long narrow sea
structure of the earth. The crust has a called Tethys. The two masses continued
thickness of about 8 kilometres to 50 breaking into the continents that exist
kilometres and an average density of today. Scientists call this movement
2.7 gm/cc. It consists of two sub-layers “continental drift”.
laying over one another, namely the The mantle
SIAL and SIMA. SIAL is the continental The mantle is also referred to as

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part of the crust which is composed of mesosphere. It lies between the core
granite rocks. The rocks are composed of and the crust. It is made of very dense
silica and alminium (SIAL). The SIMA igneous rocks of iron, silicon, oxygen,

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is the layer beneath the SIAL. It is made aluminum and magnesium. It extends
up of basaltic rocks rich in silica and downwards to about 2 900 kilometres. It

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magnesium. This layer makes up the consists of rocks with a density of about
ocean floor. The SIMA and SIAL are 3.0 gm/cc to 3.4 gm/cc. The mantle is
separated by a layer known as Conrad divided into two parts: upper mantle
discontinuity.
The structure of the Earth’s crust is on
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and lower mantle. The upper mantle
combines with the crust to form a larger
continuous changes caused by internal layer called lithosphere. The top thin
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and external forces operating on and portion of the upper mantle below the
within it. Continental drift theory states crust is in a semi-molten state which
that before the formation of the present forms a layer known as asthenosphere.
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continents, the earth was one SIALIC The remaining part of the mantle is rigid.
land mass called Pangaea. The super The convection currents generated in the
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continent, Pangaea, was surrounded by lower mantle due to high temperature,

a SIMA-floored ocean called Panthalasa. trigger various internal movements. A
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Pangaea, which covered one-third of the layer separating the mantle from the
surface, existed millions of years ago. crust is called Mohorovicic discontinuity.
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Studies show that the super continent The core

(Pangaea) began to develop over 300 The core is the inner most part of the
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million years ago and became fully earth. It is also called barysphere. It
formed about 270 million years ago. consists of nickel and iron. The core
Pangaea started to break up into the is under great pressure and heat with
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present continents around 200 million average density of about 10.5 gm/cc. The
years ago.
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core is divided into two parts, namely

Pangaea began to break up into outer and inner cores. It is demarcated
Gondwanaland in the South and from the mantle by a layer called
Laurasia in the North during the late pre- Gutenberg discontinuity.

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The outer core border is about 3 700ºC.
The outer core is about 2 300 kilometres The inner core
thick. It is made up of very hot molten The inner core is solid due to great
rock materials that are composed of pressure exerted by other layers towards
mainly iron and nickel. The density and the centre. It has a temperature of about
temperature constantly increase along 5 500ºC and a density of about 16 - 17
the border between mantle and core and gm/cc. The inner core has a diameter of
that the outer core is in liquid-like state. about 2 600 - 2 700 kms.
The temperature in the rock along the

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Activity 1.1

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1. Visit your school library and find physical geography books, or use
Internet sources to search and read on the internal structure of the

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earth. Then;
(a) write down the information you have obtained about the internal
structure of the earth.
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(b) share and discuss with your fellow students information about the
internal structure of the earth.
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2. Use the knowledge you have developed and in groups of 5 students,
take a boiled egg then cut it into two halves without peeling its outer
layer and then, do the following questions:
E

(a) identify the layers.

(b) compare the three layers of the boiled egg with the crust, mantle and
N

the core.
LI

(c) draw a diagram of the internal structure of the earth and locate the
following: crust, mantle and core.
N

Exercise 1.1
O

Answer all questions.

1. With the aid of a well labeled diagram explain the internal structure
R

of the earth.
2. Explain why the outer core is in a molten state while the inner core
FO

is in a solid state?
3. Name the layer which separates:
(a) Mantle from crust
(b) Core from mantle

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The external structure of the Earth plants, animals and micro organisms
The external structure of the Earth like bacteria.
is composed of atmosphere and The Earth’s atmosphere
hydrosphere. The atmosphere is a The Earth’s atmosphere refers to the
mixture of gases which forms an thin layer of gases held by gravitational
envelope-like cover which surrounds force around the Earth. These gases in
the earth. The hydrosphere is the water percentage volume include nitrogen
masses part of the external structure of 78.09%, oxygen 20.95%, carbon dioxide
the earth. It forms a region that includes 0.03%, argon and water vapour, which all

LY
all the earth’s water bodies, frozen and together occupy 0.93%. The atmosphere
floating ice, water in the upper layer of is divided into different layers based
the soil, and the small amounts of water on temperature change with altitude.

N
vapour in the earth’s atmosphere. The The layers are troposphere, stratosphere,
external part of the earth also includes mesosphere, and thermosphere (Figure

O
the biosphere which is composed of all 1.2).
living organisms like human beings,

SE heigh
t
e with
ang
U
ch
erature
p
Tem
Thermosphere
E

Mesopause
N
Height (Km)

Mesosphere
LI

Stratopause
N
O

Stratosphere

Tropopause
R

Troposphere
FO

Temperature (ºC)

Figure 1.2: Layers of the Earth’s atmosphere

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The troposphere reaches the Earth’s surface. The layer
This is the lower part which makes which separates the stratosphere from
the first layer of the atmosphere which the mesosphere is called stratopause.
contains about 75% of all air masses. The mesosphere
It has a height that ranges from 0 to 10 This is a thin layer which is above the
kilometres from the earth’s surface. This stratosphere. Its height is estimated to
is the layer that supports life to humans be between 50 and 85 kilometres from
and other living organism. Elements the earth’s surface. It is the coldest layer
of weather occur in this part and it has of the atmosphere because temperature

LY
enough water vapour for cloud formation. decreases rapidly to -90ºC as the altitude
In this layer, temperature decreases by increase due to absence of water vapour,
0.6ºC at every 100 meters increase in clouds and dust that could absorb solar

N
height (altitude). The troposphere is radiation. Also temperature decreases
separated from the stratosphere by a because the layer experiences strongest

O
thin shield zone called tropopause. winds (nearly 3 000 km/hr). In this layer,
The stratosphere meteors burn up due to the friction of
This is the second layer of the atmosphere gases before they reach the earth’s surface.
SE
which is above the troposphere. It It is separated from the thermosphere by
extends between 10 to 50 kilometres a layer called mesopause.
from the earth’s surface. Airplanes fly in The thermosphere
U
the lower part of this layer. Within this This is the highest atmospheric layer
layer there is a thin layer called ozone where temperature increases to 1 500ºC
(O3) which is responsible for absorbing due to absorption of ultraviolet and x-rays
E

ultraviolet rays from the Sun. In the radiations by atoms and molecules. It
stratosphere, temperature increases as is estimated to have a height ranging
N

height increases. This is because of the between 85 and 1 000 kilometres from the
ultraviolet radiation absorbed by the earth’s surface. In this layer, radio waves
LI

ozone layer. The ultraviolet radiation are reflected, so it is very important for
can be harmful to living organisms if it communication.
N
O

Activity 1.2

In a group, do the following:

R

(a) use the Internet, reference books and text books to read about the
FO

external structure of the earth.

(b) draw a diagram to show layers of the atmosphere, then describe the
characteristics of each layer.

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(c) with assistance of your subject teacher, present your work in class
and allow your fellow students to discuss what you have presented.
(d) take note of all important contributions they give.

Exercise 1.2

Answer the following questions.

Match each item in Column A with its correct description from Column B.

LY
Column A Column B
1. The layer with high temperature (a) the atmosphere

N
due to radiation (b) troposphere
2. It is the air mass surrounding the
(c) lithosphere

O
earth’s surface
(d) thermosphere
3. The layer where airplanes fly
(e) asthenosphere
4. The sphere where human
activities are performed and rain
formation takes place
SE (f) mesosphere
(g) stratosphere
5. The cold layer due to decrease
U
in temperature as the altitude
increases
E

6. Explain why temperature in the stratosphere increases with the

increase in height, while the mesosphere experiences a decrease in
N

temperature as height increases.

LI

7. What is the importance of troposphere for the living organisms and

human development?
N

Rocks of the Earth’s crust formation, namely; igneous, sedimentary

O

Rocks are natural solid materials made and metamorphic rocks.

up of various minerals in different ratios. Igneous rocks
Rocks differ in colour, texture, density, The term ‘igneous’ comes from the
R

mode of formation and ability to resist Latin word “ignis” which means fire.
erosion. They differ also in chemical These are rocks formed by the process
FO

composition, age, permeability and of cooling and solidification of molten

hardness. There are three main types materials (magma or lava). Igneous rocks
of rocks on the basis of their mode of are associated with volcanic activity and

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their distribution is controlled by plate flows through vents or cracks then cools
tectonics. The molten materials can be very slowly and solidifies before reaching
derived from partial melting of pre- the earth’s surface. The slow cooling
existing rocks which can be caused by process of magma within the earth’s
one or more of the following processes: crust forms a large crystal. Examples
increase in temperature, decrease in of such rocks are granite, gabbros and
pressure and change in composition. diorite. The intrusive rocks are divided in
Magma cools and solidifies within the two types, namely hypabyssal intrusive
crust while lava cools and solidifies on igneous rocks and plutonic igneous

LY
the earth’s crust. Igneous rocks formed rocks.
when solidification takes place within
the earth’s crust are called intrusive Hypabyssal intrusive igneous rocks

N
igneous rocks or plutonic rocks and These are types of igneous rocks formed
those which cool and solidify outside when magma cools and solidifies within

O
the earth’s surface are called extrusive but near the earth’s surface. These rocks
igneous rocks or volcanic rocks. can be exposed by prolonged erosion on
the earth’s surface. They are medium
Intrusive igneous rocks
These are rocks formed when magma
SE
in size including rocks like granophyre
(Figure 1.3), polyphones and dolerite.
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 1.3: Granophyre

Source: https://www.akindjourney.com/read/big-rocks

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Plutonic intrusive igneous rocks Extrusive igneous rocks
These are rocks formed when magma These are rocks formed on the surface of
cools and solidifies deep in the earth’s the earth. They are formed when magma
crust. The rock has large particles due erupts and reaches the earth’s surface as
to slow rate of cooling. Examples of lava or fragmental ejecta then cools and
these rocks are granite, diorite, gabbro solidifies relatively quickly. Examples
and peridotite (Figure 1.4). of these rocks are basalt, pumice and
rhyolite. In Tanzania, basalt, pumice and
rhyolite are found in Kilimanjaro and

LY
Rungwe.
Characteristics of igneous rocks
(a) They are hard rocks;

N
(b) They are crystalline as they do not
occur in layers;

O
(c) They do not contain fossils;
Gabbro (d) They can undergo metamorphism
to form metamorphic rock or
SE
weathered to form sedimentary
rocks; and
(e) They contain minerals like iron
U
and magnesium.
Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are found in strata.
E

These rocks are formed by the deposition

of eroded materials transported by moving
N

Granite water, wind, ice, ocean currents, waves

and drifts. They are a result of continued
LI

weathering and erosion, transportation,

deposition and lithification (compaction
N

and cementation) of sediments. Most

sedimentary rocks are in horizontal
O

layers called strata (Figure 1.5). The

strata are separated from each other by
R

a surface known as a bedding plane.

Diorite
They exist in various views as shown
FO

in Figure 1.6. Sedimentary rocks are not

Figure 1.4: Examples of plutonic crystalline. They often contain fossils of
intrusive igneous rocks dead living things collected by winds,
Source: https://www.google.comsearch?q=igneous+rocks+pdf&rlz water, ice, ocean currents and drifts.

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LY
N
Figure 1.5: Sedimentary rocks

O
Source: http://pages.geo.wvu.edu/~kammer/g100/SedimentaryRocks.pdf

SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O

Figure 1.6: Different views of sedimentary rocks

Source: https://www.sandatlas.org/collage-of-sedimentary-rocks/

There are three types of sedimentary Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks

R

rocks according to their mode of Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks

formation. These are mechanically are formed by deposition of sediments
FO

formed sedimentary rocks, organically from eroded materials of existing rocks.

formed sedimentary rocks and chemically Examples of mechanically formed
formed sedimentary rocks. sedimentary rocks are sandstone,

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mudstone, shale, and boulder clays. manufacturing as well as in building
The alluviums are deposited by water, material industries.
moraines, boulder clays are deposited by Characteristics of sedimentary rocks
ice and loess is deposited by wind. These (a) They are stratified;
types of rocks have different economic (b) They contain fossils;
uses. For example, sandstones are used (c) They can undergo metamorphism
in making building blocks. to form metamorphic rocks;
Organically formed sedimentary rocks (d) They are soft and well-jointed; and
These are rocks formed from deposition (e) They are non-crystalline.

LY
of plants and animals remains. Examples
Metamorphic rocks
of such rocks are limestone, chalk and
When igneous and sedimentary rocks
coral from animals and peat; and coal

N
are subjected to great heat and pressure,
and lignite from plants. These rocks have
they change their physical and chemical
various uses. For example, chalk is used

O
properties and form new types of rocks
in cement and paint factories while coal
called metamorphic rocks. The word
is a source of energy for industrial and
“metamorphic” is derived from two
domestic uses.
SE
Greek words ‘meta’ and ‘morph’. Meta
Chemically formed sedimentary rocks means change and morph means form.
Chemically formed sedimentary rocks So, metamorphic means to change form.
are formed by deposition of solid Examples of metamorphic rocks include
U
substances from solution, for example marble, which is derived from limestone,
rock salt, gypsum dolomite, potash and slate derived from clay, graphite from
nitrate gypsum. They also form part of coal, quartz from sandstone and gneiss
E

the ingredients in inorganic fertilizer from granite (Figure 1.7).

N
LI
N

Quartzite Slate
O
R
FO

Phyllite Marble
Figure 1.7: Examples of metamorphic rocks
Source:https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-geology/chapter/outcome-metamorphic-rocks/

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Types of metamorphic rocks types of rocks through melting,
There are three main types of weathering and deposition.
metamorphic rocks based on their mode
of formation. These are defined below: A rock cycle
Thermal metamorphic rocks A rock cycle is the process where a rock
These are formed by intense heat. changes from one type of rock to another
Formation of these types of rocks (Figure 1.8). This process is endless as no
occurs when the existing rocks come rock can remain unchanged forever. For

LY
into contact with magma or lava. These example, an igneous rock can change to
rocks change their form and character. a sedimentary rock or to a metamorphic
Examples are limestone to marble and rock and then back to an igneous rock. At

N
sandstone to quartzite. first, the igneous rock may be formed due
Dynamic metamorphic rocks to cooling and solidification of magma

O
These are formed by the influence of or lava. Then the igneous rock can be
pressure exerted by the earth’s horizontal attacked by agents of weathering to form
and vertical movements which also cause sediments which through deposition and

to schist and clay to slate.

SE
mountain formation. Examples are shale compaction a sedimentary rock will be
formed.

Thermal-dynamic metamorphic rocks Also, an igneous rock or sedimentary

U
These rocks are formed by the process rock can undergo metamorphism due
that takes place as a result of the to the influence of either pressure
combination of intensive temperature or temperature or both to form a
metamorphic rock. A metamorphic
E

and pressure. An example is when coal

changes to graphite. rock can also undergo weathering and
N

sedimentation to form a sedimentary

Characteristics of metamorphic rocks rock. Likewise, a metamorphic rock
LI

(a) They are hard compared to all other can undergo further metamorphism to
types of rocks; form another metamorphic rock like the
N

(b) These rocks are sometimes found change of slate to schist.

in strata, but in a crystalline form; Lastly, when any rock that is either
O

(c) They are formed from other types sedimentary or metamorphic is subjected
of rocks due to the influence of under very high temperature, it can melt
intense heat and pressure; and on cooling form an igneous rock.
R

(d) The rocks can change into other

FO

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compaction and
cementation

weathering
and erosion
Sediments Sedimentary rock

weathering and weathering and heat and pressure

LY
erosion erosion

N
heat and pressure

O
Igneous rock melting Metamorphic rock
melting
cooling

Magma
SE
U
Figure 1.8: Rock cycle
E

Activity 1.3
N

1. Visit a nearby area that has different types of rocks, then:

LI

(a) identify types and characteristics of rocks found in the area.

(b) elaborate how each of the identified rock is formed.
N

2. Visit your school library, and find physical geography books or use
O

Internet sources to:

(a) read and write how one type of rock can change into another type.
R

(b) present your work in the class with an assistance of your subject
teacher, and accommodate all inputs or respond to questions asked
FO

by students about your presentation.

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Exercise 1.3

Answer all questions.

1. Distinguish a metamorphic rock from an igneous rock.
2. Elaborate the steps for the formation of sedimentary rocks.
3. With examples, describe types of sedimentary rocks.
4. Mention the conditions necessary for the formation of metamorphic

LY
rocks.
5. With the aid of well labeled diagrams and examples, elaborate how:

N
(a) sedimentary rocks can change into metamorphic rocks.
(b) igneous rocks can change into sedimentary rocks.

O
(c) metamorphic rocks can change into igneous rocks.
6. Distinguish between volcanic rocks and plutonic rocks.

Simplified geological time scale

SE
into eras, periods and years. Table 1.1
shows a simplified geological time scale
U
Different types of rocks of the earth’s
crust did not form at the same time. divided into the following four main
Moreover, they are not a result of a eras.
single geologic event. They are a result (a) The ancient or Pre-Cambrian era
E

of different geologic processes which (b) The Paleozoic era

N

took place at different geologic periods (c) The middle or Mesozoic era
in the history of the earth. In determining (d) The recent or Cenozoic era
LI

the type of a rock according to its age, a

The eras are further subdivided into
geological time scale is used.
periods and years, each reflecting the
N

A geological time scale is a chart used for major geological events, which occurred
dating the history of the earth, including as well as the history of the evolution of
O

its rocks. It attempts to show the age of mankind and other mammals. The time
rocks as far back as 600 million years before the Paleozoic era is referred to
before the present. The scale is divided
R

as the Proterozoic or Precambrian era.

FO

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Table 1.1: Simplified geological time scale
Era Period Years in Major geological Major
millions events in Africa biological
before events
present
Cenozoic Quaternary 1 Glaciation of East Age of man
Africa mountains,
formation of river

LY
terraces and raised
beaches
Tertiary 163 Formation of the Age of
Atlas Mountains

N
mammals
Lava flows in

O
Ethiopia
Mesozoic Cretaceous 63 Deposition of Age of man
marine sediments
SE
in Sahara and
Southern Nigeria
Formation of
U
Enugu coal field
Jurassic 135 Break-up of Age of man
Gondwana land
E

Marine invasion of
east Africa coast,
N

land separation
Triassic 180 Drakensberg lavas, Age of large
LI

formation of upper animals

Karroo, volcanic (Dinosaurs)
activity in West
N

Africa
O

Paleozoic Permian 230 Formation of Age of

lower Karroo beds, amphibia
formation of rich
R

coal deposits in
Tanzania and South
FO

Africa, ice age in

Central and South
Africa

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Table 1.1: Simplified geological time scale (continues)
Era Period Years in Major geological Major
millions events in Africa biological
before events
present
Carboniferous 280 Cape fold formed Age of insect
and large
trees

LY
Devonian 345 Marine invasion of Age of fish
Libya, the Sahara
and Western Sudan.
Continental basins

N
formed by crustal
warping

O
Silurian 405 Continental First and
sedimentation plant animals

SE
in Congo Basin,
Tanzania and South
Africa, followed by
intensive folding
U
Ordovician 500 Marine invasion of First
western Sahara and abundant
Kalahari fossils record
of marine life
E

Pre- Protorozoic or 6000 to Glaciations of Algae

Cambrian Archean 500 Africa south of the
N

Equator. Extensive
metamorphism
LI

of oldest known
fossil, unicellular
N

algae formed
in Swaziland
O

(eSwatini) and Mali

Importance of the geological time scale how different features were formed and
R

The geological time scale reflects the it enables prediction of crustal changes
ages of rocks by showing the time of their over time by observing the evolvement
FO

formation. It also helps in understanding of old and young rocks.

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Activity 1.4
In a group, discuss geological events which occurred in East Africa during:
(a) Jurassic period
(b) Permian period
(c) Silurian period

LY
Exercise 1.4
Answer all questions
1. With examples, discuss the major eras of the geological time scale

N
2. Why is the geological time scale important in the study of rocks
development?

O
Economic importance of rocks for various purposes. For example,
Rocks contain various valuable minerals
which occur in the veins of igneous
SE
Dodoma and Singida regions have a lot
of underground water due to the type of
rocks. These minerals include gold, underlying rocks. Also, rocks account for
U
copper, iron, diamond and tin. Some of the formation of soils of different types
these minerals are found in Tanzania. as a result of weathering. Rocks are also
For example, gold is found in the Lake used in building and construction works,
while some of the rocks, for example
E

Zone, diamond in Shinyanga and copper

in Kigoma and Mpanda. Tanzanite marble, are used in decorating buildings.
N

is another type of mineral found in Other rocks are used as a source of

igneous rocks in Mererani, Manyara tourist attraction, for example Bismak
LI

region. Tanzania is the only country in rocks in Mwanza. Some rocks are used
the world in which Tanzanite is found. in the manufacturing of chemicals and
N

The impermeability of some rocks are cement, for example potassium, gypsum
beneficial in retaining underground water and limestone.
O

which can be harvested and utilized

R
FO

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Revision exercise 1
Section A
Choose the correct answer.
1. Rocks rich in silica and aluminium form a layer of the earth’s crust
called _____.
(a) sima
(b) sial
(c) mantle

LY
(d) core
2. The envelope of air surrounding the earth’s surface is called ______.
(a) lithosphere

N
(b) atmosphere

O
(c) biosphere
(d) hydrosphere
3. Continents and their respective mountains are formed on the _____.
(a) sial
(b) mantle
SE
(c) mohorovicic
U
(d) magma
4. The core is rich in _____.
(a) silica and sima
E

(b) iron and nickel

(c) alminium and oxygen
N

(d) silica and magnesium

LI

5. Igneous rocks are_____.

(a) crystalline
(b) not very hard
N

(c) formed in layers

(d) metamorphic
O

6. The outer layer of the internal structure of the earth is called ______.
(a) the mantle
R

(b) the crust

(c) the hydrosphere
FO

(d) the atmosphere

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7. The action of high temperature and great pressure on some rocks
can change their physical and chemical properties to form _____.
(a) plutonic rocks
(b) metamorphic rocks
(c) granite rocks
(d) hypabyssal rocks
8. Organically formed sedimentary rocks occur _____.
(a) from animal and plant remains

LY
(b) when other rocks undergo chemical precipitation
(c) by heat and pressure
(d) by sediments from eroded rock materials of the existing rocks

N
Section B

O
Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect
statement.
9. SE
All rocks can change into metamorphic rocks if subjected to high
temperatures and pressure for a long period of time.
10. The Geological Time Scale describes how rocks were formed.
U
11. Agents of erosion play an important role in the formation of
sedimentary rocks.
12. Limestone and chalks are sedimentary rocks formed mechanically.
E

13. Rocks are the parent materials from which different types of soils
N

are formed.
LI

14. Metamorphic rocks are not as hard as igneous rocks.

15. All rocks contain economically valuable minerals.
N

Section C
O

Answer the following questions:

16. Describe the internal layers of the earth from the centre to the surface.
R

17. Describe three types of rocks according to their mode of formation.

FO

18. Explain why an igneous rock is referred to as the mother rock?

19. What is the economic importance of rocks?

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20. Why are metamorphic rocks often very hard and resistant to
weathering?
21. Describe the rock cycle.
22. What is the importance of geological time scale in learning about
rocks formation?
23. Using the geological time scale, complete the table below.
Events Period

LY
A. Formation of upper Karroo …………………..
B. …………………… Tertiary
C. Glaciation of East African mountains …………………….

N
D. ……………………... Cambrian
E. Formation of Atlas Mountains …………………......

O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter DO NOT DUPLICATE

Two Forces that affect

the Earth
Introduction

LY
The earth’s surface is undergoing continuous morphological changes. The changes
are a result of both internal and external forces. In this chapter you will learn

N
about internal forces and how these forces are generated and distributed within
the earth’s crust. You will also learn on the effects of those forces and features

O
formed within or on the earth’s crust. The competencies developed in this chapter
will enable you to utilize resources resulting from geological processes. The

SE
competencies will also enable you to interpret different geographical phenomena
that occur in your surroundings, hence help you to anticipate, mitigate and recover
from the effects resulting from the impacts of hazardous conditions.
U
Internal forces towards each other as well as upward
and downward the earth’s crust. The
Internal forces originate and operate
E

forces working from inside the Earth,

within the earth’s crust. They are also
in turn, cause movements of rocks.
called endogenic forces. These forces
N

These movements are called Earth

are the result of energy produced by
movements, and the forces which
internal heat, chemical reactions taking
LI

produce these structural features are

place within the earth, and the transfer
known as diastrophic forces. The Earth
of rock materials to the earth’s surface.
N

movements bring enormous changes

Internal forces which shape the earth’s
on the earth’s surface. Since these
surface begin underneath the lithosphere
O

movements arise from the movements

and cause vertical and horizontal earth
of the actual structure of the earth’s
movements.
crust, they are also called tectonic
R

Internal Earth’s movements movements. The word tectonic is derived

These are movements of the solid parts from a Greek word, tekton which means
FO

of the Earth away from one another, builders. Therefore, the earth movements

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are constructional forces responsible
for building of different types of land
forms such as fracture, bends, subsidence
or warping the earth’s crust to create
different features such as depressions
and mountains.
There are two types of earth movements, Tensional force
namely vertical or radial movements and Figure 2.2: Tensional forces
horizontal or lateral movements. The

LY
two movements exert great tensional (a) Vertical movements
and compressional forces which become These are either upward or downward
a basis for analysing the resulting movements occurring within the

N
landforms. earth’s crust. Vertical movements are
also known as radial movements. They

O
Compressional and tensional forces are also referred to as epeirogenic
Compressional forces are those which movements because they are usually on
cause crustal rocks to move towards a large scale. Vertical movements cause
each other. On the other hand, tensional
forces are forces that pull crustal rocks in
SE
uplift or subsidence of wide-ranging
areas of the crust. They are responsible
the opposite direction causing the rocks for the formation of extensive features
U
to move apart and rocks between faults of the landscape like plateaus, basins,
to subside. While compressional forces block mountains (horsts), rift valleys
produce reverse faults and folding, and some types of escarpment called
tensional forces produce normal faults fault line scarps. Vertical movements
E

(Figures 2.1 and 2.2). These forces may also result to emerged or submerged
N

result to the movements that lead to coasts. The following section describes
the formation of different features as in detail features resulting from vertical
LI

explained in the sections that follow. movements.

Block mountain
N

A block mountain refers to a table-like

mountain formed as a result of vertical
O

movements of the blocks of the crust that

lead to rising of a fault-bordered block.
Uplifted blocks may either be tilted when
R

they form tilt blocks or horizontal when

they form horsts. A block mountain
FO

Compressional force can be formed by either tensional or

Figure 2.1: Compressional forces compressional forces. This is when the
earth movements cause parallel faults

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which result into uplifting of some parts East Africa and Brazil plateaus. High
as shown in Figure 2.3. Examples of plateaus especially in tropical latitudes
block mountains are Usambara, Pare are utilized in various ways including
and Uluguru in Tanzania, Ruwenzori in agriculture and settlements.
Uganda, Sinai in Asia and Vosges and Basin
Black Forest in Europe. A basin is a large, extensive depression
formed by the sinking or downwarping
of the earth’s surface. Examples of basins
formed in this way are Lake Victoria

LY
basin in Tanzania, Lake Chad basin
Compressional forces in central Africa and Amazon basin in
South America. Some basins are formed

N
by river deposition like the Congo Basin
in the Democratic Republic of Congo.

O
Submerged and emerged coasts
Fault developed When coastal areas are subjected to

Block mountain
SE
vertical earth’s movements, changes in
land and sea levels may occur resulting
into either submerged or emerged
coasts. Features produced through
U
coast submergence include ria coasts,
fiord coasts, Dalmatian coastline and
estuaries. Coasts that emerge produce
E

features such as raised beaches.

N

A ria coast
Figure 2.3: Formation of block mountains When a highland coast is submerged, the
LI

lower parts of its river valley become

Plateau flooded to form long narrow branching
N

A plateau is a large, extensive uplifted inlets separated by narrow headlands.

part of the earth’s crust, which is almost Such inlets are called rias as shown
O

flat at the top. The formation of plateaus, in Figure 2.4. Examples of ria coasts
dates back to Mesozoic and Jurassic are found on the coast of Sierra Leone,
eras. Such landforms include those of Guinea and Guinea Bissau.
R
FO

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Ria coast

LY
N
O
Figure 2.4: Ria coast
Dalmatian coast
When a highland coast whose valleys are parallel to the coast is submerged, some
SE
of the valleys are flooded and the separating mountain ranges become chains of
islands. The flooded valleys are sometimes called narrow inlets and the coast is
known as a longitudinal or dalmatian coast (Figure 2.5). Examples of dalmatian
U
coastlines are found in Croatia.
Dalmatian coast
E
N
LI
N
O
R

Figure 2.5: Dalmatian coast

Estuaries
FO

A rise of the sea level along a lowland coast causes the sea to penetrate inland along
river valleys, often to a considerable distance. The flooded parts of the valleys are
called estuaries as shown in Figure 2.6. The estuaries often make excellent sites
for ports. An example of an estuary in Africa is the Gabon Estuary in West Africa.

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River

deposited mud

Land Sea

LY
N
O
Figure 2.6: Estuaries

A fiord coast
When a glaciated highland coast becomes submerged, the flooded lower parts of
SE
the valleys get filled with sea water, and the resulting features are called fiords
as shown in Figure 2.7. During glaciation, the river valleys become widened and
deepened. When the glaciers melt and the sea level rises, the steep-sided valleys
U
are exposed. The water inside the fiord is much deeper than it is at the entrance.
In other words, a fiord is a feature formed when the lower end of the U-shaped
valley is occupied by the sea.
E

Very deep inlet into

mountainous terrain
Steep side
N

Water from the ocean

LI
N
O
R
FO

U-shaped valley

Figure 2.7: Fiords coast

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Raised beaches
Raised beaches are also a result of faulting and vertical earth movements. They
are beaches which have been exposed after the coast was forced to rise due to
uplift. Raised beaches are common in African coast, for example, Bagamoyo area
in Tanzania, Accra area in Ghana and Mossel Bay in South Africa.

Activity 2.1

In a group, take a plastic bucket and cover it with its plastic lid then

LY
do the following;
(a) put a heavy stone on it
(b) press the stone towards the plastic lid

N
(c) observe the results and write down what happened
(d) from the results, in groups, discuss the vertical movement of the

O
earth’s crust and its effects.

Exercise 2.1
Answer all questions.
SE
1. The Earth’s surface is undergoing continuous morphological changes.
U
Explain.
2. A block mountain is a result of both vertical and horizontal movements.
Explain.
E

(b) Horizontal movements

N

These are sideways movements of the earth’s interior that cause the crustal rocks
either to fold, fault or form joints. Horizontal movements are also known as
LI

lateral movements. These movements are a result of compressional or tensional

forces. These forces cause folding and faulting which may later cause formation of
N

different features. Features formed by lateral movements include fold mountains,

rift valleys, faults and block mountains.
O

Folding
This refers to the bending of the earth’s crust caused by compressional forces.
R

The folds are formed when the crustal rock is subjected to both weak and intense
compressional forces. As a result, upfolds (anticlines) and downfolds (synclines)
FO

emerge as shown in Figure 2.8. The sides of the fold are called limbs. The nature
of the fold depends on the intensity of the forces involved.

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Limbs Anticline

Syncline

LY
Figure 2.8: Anticline and Syncline
The continuous process of folding results into a series of complex and extensive

N
anticlines and synclines on the earth’s crustal rocks, thus forming a range of
mountains called fold mountains as shown in Figure 2.9. Most of the highest

O
mountain ranges in the world fall under the category of fold mountains. Examples
of fold mountains include the Andes in Latin America, the Rockies in North
America, the Himalayas in Asia and the Alps in Europe. In Africa, Atlas and the
SE
Drakensberg mountains are vivid examples of fold mountains.
Fold mountains
U
Compressional force Compressional force
E
N
LI

Figure 2.9: Fold mountain

Types of folds
N

Folding which is the result of a compressional process may cause the formation
of different types of folds, namely; simple folds, asymmetrical folds, overfolds
O

and overthrust folds.

Simple fold
R

This is a type of fold in which the limbs incline in the same angle as shown in
Figure 2.10. It occurs when forces on both sides are of equal strength. When the
FO

angles of anticline and syncline are almost equal, the fold is referred to as simple
fold. It is also known as symmetrical fold. This means that the slopes on both
sides of the fold (anticline or syncline) are almost uniform.

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Compressional force Compressional force

Figure 2.10: Simple/Symmetrical fold

LY
Asymmetrical fold
This is a type of fold in which one side of the limb is steeper than the other side.
This occurs when one side is subjected to greater force than the other side. The

N
side subjected to greater force becomes steeper than the other (Figure 2.11).

O
Compressional force

SE Compressional force
U
E

Figure 2.11: Asymmetrical fold

Overfold
N

This type of fold is also called recumbent fold. It is a type of folding in which one
anticline limb is pushed over the other due to intensive folding movements by
LI

compressional forces on one side, as shown in Figure 2.12. Overfold or recumbent

folding happens when a high compressional force is exerted on an asymmetrical fold.
N
O

Compressional force

Compressional force
R
FO

Figure 2.12: Overfold

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Overthrust fold
This is a fold formed when one limb is pushed further over another limb due to
compressional forces (Figure 2.13). It is a type of fold which occurs when there
is great pressure on an overfold, enough for the rocks to fracture and a mass to
thrust forward several kilometres along the plane of the fracture.

Compressional force

Compressional force

LY
N
O
Fault
Figure 2.13: Overthrust fold
Faulting
SE
A fault is a fracture or rupture on the crustal rock which causes the displacement
of its sides relative to each other. It is normally caused by lateral forces of either
compressional or tensional forces accompanied by vertical movements. Tensional
U
forces cause normal faults while compressional forces cause reverse faults. Features
produced through faulting include rift valleys and block mountains (horsts).
Types of faults
E

Faults are normally formed due to lateral or vertical movements. The forces
which are responsible for the formation of faults can be either compressional or
N

tensional. There are five types of faults, namely; normal, reverse, tear, overthrust
and monocline as described below:
LI

Normal fault
This is a type of fault resulting from tensional forces. It occurs when the inclination
N

of the fault-plane and the direction of the down-throw are on the left or to the
O

right, as shown in Figure 2.14.

R
FO

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Tensional forces

LY
N
Fault

O
Figure 2.14: Normal fault
Reverse fault
SE
This is a type of fault which results from compressional forces. It occurs when
the beds of rocks on one side of the fault plane are thrust over the other side as
shown in Figure 2.15.
U
Compressional forces
E
N
LI
N
O

Fault
Figure 2.15: Reverse fault
R

Transform fault
FO

Transform fault is also called a strike or tear fault. It usually leads to the occurrence
of earthquakes. It is a vertical fracture produced when two rock blocks slide against
one another resulting into horizontal displacement along the line of the fault, as
shown in Figure 2.16.

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Tensional forces
Fault

LY
Figure 2.16: Transform (Tear) faults

N
Overthrust fault

O
This is a fault within the overthrust fold along which one limb slides over the
other limb due to intensive compressional forces, as it is shown in Figure 2.17.

SE
Compressional forces
U
Overthrust fault
E
N
LI
N
O

Compressional forces

Figure 2.17: Overthrust faults

R

Monocline fault
FO

This fault involves a tensional fracture in which the strata are bent. It is closely
related to the normal fault but the normal fault has horizontal strata. A monocline
is closely related to a normal fault and may turn into one at depth or further along
the line of movement.

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Joints
All rocks develop joints. Joints are small cracks revealing lines of weaknesses.
Joints are caused by tensional stresses set up by bending or folding in sedimentary
rocks. Joints differ from faults in the sense that faulting takes place across several
layers of the crust accompanied by displacement, whereas joints occur in a single
layer or rock usually not accompanied by displacement. However, on the earth’s
surface, an igneous rock can develop joints due to continued expansion and
contraction. Joints greatly increase the available surface for weathering. Important
features resulting from jointing are called tors. Tors are hill-like structures, as

LY
shown in Figure 2.18.

N
O
SE
U
Figure 2.18: Tor
E

Rift valley
N

A rift valley is a narrow trough laying down between parallel faults, with throws
in opposite directions forming a long steep-sided valley. Such a valley is long
LI

proportional to its width. It is formed from both vertical and lateral movements
of the earth’s crust when two faults develop parallel to each other. It can develop
N

either by tensional or compressional forces.

O

Formation of a rift valley by tensional forces

A rift valley is formed when tensional forces pull the two sides of parallel faults
apart, leaving the centre to subside. The act of extreme tensional forces, breaks
R

up rocks along the stratum leading to the formation of cracks and fractures on the
earth’s crust. A block between the two parallel faults subsides to form a valley
FO

(Figure 2.19).

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up above the general level of the ground
to form a rift valley as shown in Figure
2.20. Examples of rift valleys are the
East African Rift Valley, the Jordan Rift
Tensional forces valley in Asia and the Rhine Rift Valley
in Europe.
Normal faults

LY
Compressional forces

N
Faults developed

O
Rift valley

Faults developed

SE Rift valley
U
E

Figure 2.19: Formation of a rift valley by

tensional forces
N

Figure 2.20: Formation of a rift valley by

Formation of a rift valley by
compressional forces
LI

compressional forces
The valley is formed in such a way that A rift valley may form a lake when filled
N

the masses on either side of the faults with water. Examples of rift valley lakes
thrust up higher than the central block include Tanganyika, Nyasa, Rukwa,
O

which is forced down between the two to Magadi, Baringo, Naivasha, Eyas,
form the valley. Otherwise, these forces Natron, Turkana, Edward and Albert in
of compression cause two reversed faults East Africa.
R

and the pieces of land on either side lift

FO

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Activity 2.2 Vulcanicity
Vulcanicity is the whole process through
1. In a group, take a piece of which molten materials and gases are
paper then hold it on the forced into the earth’s crust and onto the
opposing sides. surface to form intrusive rocks within the
(a) pull the piece of paper earth’s crust or extrusive rocks on the
towards you earth’s surface. Vulcanicity is usually
(b) write what happens after associated with earth movements.
pulling the paper.

LY
Vulcanicity is a wider term which
(c) relate the results with the comprises both intrusive and extrusive
effects of tensional forces igneous activity while volcanicity refers
to the extrusive rocks formed when

N
2. Take any piece of paper
which is hard like a manila molten materials from the earth’s interior

O
sheet, then hold the two are forced out and cool on the earth’s
sides. surface. When the molten materials are
still inside the crust they are referred to
(a) slowly compress the paper
(b) observe the results and
write what you observe
SE
as magma but on reaching the surface
they lose their gases and thus they are
referred to as lava. Therefore, features
(c) s h a r e what you formed by extrusive vulcanicity are
U
experienced with your known as volcanoes. Volcanoes are the
fellow students in relation cones formed due to the accumulation
to the occurrence of fold of lava.
E

mountains.
Rocks formed below the earth’s crust
N

are under high temperatures and great

pressure hence, they are in the molten
LI

state. When a crack or fault (fissure) or

Exercise 2.2 a hole (vent) is formed, magma is forced
N

out through them, pile up and solidify

1. With the aid of diagrams, explain beneath to form intrusive features such
O

how a rift valley is formed. as batholiths, dykes, sills and laccoliths.

On the other hand, when magma reaches
2. Explain how fold mountains are
the surface quietly or violently they form
formed.
R

extrusive features. The nature of the

formed intrusive or extrusive vulcanic
FO

features depends on the degree of fluidity

of the magma where less viscous magma
flows rapidly and spreads further, while
more viscous magma flows slowly and

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solidifies rapidly near the vent and forms igneous features. The intrusive igneous
a dome shape. The nature of the rock features are categorised into hypabyssal
weakness such as joints, faults, cracks and plutonic features. Hypabyssal
or fissures also determines the speed and features are volcanoes formed beneath
position of volcanic features. the earth but near the surface while
plutonic features are formed deeper
Causes of vulcanicity
beneath the earth. Intrusive vulcanic
Vulcanicity may occur due to the exertion features include dykes, sills, laccoliths,
of excessive weight of overlying rocks lapoliths, phacoliths and batholiths.

LY
on the mantle. The exerted force of rocks
over the mantle increases pressure and Dyke
temperature of the rocks and keeps It is a wall-like feature formed when a
them in a molten state. Vulcanicity can mass of magma cuts across the bedding

N
also result from the friction along rock planes of the rocks. It is formed after
surfaces at the boundaries of tectonic magma cools and solidifies along the

O
plates. The friction raises temperature bedding planes (Figure 2.21). Since it
and reduces pressure, hence eruption of does not follow the nature of the bedding
magma through the cracks. Furthermore, plane of the rock, it is a discordant
SE
surface water infiltrates into the ground feature. Examples of dykes are found
where it comes across the super-heated in the Jos Plateau in Nigeria, and West
rocks, and due to increase in heat and and South of Blantyre along the Tyolo
U
pressure, it flows out of the earth’s crust Scarp in Malawi.
as hot spring or geysers. Dyke
E

Types of vulcanicity
Vulcanicity is divided into two main
N

parts, namely intrusive vulcanicity and

extrusive vulcanicity (volcanicity). Both
LI

intrusive and extrusive vulcanicity result

into the formation of various landforms
N

as described in the following sub-section.

O

Figure 2.21: Dyke

Intrusive vulcanic features Sill
Intrusive features are formed when This is a sheet of igneous rock
R

magma fails to reach the earth’s surface which forms when magma solidifies
and therefore cools and solidifies within horizontally along the bedding plane as
FO

the earth’s crust. In this case, the magma shown in Figure 2.22. It is concordant to
may spread, accumulate or remain in the structure of rock strata. It takes thickness
passage within the crustal rocks where of different sizes and can cover many
it cools and solidifies to form intrusive kilometres. When exposed to erosion, a

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sill may form a ridge-like escarpment or Lopolith
waterfall. The natural bridge in Kiwira, A lopolith is a large saucer-like intrusive
Mbeya in Southern Tanzania is an igneous rock lying concordant to the
example of a sill. Other examples are rock strata forming a shallow basin, as
found in South Africa along the railway shown in Figure 2.24. The lopolith is
line from Kimberly to Cape town and formed as a result of greater weight of
Kinkon Falls in Guinea. the overlying strata and deposits. An
Sill example of a lopolith is that which found
in Bushveld Basin in the Transvaal, in

LY
South Africa.
Lopolith

N
O
Laccolith
Figure 2.22: Sill
SE Figure 2.24: Lopolith
This is a dome-shaped intrusive feature
U
that has been formed within or between Phacolith
layers of sedimentary rocks as shown This is the concordant intrusion of
in Figure 2.23. It is formed when the igneous rock, formed after cooling
E

pressure of the viscous magma becomes and solidification of magma near the
high enough to force the overlying strata crest of an anticline or the base of a
N

to fold and push up making a dome or syncline (Figure 2.25). A phacolith can
mushroom like structure. form along the sedimentary bed rock
LI

which is concordant thereby exerting

Laccolith
great thickness along the synclines or
N

anticlines.
Phacolith
O
R
FO

Figure 2.23: Laccolith Figure 2.25: Phacolith

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Batholith Volcanoes
This is a large body of an igneous A volcano is formed from the
rock formed at the base of the earth’s accumulation of molten rock which flows
crust. It is formed by the intrusion and out through a vent onto the earth’s crust.
solidification of magma very deep in The mountain’s funnel-like depression or
the crust, as shown in Figure 2.26. It is vent around which the erupted materials
commonly composed of coarse-grained accumulate is called a crater.
rocks. Most batholiths intrude across
mountain folds and are elongated along Types of volcanoes

LY
the dominant axis of range. A batholith Volcanoes are categorized as active,
forms the root of a mountain. dormant or extinct.
Active volcano

N
Batholith
An active volcano is one known to have
regular eruptions. Active volcanoes

O
include Mount Oldonyo Lengai in
Tanzania, Mount Longonoti in Kenya,
Mount Nyiragongo in the Democratic
SE
Republic of Congo and Mount Pinatubo
in the Philippines.
Dormant volcano
U
A dormant volcano is one that erupts
Figure 2.26: Batholith rarely but still shows signs of eruption.
Such signs include rumbling, gaseous
E

Extrusive volcanic features emission and lava flow which indicate

These features are formed when molten the likelihood of a volcano to erupt
N

materials reach the earth’s surface again. Mount Kilimanjaro and Meru
in Tanzania, and Mount Menengai in
LI

through vents or fissures. The molten

materials that are ejected onto the surface Kenya are good examples of dormant
are called lava. Silent eruption is an volcanoes.
N

ejection of magma which takes place Extinct volcano

O

without involving much force. Some An extinct volcano is one which shows
extrusive volcanic features take place no signs of erupting again, although it
through fissures, therefore they are called was formed through volcanic activity
R

fissure eruptions. Violent eruptions many years ago. This type of volcano
usually occur through a vent, and take is no longer characterised with signs as
FO

place with great force. Lava emerging rumbling, emission of smoke, lava flow
through a vent can build up a volcano. or ash. Much of its original structures
may have been destroyed by denudation.
Examples of extinct volcanoes include

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Mpoli in Tanzania, Kulod in Kenya as is the most common volcano. Examples
well as Mikeno, Karisimbi and Sabinyo of composite cones are Kilimanjaro and
in Uganda. Meru mountains in Tanzania, Nyiragongo
Volcanic activities may form several Mountain in the Democratic Republic
features which are described in the of Congo and Muhavura Composite in
following sub-sections. the East of Virunga Ranges lying in the
south-west of Uganda.
Ash and cinder cones
Magma Ash
These are cone shaped accumulation

LY
of rock fragments (pyroclasts) around Cinder
the vent. They are formed when lava
is blown and ejected violently to great

N
height and fall back to the earth and
builds up a cone-like feature (Figure

O
2.27). The slopes of the cone are always
concave due to the spreading tendency of
lava at the base of the cone. Examples of
ash and cinder cones are Sarabwe Fileko
in Rungwe (Southern Tanzania), Busoka
SE Figure 2.28: Composite cone
and Bitale in (South West Uganda),
U
Volcanic plug
South of Lake Turkana (Kenya) and Jos
Plateau of Nigeria. A volcanic plug is also referred to as
a plug dome or spine volcano. It is
Ash
E

formed when a mass of very viscous

Magma acid magma is forced out through a vent
Cinder
N

from the ground (Figure 2.29). The plug

is extruded amid clouds of hot blowing
LI

ash and cinders. An example of a plug

dome is Mount Hoggar in Algeria.
N

Volcanic plug
O

Figure 2.27: Ash and cinder cone

R

Composite cone (strata-volcano)

It is a large cone with alternative layers
FO

of lava and ash. Lava often escapes from

the sides of the cone where it builds up
Figure 2.29: Volcanic plug
small conelets, as shown in Figure 2.28.
The cone has steep sided slopes and it

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Crater Caldera
A crater is a depression on top of a
volcanic cone. It is formed by violent
volcanic eruption when the upper part
of a volcanic plug is blown off. The
depression may turn into a crater lake
when filled with water from either
rainfall or melting ice, as shown in
Figure 2.30. Examples of craters are Figure 2.31: Caldera

LY
Embakai, Olmoti and Ngozi in Tanzania.
Crater lake Acid lava cone (Cumulo dome volcano)

N
It is a dome shaped volcano with
(convex) steeply- sloping sides formed

O
when acidic lava cools and solidifies
around the vent, as shown in Figure 2.32.
Lava does not flow away, rather it piles
SE
up near the vent due to its viscocity. The
viscosity of the lava that forms a cumulo
dome is a result of high content of silica
and its high melting point. An example of
U
Figure 2.30: Crater
cumulo dome is Ntumbi dome found 30
km East of Mbeya Region, in Tanzania.
Caldera Lava cone
E

It is a large rounded depression formed Magma

N

when the upper part of a volcano is

either blown away by violent eruptions
LI

or subsides into the crust or in the

volcanic cone, as shown in Figure 2.31.
N

Caldera is a broadened crater. Examples

are Ngorongoro Caldera in Tanzania,
O

Eboga Caldera in Cameroon and Katmei

Caldera in Alaska. Figure 2.32: Acid lava cone
R

Shield volcano
FO

A shield volcano is an extensive cone

with gentle slope sides formed when
basic (basalt) lava is poured onto the
surface and spreads to occupy a large

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area, as shown in Figure 2.33. Lava from category, though it emits only gasses.
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the earth’s interior flows out through
a vent. A basic or shield volcano can Mofette
also form when lava flows out through It is a volcano which emits carbon
a single or many fissures. dioxide gas. Examples of mofette are
Kyejo in Rungwe, Southern Tanzania,
Auverge in France and Java in Indonesia.

Hot spring
It is a quiet outflow of superheated water
Figure 2.33: Shield volcano
from the ground. The outflowing hot

LY
Other associated volcanic features water contains some mineral substances
in solution or in suspension. Hot springs
These features are associated with
are common in Iceland as well as in

N
vulcanicity as described in the following
some African countries such as Tanzania,
sub-sections.
Kenya and Ethiopia. Hot springs may

O
Solfatara be used to provide geothermal energy
for different purposes especially for
It is a volcanic hole emitting sulphurous
gases as dominant and water vapour.
Other materials emitted by solfatara
are hot muds. Solfataras are generally
SE
electricity generation. Examples of
hot springs are Amboni in Tanga and
Nanyala in Songwe region, Tanzania.
found in places with young volcanic Geyser
U
activities. An example of solfatara is This is a hot spring that throws out
Naple Solfatara emissions in Italy. water into the air with great force and
sometimes accompanied by steam. It
E

Fumarole
occurs when heated water in the crustal
It is a volcano which emits steam, rock is ejected explosively through a
N

mud and gases like sulphur. Examples plumb-like narrow channel higher above
of fumarole are found in the valley of surface. (Figure 2.34). Examples of
LI

Thousand Smokes in Alaska. Also, Kibo geysers are Allalobed and Dallol found
in Kilimanjaro can be put under this in Afar region in Ethiopia.
N
O
R
FO

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Geyser

Strong pressure

LY
N
O
Figure 2.34: Geyser

Mud volcano
Mud volcano is also known as mud
SE
(b) Along divergent boundaries
where volcanic materials outflows
dome. It is a landform formed from through the boundaries to form
U
accumulated mud or slurries, water and such features as mid-Atlantic
gases erupted from the earth’s interior. ridge in Atlantic ocean;
Mud volcanoes do not produce lava (c) Continental coastlines such as the
E

and are not necessarily triggered by Western coast of North and South
magmatic activity. America;
N

The world distribution of major (d) Convergent boundaries such as

LI

volcanic zones the Island of Japan; and

Volcanoes are related to earth movements. (e) Faulting regions such as those
N

They occur in the following zones as within the zone of the Great
shown in Figure 2.35. Rift Valley in Tanzania, Kenya,
O

(a) Zones of recent mountain building Uganda, Ethiopia and Malawi.

such as the fold mountain zones
R

of South East Asia;

FO

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LY
N
O
SE
Figure 2.35: World map showing major volcanic zones
The economic importance of volcanic useful for different domestic, industrial
activities and office activities. A good example
U
Volcanoes have enormous economic is in Iceland where over 90% of homes
importance. Volcanic materials produce are heated through geothermal energy.
fertile soil that supports agriculture Also, it is a source of hydroelectric
E

activities both cash and food crop power generation through geysers and
production. Volcanic activities result hot springs. Tanzania extracts carbon gas
N

in the formation of precious stones from Kyejo and other parts of Rungwe
and minerals, like gold from Geita in District.
LI

Tanzania and silver from Kakamega, Moreover, volcanic activities contribute

Kenya. Minerals bring foreign currency towards provision of building materials,
N

used for the development of country’s for instance, igneous rocks are used for
economy. Consistently, volcanic building and construction of roads.
O

activities facilitate geothermal energy Basalt, diabase and pumice are good
production because when magma rises examples. Features that result from
R

close to the earth’s surface, it heats the volcanic activities attract tourists. For
groundwater to boiling point. When example, the snow-capped Mount
FO

a well is drilled in these regions, hot Kilimanjaro, Mount Oldonyo Lengai and
water is pumped out as steam due to the the Ngorongoro caldera in Arusha attract
extreme heat. The steam can then be used tourists who bring in foreign currency and
to drive turbines and produce electricity create employment opportunities among

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the citizens. Apart from that, volcanic Negative effects of volcanic erruptions
mountains influence the formation of Large volcanic eruptions can cause
orographic rainfall. For example, the deaths as well as destruction of
windward side of Mount Kilimanjaro properties. Lava and mudflows caused by
receives adequate rainfall that supports volcanic eruption kill people and destroy
agriculture activities; and some volcanic properties as it erupts and flows rapidly
features are sources of rivers which can down the volcano sides. The lava flow
be harnessed through dams to produce can also destroy agricultural land since
electricity or for irrigation purposes. For the solidified lava hardens and makes

LY
example, the source of River Pangani it difficult for farmers to cultivate the
is Mount Kilimanjaro whose water is land. Moreover, volcanic eruptions may
used to generate hydro-electric energy at release poisonous gases such as sulphur

N
Hale and Nyumba ya Mungu Electrical dioxide and carbon dioxide which may
Power Stations. Volcanic soils are fertile have adverse impacts to human beings

O
and suitable for agricultural production. as well as the atmosphere.

Activity 2.3

In a group, do the following:

SE
(a) discuss the necessary conditions for the occurrence of violent and
U
silent volcanoes;
(b) write the necessary conditions you have discussed;
(c) present these conditions to your fellow students in the classroom for
E

more discussion;
(d) improve your work, then write it in your exercise book; and
N

(e) submit your work to your subject teacher for marking.

LI

Exercise 2.3
N

Answer all questions.

O

1. Differentiate between:
(a) geysers and hot springs
(b) caldera and crater
R

(c) fissures and vents

2. “Volcanic eruptions are always destructive”. With examples discuss
FO

this statement.
3. Use illustrations to account for the necessary conditions for the
occurrence of hot springs and geysers.

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Earthquakes the earthquake are known as seismic
An earthquake is a sudden vibration waves and are of two types, namely:
or shaking of part of the earth’s crust body waves and surface waves. The
caused by natural forces operating waves which travel within the earth crust
beneath the earth’s crust. Sometimes are known as body waves. There are
the shaking can be caused by artificial of two types, namely; primary waves
forces caused by human activities like which cause the crustal rock to move
drilling, bombing and quarrying. Such back and forth in the direction of wave
shaking can cause movement of the and secondary waves which cause crustal

LY
earth’s crust horizontally or vertically rock to move from side to side (at right
and sometimes a combination of the angles) to the direction of wave.
two. The shaking can be minor or major The waves which travel on the surface

N
but short lived and cover small area. are known as surface waves. There are
Earthquakes usually occur in faulted and two types of surface waves, namely love

O
volcanic areas. Sometimes earthquakes waves which cause the surface rock to
occur in zones where tectonic plates move from side to side and Rayleigh
converge or diverge one another or slide
over or past one another. The intensity
of an earthquake can be detected and
SE
(R) waves which cause the surface rocks
to have a vertical circular movement.
Surface waves are the most destructive
measured by using an instrument called on the surface.
U
seismograph. The instrument is also
known as seismometre. An epicentre
Focus Refers to the point on the earth’s surface
This is a point in the earth’s crust where that is vertically and immediately
E

an earthquake originates. Sometimes it above the point of origin (focus) of an

earthquake (Figure 2.36). It is a point
N

is several kilometres below the surface

as shown in Figure 2.36. When there is on the earth’s surface the earthquake
vibrations first hit, and then spread
LI

an earthquake, wave energy originates

from the focus. The waves produced by outwards.
N

Epicenter
O

Surface waves
Earth’s surface
R
FO

Body waves

Focus
Figure 2.36: Earthquake focus and epicentre

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The ground motions generated by the fall can also cause minor tremors. Falling
earthquakes, also known as seisimic of heavy objects from the atmosphere
waves, are measured by using such as meteorites can lead to the
seismograph. A seismograph plots the shaking of the earth’s crust.
intensity in form of seismogram. A Furthermore, tremors can be influenced
seismogram is a graph which shows by human activities like the use of bombs
the intensity of the earth’s vibration. A and other explosives in quarrying and
measure of the severity of an earthquake mining that use dynamite.
by its magnitude is called Richter scale.

LY
The scale reading ranges from 0 to 9. Effects of Earthquakes
The Mercall scale is used to show the
intensity of the earthquake which varies Earthquakes are associated with
occurrence of faulting, folding or

N
from place to place. The term magnitude
refers to the energy released by the even vulcanicity. When an earthquake

O
vibration, while intensity refers to the occurs, it causes shaking of the ground
damage caused by the vibration. which might rapture due to tensional
and compressional forces and vigorous
Causes of earthquakes
One of the causes of earthquakes is
isostatical adjustment of the earth’s
SE
movement of magma and gases in the
interior of the earth. Moreover, when
earthquakes occur in the ocean, they
crust. This happens as the crust adjusts result in ocean waves called Tsunamis.
U
itself to changing pressure caused by These waves are very high and when they
weight exerted on the earth’s crust. The reach the coast, they cause flooding. The
crust may move downwards or upwards. Indian Ocean Tsunami of 26th December,
E

The movements then trigger the upper 2004 caused over 200 000 deaths of
mantle which leads to earthquakes. people in Banda Aceh, Indonesia and
N

These movements may also make the other different countries along the Indian
earth adjust along faults. Faulting of ocean including Tanzania. Similarly,
LI

the crust is caused by plate tectonic lateral and vertical displacement of

movements where one plate slides over parts of land can occur. For instance in
N

the other plate. Such movements cause San Francisco, in 1906, an earthquake
disturbances which in turn generate caused horizontal displacement of rocks
O

shock waves that end up shaking the by 7 metres.

earth’s crust. Similarly, volcanism can
also cause the occurrence of earthquakes. Earthquakes can also damage transport
R

This is due to the fact that magma moving and communication lines like gas and
under the influence of internal pressure oil pipelines, telephone lines and roads.
FO

of the earth’s interior erupts leading to They can raise or lower coastal rocks.
shaking of the earth’s surface. Moreover, For example, in the Alaskan, earthquake
mass movements like landslides and rock of 1899 caused some coastal areas to

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raise by 16 metres. Destruction of hit by earthquakes are associated with
houses and other structures as well the following features:
as loss of human life are significant (a) Mid-oceanic ridge like the entire
impacts associated with earthquakes. of the mid Atlantic Ocean;
For example, in 1906, an earthquake (b) The ocean deep trenches and
killed 700 people and caused substantial volcanic islands of the Pacific
loss of property in San-Francisco. In Ocean;
Tanzania, the earthquake which occurred
(c) The region of crustal compression
in Bukoba District, in Kagera Region on

LY
(Young fold mountains) stretching
10th September, 2016, caused deaths of
across southern Europe and Asia
more than 20 people and destruction of
linking the Atlantic and Pacific
properties. About 1264 buildings were
Oceans;

N
destroyed. Earthquakes can also cause
part of the sea floor to rise or subside. (d) Rift valley areas such as the

O
For example, the depth of the sea in Great East African Rift Valley
some areas of the coast of Morocco and areas which are vulnerable
decreased from 40m to 15m after the to earthquakes in Tanzania
1960 earthquake. Earthquakes can also
cause fire outbreaks due to the falling of
electric poles, and volcanism. Ground
SE (Examples are Kagera Region
in North-Western Tanzania and
Rungwe in Southern Tanzania
highlands);
U
shaking caused by earthquakes triggers
off landslides and avalanches which (e) The circum-pacific belt, which
destroy human settlements and can also includes the West Coast of North
cause human and animal deaths. and South America, Japan, the
E

Philippines and East Indies;

World distribution of earthquakes
N

(f) The belt from Atlas in North West

Earthquakes are found in areas Africa, the Alpines in Southern
associated with lines of weakness in
LI

Europe to the Himalayas; and

the crust. Such areas include boundaries
(g) Along all the boundaries of the
or margins of tectonic plates and lines
N

tectonic plates.
of riffs, as shown in Figure 2.37. Areas
O
R
FO

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LY
N
O
SE
Figure 2.37: World distribution of earthquakes

Every person living in areas susceptible advised on what to do in the event of

U
to earthquakes should be educated on an earthquake. Emergency services
precautions that they should take to should be organised to provide first aid,
minimize risk before, during and after water, power and food to the victims.
an earthquake. In addition, emergency communication
E

plans should be put in place. Remember

Precautions to be taken prior to
N

telephone communication may not work.

earthquake incident
It is very important to take precautions What to do during an earthquake incident
LI

before earthquakes strike in order Some earthquakes can be very violent. If

to avoid possible dangers. First and you are inside a house, move out and stay
N

foremost, people should be advised to in an open place or slide under a table

stay away from high risk areas. People or bed and cover your head and body
O

should not construct buildings in fault with heavy clothing to protect yourself
line zones. People should be advised from heavy and sharp objects such as
glass. If you are outside, ensure that
R

to construct buildings and roads that

can withstand earthquakes. Training you stay away from buildings, trees,
FO

and preparedness services should be electric poles and electrical cables or

available. For example, fire brigade units, anything else that might fall on you.
ambulance and helicopter services should Also, if you are in a moving vehicle, stop
always be available. People should be as quickly as safety permits and stay in

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the vehicle. Avoid stopping near or under chemicals; and inspect utilities. Check
tall buildings, trees and electrical poles for gas leakages, damage to electrical
since they may fall over you. Proceed systems and plumbing.
cautiously once the earthquake has
stopped. Avoid using roads, bridges or Minimising risks caused by
humps that might have been damaged by earthquake incidences
the earthquake. If trapped in rubble, do For the purpose of reducing the risks
not light a match, but cover your mouth associated with earthquake incidences,
with a handkerchief or clothing. Tap on houses should be constructed using

LY
a pipe or wall so that rescuers can locate light materials; tall buildings should be
you or use a whistle if available. Also constructed on a strong and reinforced
shout only as a last resort as shouting can foundation made of steel and concrete;
the height of buildings should depend

N
cause you to inhale dangerous particles
of dust. on the recommendation of land survey
authorities; education and preparedness

O
Post earthquake incident
plans should be in place to help to
Expect aftershocks which can cause
reduce deaths and injuries caused by
more damage and injury. After an
earthquake, you are advised to listen to
media for latest emergency information;
SE
earthquakes; and civil engineers should
erect buildings right from basement
rocks. In case of vibrations, the rocks
stay away from damaged areas; return
and the buildings will vibrate at the
U
home only when authorities declare it
same frequency hence reduce damage.
is safe; be aware of possible tsunami if
It is also recommended to build tall
you live in coastal areas; clean up spilled
houses resting on rollers. In case of an
chemicals, bleaches, gasoline, or other
E

earthquakes, the rollers tend to protect

flammable liquids immediately; leave the
the buildings.
N

area if it smells gas or fumes from other

LI

Activity 2.4
N

In a group, discuss and suggest five possible areas where an earthquake

can occur in Tanzania.
O

(a) For each suggested area, give reasons why an earthquake can
occur.
R

(b) Present your work in the class and invite discussion for
FO

improvement.

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Exercise 2.4

Answer all questions

1. Explain the precautions you will have to take to protect yourself
during the occurrence of an earthquake.
2. Briefly explain possible environmental effects associated with the
occurrence of earthquakes.
3. Explain two reasons why earthquakes differ from other tremors.

LY
4. Explain the factors which determine the intensity of earthquakes.

N
Revision exercise 2

O
Section A
Choose the correct answer.
1.
SE
Downward or upward movements of the earth’s crust are called
_____.
U
(a) internal earth movements
(b) radial movements
E

(c) lateral movements

N

(d) rotational movements

LI

2. Radial movements within the earth’s crust are associated with the
formation of _____.
N

(a) basins, rift valleys and volcanos

O

(b) joints, faults and fissures

(c) horsts, grabens and basins
R

(d) joints, basins and faults

FO

3. Lateral movements within the earth’s crust usually cause _____.

(a) folding, faulting and joints

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(b) basins, horsts and rift valleys
(c) synclines and anticlines
(d) earthquakes and grabens

4. Earthquakes may be caused by the following, except _____.

(a) tensional forces
(b) lateral movement

LY
(c) soil erosion
(d) vertical movement

N
5. All forces operating within the earth’s crust are _____.

O
(a) responsible for the formation of landforms


SE
(b) destructing to the features of the earth’s surface
(c) caused mainly by human activities
(d) initiated by volcanic activity
U
Section B
E

Answer the following questions:

N

6. Use a diagram to explain the formation of:

LI

(a) Rift valleys

(b) Block mountains
N

(c) Fold mountains

O

7. With the aid of diagrams, describe internal volcanic features.

8. With examples, explain five effects of earthquakes.
R
FO

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Section C
Match each item in Column A with its corresponding item from Column B.

Column A Column B
9. Atlas and the Drakensberg (a) composite cone
10. A dome-shaped intrusive feature (b) magma
11. Large cone with alternative (c) phacolith
layers of lava and ash (d) batholith

LY
12. Rocks in molten state within the (e) lava
earth’s crust
(f) fold mountain

N
13. The point from which the (g) laccolith
earthquake originates
(h) focus

O
14. A large body of an igneous rock
formed when magma solidifies at
the base of the earth’s crust
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter
Three Weathering and mass wasting

Introduction
Weathering and mass wasting are processes of denudation on the earth’s surface

LY
caused by external forces. Denudation processes wears away earth’s surface.
In this chapter, you will learn about weathering and mass wasting as external
forces which act on the earth’s surface. You will also examine different forms of

N
both weathering and mass wasting and the factors which influence weathering
and mass wasting. The competencies developed in this chapter will enable you

O
to avoid activities that can accelerate the occurrence of weathering and mass
wasting and opt for means to minimize their effects in the environment. Likewise,
SE
the competencies developed will help you utilize benefits resulting from weathering
and mass wasting.

Weathering Types of weathering

U
Weathering is a process of gradual There are three major types of weathering,
weakening, decomposition and namely; mechanical or physical
disintegration of rocks into smaller weathering, chemical weathering and
E

particles on the earth’s surface as biological weathering.

N

exposed to weather changes. Weathering

Mechanical weathering
is caused and accelerated by physical
LI

actions, chemical processes and Mechanical or physical weathering is

biological actions. Weathering occurs the process whereby exposed rocks
without movement and thus is not disintegrate without any change in their
N

synonymous to erosion. The process of chemical composition. The process is

O

weathering prepares the rock materials caused mainly by changes in temperature,

for movement, either by gravity or frost and rainfall. Mechanical weathering
transportation through the agents of is common in arid and semi-arid regions
R

erosion. Weathering is important in since the differences between day

soil formation since smaller particles and night temperature are very high.
FO

of the broken rocks form the structure Mechanical weathering has four ways
and texture of soils. Also, these particles of occurrence, as described below.
determine components of soil, its colour
and chemical composition.

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(a) Mechanical weathering due to temperature change
During the day, rocks of different mineral properties exposed to the atmosphere
get heated and expand at different rates due to high temperature and contract at
different rates at night due to low temperature. The process of alternate change in
temperature leads to exfoliation, salt crystalisation and granular disintegration.
(i) Exfoliation
The difference in expansion and contraction causes the outer layers of the rocks
to crack and peel off, thus reducing the size of the rocks. This process is called

LY
exfoliation and the features resulting thereafter are isolated masses of round-shaped
rocks called exfoliation domes. The peeled off rock fragments fall to the bottom of
the standing rocks and are subjected to further alternate expansion and contraction.

N
Finally, they disintegrate into even smaller fragments to form a hill of steep sloping
rock fragments called talus or sometimes screes. The fragments often collect at

O
the base of exfoliation domes. Figure 3.1 is an example of an exfoliation dome.
There are many exfoliation domes in Egypt and Kalahari, Sahara and Sinai deserts.

Layer of rock peeling off

SE Exfoliation dome
U
E
N
LI
N
O

Figure 3.1: Exfoliation dome

(ii) Salt crystalisation (iii) Granular disintegration

R

This occurs when water in the rock cracks As the temperature increases, some of
evaporates due to high temperature, rocks disintegrate by releasing rock
FO

leaving behind salt crystals in the cracks, grains or particles as they have different
that cause the entire rock to expand and capacities of withstanding heat.
break up.

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(b) Mechanical weathering due to frost action
This occurs in mid-latitudes and high mountain areas where water accumulates in
rock fissures (cracks) and freezes during winter. Usually, it involves the freezing
of water in the cracks during the night and thawing (melting) during the day. Since
frozen water increases in volume, the cracks widen and deepen, ultimately causing
the rocks to disintegrate into angular fragments of rocks to form screes or talus.
Figure 3.2 shows block disintergration.
Disintegrated rocks

LY
N
O
Scree or talus
SE
U
E

Figure 3.2: Block disintegration

N

(c) Mechanical weathering due to and crack to form joints, thus causing
alternate wetting and drying curved rock shells. Granite is particularly
LI

Rain has minor effects on mechanical liable to this process of weathering.

weathering except as a source of water Chemical weathering
for frost action. However, when a drought
N

Chemical weathering refers to the

succeeds a rainy period, rocks give up
decomposition of some or all of
O

moisture previously absorbed and as

mineral constituents in a rock resulting
a result some rocks such as shale may
in the collapse of the rock through
crumble into small elongated fragments.
chemical processes. Normally, two or
R

(d) Mechanical weathering due to more chemical weathering processes

pressure release take place at the same time. Chemical
FO

If overlying layers of rocks are removed weathering is more noticeable in hot

by denudation, the release of pressure wet regions than in cold dry regions.
may allow the exposed rock to expand Chemical weathering involves processes

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of carbonation, solution, hydrolysis, oxidation, and hydration.
(a) Carbonation
Carbonation refers to a process where carbonic acid reacts with carbonates contained
in other substances to form a new substance. Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
dissolves in rain water to form weak carbonic acid which acts on calcareous
rocks such as limestone and chalk. Calcareous rocks are kept in their rock state
by insoluble carbonate. However, the weak carbonic acid in rain water turns the
insoluble carbonate into soluble bicarbonates. The calcareous rock loses its rock
state as the formed soluble bicarbonates are washed down through the soil. This

LY
process produces features like grikes and clints. Figure 3.3 shows an example of
clints and grikes. The carbonation process is illustrated by a chemical equation
as follows;

N
(i) H2O + CO2 H2CO3 (Weak Carbonic acid)

O
(ii) CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(H CO3)2
Calcium carbonate water Carbon dioxide Calcium bicarbonate (soluble)

Clint
SE
U
Grike
E
N
LI
N

Figure 3.3: Clint and Grikes

O

(b) Solution (c) Hydrolysis

R

Rock minerals dissolve directly in water Hydrolysis is a process whereby

without being changed into another hydrogen ions from water combine with
FO

mineral compound, to form a solution. mineral ions from rocks to form new
For example, calcium bicarbonate rocks chemical compounds. These compounds
tend to dissolve in water and get washed formed can easily be weathered through
away. other weathering processes. For example,

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when feldspar reacts with water and carbon dioxide it results into a clay mineral
and silica residual, whereby potassium carbonate is removed in solution.
2KA1Si3O8 + 2H2O + CO2 A12Si2O5H4 + K2CO3 + 4SiO2
Feldspar Clay mineral Silica

(d) Hydration
Hydration is a process whereby some mineral rocks absorb water and bulge,
thereafter becoming loose and breaking easily. A good example is absorption of
water by calcium sulphate to form gypsum.

LY
(e) Oxidation
It is a process whereby oxygen combines with other elements or substances of the
rock to form new compounds. Some rocks containing iron react with oxygen in the

N
presence of water to form new minerals. The new minerals formed by oxidation

O
are often easily attacked by other weathering processes. The ferrous state of rocks
changes into ferric state forming a yellow or brown easily crumbled substance.
However, the magnitude of chemical weathering depends on climatic conditions.
SE
In equatorial regions where humidity and temperature are permanently high,
the rate of chemical weathering is higher than in other regions like desert areas
where humidity is low. Hence, in areas with low humidity, the rate of chemical
weathering is low.
U
Oxidation: 4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
E

Biological weathering
N

Biological weathering is the disintegration of rocks due to the action of living

organisms such as plants and animals. Sometimes it involves both chemical and
LI

physical weathering, particularly when biological disintegration is accompanied

with secretion of chemicals from plants or animals. This process is also known as
N

biotic weathering. There are different actions by plants and animals that contribute
to weathering. These are explained in the sections that follow.
O

(a) The action of plants

Plant roots, especially those of trees, can grow into rock joints and cracks. As the
R

roots increase in size overtime, they force the rocks to break apart (Figure 3.4).
This is called weathering by wedging action or wedging mechanism. If rain water
FO

enters the cracks caused by the roots, or if the roots rot and decay in the cracks, they
produce chemicals which may react with minerals in the rock and decompose it.

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Tree trunk
Earth’s surface

Tree roots

Joints

LY
N
O
Figure 3.4: Action of plant roots in disintegration of rocks
(b) The action of animals as blasting with explosives, quarrying,
Animals cause biological weathering farming, mining and construction of
through chemical and physical processes.
Movement of large animals causes
mechanical weathering. Burrowing
SE
roads and buildings. Movements of
trucks and other heavy machinery on the
ground are among other factors which
animals such as rodents, rats, rabbits may cause mechanical break up of rocks.
U
and earthworms weaken and break up the Human beings also weather rocks
rocks. When animals and birds excrete chemically by polluting the environment
on the rocks or when they die and decay,
E

in different ways. For example, chemical

they release chemical substances on the substances are discharged into rivers,
rocks known as humic acid, which later
N

making the water corrosive and in turn,

on cause chemical weathering as they rocks that come into contact with this
LI

alter the chemical composition of the water are corroded and weakened.
rocks. Some chemicals are dumped directly
N

(c) Action of human beings on the exposed rocks. This too can be
Human beings perform various corrosive as the chemicals react with
O

activities that contribute to weathering. some minerals in the rocks and cause
Human activities are the fastest cause rock disintegration.
of weathering compared to all other During agricultural activities, fertilizers ,
R

processes. People break down rocks pesticides and other chemical substances
both mechanically and chemically in added in the soil increase chemical
FO

various ways. Rocks are broken down reaction that may lead to chemical
mechanically through activities such weathering of rocks.

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Significance of weathering A good example is Bismarck rock
The weathering process has the following in Mwanza Region, in Tanzania
social economic benefits to the life on on the shore of Lake Victoria;
earth: (d) It provides building materials.
(a) It leads to soil formation. Weathering is a source of building
Weathering breaks rocks into materials. For example, scree and
small particles which after being rock blocks can be used in the
mixed with organic matter lead to construction of houses, bridges
the formation and development of and dams; and

LY
soil; (e) It can contribute to the
(b) It provides materials for modification of landforms.
pottery and bricks making. The Weathering is significant because

N
weathering process produces new it weakens the surface rocks and
substances such as clay, which is in so doing it facilitates the agents

O
used in pottery and brick making; of erosion and transportation
(c) It offers opportunity for tourism. hence modifying landforms.
Most of the depositional features
The weathering process results
in some attractive features like
granite tors. These are tourist
SE either by water or wind benefit
from weathering processes. For
attractions that bring local income example, deltas and estuarine
U
and foreign currency to a country. features are formed as a result of
deposition of weathered materials.
E

Activity 3. 1
N

1. In a group, discuss and differentiate between the following concepts;

LI

(a) weathering and denudation

N

(b) oxidation and carbonation

(c) hydration and hydrolysis
O

2. Read textbooks concerning weathering, and

R

(a) with examples, explain the economic importance of weathering

(b) make a presentation in the class for discussion.
FO

3. Walk around your environment and observe the effects of roots on

rocks. Write what you have observed.

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Mass wasting
Mass wasting refers to the downward movement of weathered materials on a
slope under the influence of gravity. This movement does not necessarily involve
the agents of erosion and transportation such as running water, ice, wind and sea
waves. Mass wasting also refers to the creeping, flowing, sliding or falling of rocks
and weathered mass materials downhill. The angle of slope and gravity are the
major determinants of mass wasting. The movement ranges from very slow and
unobservable movement to very fast and catastrophic movement.
Types of mass wasting

LY
Mass wasting can be categorized into two types: slow and rapid mass wasting.
Slow mass wasting
This is a slow but steady movement of material down a slope. It can be so slow

N
such that it may not be noticeable. Types of slow mass wasting are soil creep,

O
talus creep and solifluction.
Soil creep
It is the slowest and unobservable movement of weathered materials, mainly
SE
fine soil, down a gentle slope. Water acts as a lubricant in this movement. The
movement can also be triggered off by grazing animals, heating and cooling of
soil and alternate wetting and drying of the ground. Soil creep can be manifested
U
through mounds of soil behind the walls, tilting and cracking of walls bending of
trees, fences and electrical poles as well as cracking of the road. Figure 3.5 is an
example of soil creep.
E

e
down the slop
N

ve s slowly
Soil mo
LI
N
O
R

Soil creep causes trees to bend in the direction of the creep

Figure 3.5: Bending of trees due to soil creep

FO

Talus creep
Talus creep (scree) is a slow movement of angular waste rock of all sizes (talus
or scree) down a slope. It is common on the sides of mountains, hills and scarps.

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It takes place where free thaw action is Rapid mass wasting
common especially in the highlands and This is a fast and sudden movement
in high latitude regions. It also results in of rock materials. It occurs in the
scars where the talus moves. Figure 3.6 form of landslides, which involves the
is an example of talus creep. slumping, sliding and falling of rocks
from moderate to steep slopes. Types
Scar Talus
of rapid mass wasting include mudflow,
earthflow, landslide, rockslide, rockfall
and avalanche.

LY
Mudflows
A mudflow is a rapid movement of
saturated soil containing gravels and

N
boulders, down a slope. The materials
flow as semi-liquid mud with boulders

O
Figure 3.6: Talus creep and gravels embedded in the mud.
Mudflows are common in arid and
Solifluction (slugging) semi-arid areas, especially after spells
This is a gravitational movement of
gravel mixed with soil saturated with
SE
of sporadic downpours. Mudflows move
faster than earthflows because they
water, down a slope. It is limited to contain more water while earthflows are
U
mountains and cold climate areas where relatively drier as shown in Figure 3.8.
thawing causes a saturated surface layer
to flow over underlying frozen ground. Original mud position
E

This results into deposits of frozen

materials known as solifluction lobes
N

and saturated materials. Figure 3.7 is

an example of solifluction.
LI

Solifluction lobe
N
O
R

Figure 3.8: Mudflow

The following are some specific
FO

conditions that influence mudflows:

Saturated material (a) Presence of loose materials on the
surface, which become slippery
Figure 3.7: Solifluction when wet;

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(b) Presence of a steep slope which of water, the pull of gravity and deep
facilitate movement of the undercutting of the base of a steep slope
materials; and by earthquake or movements. Prolonged
(c) Lack of vegetation on steep slopes heavy rainfall may accelerate a landslide.
which facilitates the movement of Slumping land
materials with high speed since
the soil is not consolidated by
plant roots.

LY
Earthflows
This is a flow of relatively less saturated

N
unconsolidated rock materials down a
steep slope. It takes place after heavy

O
rainfall where soil and other weathered
materials mix with water and break away
from the slope in a short time, as shown
in Figure 3.9.
Movement of materials
SE Figure 3.10(a): Landslide

down the slope

U
E
N

Loose, wet land slump down under the

LI

pull of gravity along curved slip planes

N

Figure 3.10(b): Landslide

Figure 3.9: Earth flow
O

Rockslide
Landslides This is a sliding movement of a slab or
A landslide involves slipping or slumping rock down a steep slope. No rotation
R

of the land or rock. It is a rapid movement is involved. It has a slower average

of a large mass of debris, rocks or earth speed compared to a rock fall. It can be
FO

down a hill or mountain side as shown triggered off by an earthquake or human

in Figure 3.10(a) and 3.10(b). Landslides activities like mining or cultivation, as
are caused by the lubricating action shown in Figure 3.11.

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Avalanche
Sliding rocks An avalanche is a sudden sliding or falling
of a large mass of snow, ice and loose
rock materials down a mountain side. It
is common in temperate mountainous
regions where snow accumulates to
great thicknesses, as shown in Figure
3.13. Avalanches occur mostly during
winter and spring. They can be caused

LY
by earthquakes, accumulated quantities
of snow to great thicknesses that might
Figure 3.11: Rockslide create higher pressure and heat at the

N
bottom of snow, eventually leading to
Rockfall
sliding. Avalanches are characterised by
This is a free fall of rock masses from

O
occurrence of faults, accumulated snow,
the top to the foot of a cliff, as shown
ice and rock material.
in Figure 3.12. The prolonged falling of
rocks results to collection of talus at the
bottom. This is one of the fastest fall of
rocks in a steep slope. It takes place after
SE Fault

a rock has been weakened. It is caused

U
by alternate expansion and contraction
resulting from temperature variations
and by ice action which excavate joints
E

or cracks in the rock.

N

Talus
LI
N

Accumulated snow, ice

O

and rock materials

Figure 3.13: Avalanche

R
FO

Figure 3.12: Rockfall

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Activity 3.2
In a group;
(a) discuss the factors that trigger mass wasting.
(b) write in your exercise book, the factors that trigger mass wasting.
(c) make a presentation to your fellow students in the classroom for
discussion.

LY
Factors affecting the nature and speed (f) Earthquakes and volcanic
of mass wasting eruptions often cause large and

N
(a) The nature of the materials and the widespread movements.
extent of saturation: In a situation

O
where the weathered layer is very Effects of mass wasting on the
deep or where rocks are weak, environment
thin bedded or steeply dipping
mass wasting tends to be rapid.
(b) The angle of slope: The steeper
SE
Mass wasting has both positive and
negative impacts on the environment
as described in the following sections:
the slope the faster the rate of
U
movement. (a) Formation of fertile soil: The
(c) Climate: This includes the amount materials which are transported down
and nature of rainfall, annual and slope tend to accumulate at the foot of
E

daily temperature ranges. Heavy the hills or mountains. Thereafter, they

rain or alternate freezing and form fertile soils which did not exist
N

thawing encourages movement. before. The accumulated fertile soils can

support agricultural activities.
(d) The influence of vegetation:
LI

Absence of vegetation to hold (b) Land degradation: Mass wasting

the soil material encourages erodes the land on steep slopes thus
N

movement. making it unsuitable for agriculture.

O

(e) Human activities: Mining, (c) Tourist attraction: Features resulting

building and herding of animals from mass wasting such as rockfall and
are among the ways in which avalanches attract tourists. For example,
R

human beings have affected the the avalanches of Switzerland attract a

stability of the earth’s surface. large number of tourists which in turn
FO

The areas which are affected by boost the economy of the country.
human activities tend to encourage
(d) Formation of lakes: Landslide
movement of material.
materials often end up in valleys where

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they accumulate and form barriers to (e) Damage of property and loss of life:
flowing rivers. Water of the blocked Mass wasting can destroy buildings,
rivers accumulates on the upstream side means of transport, and lines of
of the barriers and eventually forms a communication and can even cause loss
lake. of life.

Activity 3. 3
Think on the relationship between weathering and mass wasting, then

LY
do the following:
(a) write in your exercise book the relationship between weathering and
mass wasting.

N
(b) with the assistance of your teacher share this with your fellow students

O
in the classroom for more discussion.

Revision exercise 3

Section A
SE
Match each item in Column A with its corresponding item from Column B.
U
Column A Column B
1. Peeling-off of outer layers of rock (a) Mechanical
E

due to alternate expansion and weathering

contraction caused by temperature
(b) Biological weathering
N

changes.
2. Rock disintegration caused by (c) Denudation
LI

actions of plants and animals. (d) Erosion

3. Rock disintegration which does not
involve chemical processes. (e) Mass wasting
N

4. A process resulting to formation (f) Oxidation

of new types of rocks when water
O

(g) Exfoliation
combines with minerals of an
existing rock. (h) Hydrolysis
5. Removal of rock debris from one
R

area to another, caused by wind,

water or waves.
FO

6. Movement of weathered material

due to gravity.

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Section B
Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect statement.
(a) Clearing of natural vegetation enhances the possibility of mass
wasting.
(b) Scree is normally found in cold deserts due to low temperatures.
(c) Human activities like setting fire on rock boulders can cause
exfoliation.
(d) Hydration and hydrolysis are basically similar processes of chemical

LY
weathering.
(e) Weathering is economically important to humans.
Section C

N
Fill in the blanks by choosing one of the most correct answer from the box;

O
hydrolysis, erosion, deposition, weathering, mass wasting,
grikes, oxidation, chemical weathering

SE
(a) The process which prepares rocks materials for movement either by
gravity or by agents of erosion is _____.
(b) Landslides, soil creep and soil flow are forms of_____.
U
(c) _____ involves carbonation, hydration and oxidation.
(d) A process whereby oxygen combines with any substance to form a
new substance is known as _____.
E

(e) The grooved sides of clint are called _____.

N

Section D
Answer the following questions:
LI

1. Differentiate between:
(a) chemical weathering and biological weathering
N

(b) hydration and oxidation

O

(c) soil flow and soil creep

2. List five processes of chemical weathering.
R

3. How do animals cause biological weathering?

4. Account for the role of humans in the weathering process.
FO

5. How can the risks associated with mass wasting be minimised?

6. How can we make use of the features resulted from weathering?

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Four The action of running water and

ice on the Earth’s surface

Introduction

LY
Erosion, transportation and deposition of weathered materials by running water
and ice result into formation of different physical features. In this chapter, you will
learn about action of running water and ice on the landscape. You will also learn

N
about features formed by the process of erosion and deposition and importance
of those features to human beings. The competencies developed from this chapter

O
will enable you to use the formed landscape features profitably.

The work of running water not infiltrate into the ground flows on the
SE
Running water refers to water that flows surface resulting into uniform removal of
on the surface of the earth. This can be a thin layer of the top soil on large areas
in the form of surface runoff, streams or as shown in Figure 4.1. Where land is
rivers. Rain water or snowmelt which steep and runoff is heavy, sheet erosion
U
does not infiltrate into the ground flows progresses into rill erosion.
on the surface as runoff. It can flow as Initial level
a sheet of water, or collect into small of the soil
E

channels to form rills and streams. When

N

rills are enlarged, they form gullies.

Water flowing by force of gravity
LI

through a defined channel is referred

to as a river.
N

Running water in the form of runoff or

rivers, plays a significant role in shaping Soil level after
O

sheet erosion
the earth’s surface through erosion,
transportation and deposition. There are
Figure 4.1: Sheet erosion
three types of erosion formed by runoff,
R

namely sheet erosion, rill erosion and Rill erosion

gully erosion.
FO

This occurs when the surface soil is

Sheet erosion washed unevenly by running water
This type of erosion occurs on slightly through small channels or rills, as shown
gentle slopes where rain water that does in Figure 4.2.

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Rills
Hydraulic action
Hydraulic action is an erosive process
caused by the force of moving water
against river banks and river floor. When
water is compressed with air, sweeps
away loose materials into the river and
rolls large boulders away. This process
causes caving and slumping of river
banks.

LY
Figure 4.2: Rill erosion Corrasion
Corrasion, also known as abrasion is an
Gully erosion erosive process responsible for wearing

N
This occurs when the surface soil is away of the bed and banks of a river,
washed away as heavy rainfall opens using the load carried by the river. This

O
wide the rills into larger grooves known load comprises of gravels, pebbles and
as gullies as shown in Figure 4.3. boulders which are used by the river

Surface soil
Gully SE
water as grinding, scratching or cutting
tools. Where pebbles are whirled by eddy
currents, they excavate a river bed and
form hollows called pot-holes.
U
Attrition
Attrition involves disintegration of the
load itself due to constant collision of
E

fragments with each other and colliding

N

with river banks or the river bed. The

Figure 4.3: Gully erosion fragments are reduced to particles
LI

of different sizes as the load moves

The work of a river downstream.
N

A river is a large amount of water flowing

Corrosion
in a defined channel from a source. A
O

Corrosion, also known as solution is

river performs triple functions, namely
a process by which rock is weathered
erosion, transportation and deposition
through chemical reaction and solution.
of eroded materials.
R

It is the process by which water

(a) Erosion by a river dissolves some rock elements and
FO

River erosion can occur through four minerals resulting into rock erosion.
related processes, namely hydraulic Consequently, this process leads to
action, corrasion or abrasion, attrition the removal and transportation of rock
and corrosion or solvent action materials in solution downstream.

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Thus, causing the river to erode materials Traction
vertically, laterally and headward. Traction is a way in which a river
transports its load where large boulders
Vertical erosion. This involves the and rocks are rolled along the river bed.
down-cutting of the river bed which
consequently deepens the river channel. Suspension
Suspension is a river transportation
Lateral erosion. This involves the side- method where a suspended lighter
cutting of the river banks and as a result, load, is carried along in the water. This
the river channel is widened.

LY
is common near the mouth of a river.
Headward erosion. This involves upward
erosion that lengthens the river, stream (c) Deposition by a river

N
at its head. This is a geographical process in
which sediments, soil and rocks are
(b) Transportation by a river

O
accumulated on the river bed, oftenly at
Transportation is one of the functions the lower stage of the river. Transported
of a river. The eroded materials by the load can be deposited to create layers
SE
river actions are referred to as load. of sediments which form different
The load can be transported from one features. Deposition occurs when there
point to another. There are three types is a decrease in the speed of water,
of transported load, namely bed load, reduction of the gradient of the river,
U
suspended load, and dissolved load. and an increase of the load carried at
These types of load are transported into this stage. Deposition may take place
four major ways: solution, saltation, where the volume of water declines due
E

traction and suspension. to excessive evaporation and soaking.

Furthermore, deposition takes place
N

Solution
when the river water spreads into a
Solution is a type of river transportation
LI

wide plain as it no longer has energy

where the dissolved load is transported
to carry more load or when there is an
downstream through solution. Limestone
obstacle across the river channel such
N

can be transported in this form.

as vegetation or damming.
O

Saltation
Progressive deposition forms an outward
Saltation is the type of river transportation
and seaward alluvium accumulation
process which involves small pebbles
resulting in the formation of a delta.
R

and stones being dragged, slid or

Sometimes the river is forced to divide
bounced along the river bed. This kind
FO

into several channels of water outlets.

of transportation is common near the
These channels are called distributaries.
source of a river.

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The long profile of a river
The stretch of a river course from its source to its mouth is called the long profile
of a river. The river profile is divided into three main sections, namely the upper,
the middle and the lower courses as presented in Figure 4.4(a) and 4.4(b).
Upper course

Middle course

Lower course

LY
N
O
SE
Figure 4.4(a): Long profile of a river

Steep slope
U
Height above level

Gentle slope
Flat land
E

Sea
N
LI
N

Upper course Middle course Lower course

O

Figure 4.4(b): Cross section view of a long profile of a river

The upper course of a river sided V-shaped valley. The angle of the
R

This course is also known as the young sides of a V-shaped valley depends on
stage of a river. At this stage, a river is the resistance of rocks both to erosion
FO

characterised with a very steep slope. and to the weathering process. In its
Water flows with high speed resulting upper course, the river follows a winding
into vertical erosion. Vertical erosion course due to interlocking spurs.
leads to the development of a steep-

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Features produced in the upper
Interlocking spurs
course of a river
At this stage the river is characterized by
the following features: V-shaped valleys,
pot holes, interlocking spurs, plunge
pools, waterfalls, gorges, canyons and
rapids. These are described below.
V-shaped valley
In the upper stage the river flows with

LY
high speed due to the steep slope of the
river bed. As the river flows, it performs
vertical erosion which results into a steep Figure 4.6: Interlocking spurs

N
sided V-shaped valley, as seen in Figure
4.5. Rapids

O
Rapids are formed by a sudden
steepening of the slope because of
unequal resistance in the successive
SE
rocks in the river profile. It is where the
river flows faster than its normal speed
(Figure 4.7).
U
Rapids
E

V-shaped
N

valley
LI

Figure 4.5: V-shaped valley

Interlocking spurs
N

As the river flows, it erodes the landscape

Figure 4.7: Rapids
O

in the upper course, winds and bends to

avoid the areas of hard rock. This creates Waterfalls
interlocking spurs which resemble Waterfalls occur when there is a sharp
R

interlocking parts of a zip. This often break in a river bed. This is a result
results into alternating projections of of erosion of soft rock which lies
FO

high land called spurs (Figure 4.6). horizontally under hard rock. Waterfalls
Sometimes spurs are referred to as can also occur when a hard rock stands
overlapping, intermediate or interlocking vertically along the edge of the steep
spurs. sides of the river bed. The continuing

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process of erosion causes the hard rock to hang and as a result, water drops down
suddenly (Figure 4.8).
Hard rock
Soft rock
River
Waterfall

Plunge pool

LY
Fallen rocks

N
O
Figure 4.8: Waterfalls and plunge pool

Plunge-pool
SE
These are big pot holes formed at the base of waterfalls. These are formed due
high velocity of falling water into the river bed (Figure 4.8). This is a result of
hydraulic action.
U
Pot holes
These are circular depressions on the river bed formed by the swirling action of
E

a river where pebbles carried in the water form a circular depression on the river
bed and leave holes on it (Figure 4.9).
N

Pot holes
LI
N
O
R

River
FO

River bed
Figure 4.9: Pot holes

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River gorges and canyons The middle course of a river
Gorges are deep and narrow elongated This is also known as the mature stage
steep sided valleys or troughs formed of a river. It is characterised by a gentle
as a result of vertical erosion of a river. slope which decreases water velocity.
A canyon is a widened deep gorge. The major function of a river at this stage
Conditions for formation of gorges is transportation of the load and lateral
include the following: erosion that opens up the valley to attain
a U-shaped valley. Boulders and pebbles
(a) It is formed where river erosion are deposited at this stage. The river

LY
cuts down more rapidly than the valley attains almost a straight course.
forces of weathering. For example, At this stage, the river may be joined
the Indus and Brahmaputra gorges by tributaries, hence increase in river

N
were formed by powerful rivers volume. The increase of the river volume
cutting down at the same rate leads to the increase of energy to carry

O
in the Himalaya ranges. Other large river load. At this stage the main
gorges include the Grand Canyon activity of the river is transportation.
of the Colorado River in U.S.A Besides, the deposition function of the
which is nearly 500km long and
has a depth of 1.9 km.
(b) It is formed when a river cuts
SE
river starts. Features formed at this stage
are meanders and bluffs on the outside
bank and slip off slope on the inside
U
through limestone rocks in arid meander.
regions. An example is the Grand
Meanders
Canyon of the Colorado River in
Meanders are formed when a river
the U.S.A, the largest and best-
E

performs lateral erosion, which leads

known canyon in the world.
to the development of curves as a result
N

(c) When a waterfall is formed on of deposition of the river load on the

a resistant rock layer that is concave side, as shown in Figure 4.10.
LI

horizontal or is gently dipping Examples of river meanders are found

upstream. Stiegler’s Gorge found along river Ruaha in Iringa, Tanzania.
N

in Rufiji river in Tanzania is an

example for this condition. Bluffs
Bluffs are raised steep banks bordering
O

(d) When the river flows in a faulted

the river, formed after the interlocking
river bed which makes it erode
spurs have been cut back through lateral
more vertically than laterally.
R

erosion, thus the river valley becomes

wide. Figure 4.10 is an illustration of
FO

bluffs.

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Wide valley floor
Bluff (spur end) Line of bluffs
Meanders

LY
Figure 4.10: Meanders and bluffs

N
The lower course of a river alluvial soil. Alluvial soils are fertile and
This is the lowest section of a river therefore suitable for agriculture. The

O
course. It is also known as old stage of flood plain is characterised by deposition
the river. At this stage, the river meanders of a load of sand and silt carried by the
over a broad flood plain. In this section, river. It is also characterized by meanders
deposition on the river course is the main
function. The gradient of the river is
SE
which are prominent and cut-off develops
and produces ox-bow lakes.
very low and so deposition occurs due to An ox-bow lake
U
insufficient energy of the river to carry its An ox-bow lake is a crescent-shaped lake
load. The load carried becomes heavier that is formed from river meanders cut
and deposition takes place both on the off from main stream in the flood plain.
E

river floor and on the river banks. The Ox-bow lakes are typical features of
heavy load such as gravel is deposited meandering rivers, and result from river
N

vertically on the bed while the finer and erosion on concave banks and deposition
less heavy load is deposited laterally on on convex banks. Erosion on concave
LI

the river banks. Features associated with banks enables the river to make a new
the lower course of the river include way while deposition on the convex
N

flood plains, natural levees, ox-bow lakes slopes helps to silt up the former course.
and delta. Stages in the development of an ox-bow
O

The flood plain lake are described below:

A flood plain refers to an area of gentle or (a) Development of river meanders.
R

flat land bordering a river with deposited The river keeps on twisting and
sediments. Beyond this lower stage, lie turning in the flood plain. Concave
FO

wetlands and ox-bow lakes. When the and convex banks develop. A neck
natural levees break, the river invades the of land separates two concave
adjacent plains (flooding) and deposits banks where erosion is active
a large quantity of silt which turns into

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(Figure 4.11). The narrow neck ox-bow lake. After the formation
of land between the two concave of an ox-bow lake, the river lies
banks is narrowed by erosion. above the level of the ox-bow lake
River meander due to the raising of the river bed
and banks. Examples of ox-bow
lakes are found in the flood plains
of Rufiji river in Tanzania and
Mississippi river in the U.S.A.
Sometimes due to decline in

LY
gradient, a flood plain may be
formed at the middle stage of a
Figure 4.11: Meander river. Example in Ruaha river in

N
The neck is finally cut off to a Tanzania.
new way. At this stage, deposition A natural levee

O
begins to seal up the ends of the A natural levee protects a river from
meander (Figure 4.12 a and b). flooding. When a river flows over its
Cut-off
SE
banks at flooding season, deposition
takes place on the river banks. Repeated
flooding causes the banks to be raised
to form levees. Levees are formed as a
U
result of lateral deposition of sand and
silt (Figure 4.13). They protect the river
from evading the adjacent plains.
E

Figure 4.12(a): Meander cut-off

Natural levees
N

River
Ox-bow lake
LI
N
O

Figure 4.13: Natural levees

R

Deferred junction and deferred stream

FO

Figure 4.12(b): Ox-bow lake

After a long period of deposition, the
(b) Deposition takes place along the bed of a river is also raised. In some
two ends of the cut-off and it is occasions a river flows above the level
eventually sealed off to form an of its flood plain. When this happens,

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the tributaries find it difficult to join the main river. As a result they flow parallel
to the main river for a considerable distance. This delayed junction with the main
stream is called a deferred junction and the tributary in the flood plain is called a
deferred stream, as shown in Figure 4.14.
Main stream Levees

LY
N
Deferred stream Deferred junction

O
(yazoo stream)

Figure 4.14: Deferred junction and deferred stream

Delta
SE the river to obtain enough load.
Progressive deposition of a load at the (b) The gradient of the river should
U
old stage of a river leads to the formation be very low.
of a delta. A delta is a low-lying swampy (c) There should be no large lakes in
plain which slowly becomes colonized the upper and middle courses of
E

by various types of plants. The growth the river. The presence of lakes
of a delta interferes with the flow of a and reservoirs in the upper course
N

river causing the river to split up into reduces the river speed and allows
several separate channels in the same deposition before reaching the
LI

way as river braids. A river flowing over flood plain.

its delta divides into branches called (d) The coast where the river
N

distributaries. Rivers that flow into the enters a lake or ocean should be
open ocean with strong waves do not tideless and sheltered from strong
O

form deltas. This is because running currents, to avoid washing away

water carries all the sediments away as of the load.
R

fast as they get deposited. The following (e) There should be a shallow
are the necessary conditions for the adjoining sea or continental shelf
FO

development of a delta: to allow deposition. However, it

(a) There should be active erosion in should be an area with weak back
the upper and middle courses of wash waves.

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Types of deltas
There are four types of deltas, namely
arcuate delta, bird’s foot or digitate delta,
estuarine delta and cuspate delta.
An arcuate delta
Refers to a type of delta which is
triangular in shape. It is composed
mainly of coarse sediments such as
gravels and sand. Arcuate deltas have a

LY
large number of distributaries. Examples
Figure 4.16: Digitate delta
of arcuate deltas are the Nile delta in
Egypt and the Rufiji delta in Tanzania An estuarine delta

N
(Figure 4.15).
This refers to a type of delta that develops

O
in the submerged mouth of a river,
called an estuary. Its shape is that of an
estuary. Due to the presence of tides,
SE
this type of delta does not extend out to
the sea. Waves and currents remove the
sediments as they are deposited (Figure
U
4.17). Examples of estuary deltas are
River Ob in Russia, River Volta in Ghana
and River Congo in the Democratic
Republic of Congo (DRC).
E

Figure 4.15: Arcuate delta

N

A digitate delta
It is a type of delta which looks like the
LI

foot of a bird, with claws. That is why

it is referred to as a bird’s foot delta.
N

It is composed of very fine material

called silt. This type of delta has long
O

distributaries which are far apart and

dominated by levees. Weak currents
R

and sea waves contribute much in the

formation of a digitate delta. The delta
FO

is characterized by few distributaries Figure 4.17: Estuarine delta

(Figure 4.16). Examples of such deltas
are Mississippi River delta in USA and
Omo River delta in Ethiopia.

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A cuspate delta River rejuvenation
This is a tooth -like delta, formed where River rejuvenation is a renewal of the
a river reaches a straight coastline with erosive power of a river. The river is
a strong wave action. There is uniform characterized by vertical erosion at the
spreading of materials on either side of upper course which deepens its valley.
the river mouth (Figure 4.18). Lagoons River rejuvenation can be caused by
are rarely found there. Examples include an uplift or fall of the land. It is also
the deltas of rivers Ebro in Spain and formed where a new and an old river
Tiber in Italy. meet and when there is increase in the

LY
river volume which can be caused by
heavy rainfall or melting of ice.
Depending on the nature of the

N
underlying rocks, river rejuvination can

O
lead to the formation of knick points,
paired terraces and raised meanders.

SE
Knick points
These are formed when there is a break of
slope of the river bed due to occurrence
of faults along the river. They are marked
U
with the presence of waterfalls.
Figure 4.18: Cuspate delta
Paired terraces
E

These are formed when the vertical

Exercise 4.1 erosive power of the river undercuts
N

Answer all questions. the river banks to form steps or benches

on the sides of the river (Figure 4.19).
LI

1. Draw a long profile of

a river and outline the Incised meanders
characteristic features of
N

These are formed when vertical erosion

each stage. of the river cuts the meanders deeply
O

2. With the aid of diagrams, into the river floor. The slopes of the
describe why erosion is meanders may differ due to undercutting
dominant at the upper and lateral erosion of a river. One side
R

stage and deposition at may be steeper than the other side of the
the old stage of the river. slope (Figure 4.19). Incised meanders
FO

can be symmetrical if the sides are

3. What are the conditions equally standing or asymmetrical if one
necessary for the formation side is steeper or gentle than the other.
of an ox-bow lake?

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Paired terraces geological structures, climatic condition
Incised meander
or denudation history of the area.

There are two main systems of river

drainage, which are accordant and
discordant drainage systems. The types
of drainage patterns are determined by
rock structure, its hardness and nature
of slope as well as erosive power of

LY
the river system. These factors have
Figure 4.19: Paired terraces and incised
influence on the development of several
meanders
drainage patterns. The major ones are

N
discussed in this section.
Activity 4. 1
An accordant drainage system

O
In a group: An accordant drainage system is one
which correlates to the relief and geology
(a) discuss and write down
how the renewal process
of a river can occur at the
SE
of the area it flows. The drainage
pattern that is largely a reflection of
the geomorphological and geological
mature stage of the river.
structure of the place is divided into
U
(b) make a presentation in the five drainage patterns, namely trellis,
classroom. rectangular, radial, dendritic and
centripetal.
E

Dendritic pattern
N

Drainage system of a river This is a pattern which looks like a

trunk of a tree with its branches or like
Drainage is a natural or artificial removal
LI

a leaf with its veins. A pattern has many

of surface and sub-surface water from
tributaries from different directions
one area to another. The area drained by
N

joining the main river at an acute angle

a river and its tributaries is known as a
(Figure 4.20). This pattern is common
river basin. A drainage system can also
O

in the world and generally develops in

be referred to as a drainage network.
low relief areas (with gentle slopes and
The main river and its tributaries form a
uniform rock structure). The direction of
river system. Rivers form layouts called
R

a river and its tributaries is determined

drainage patterns. A drainage pattern
by the slope. River Rufiji, Pangani and
FO

is the spatial layout or arrangement

Ruvuma provide dendritic drainage
of a river. It is a geometric shape that
patterns in Tanzania.
a river forms as a result of different

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the main river at a right angle (Figure
Tributaries
4.22). Rectangular patterns are common
in areas which are faulted and a good
example is the Bamenda Highlands in
Cameroon. It is a result of structural
control with streams following joints
or fault lines.
Tributaries joining the
Main river main river

LY
Figure 4.20: Dendritic drainage pattern

N
Trellised pattern

O
It is a pattern that develops in areas
with alternate hard and soft rocks. The
tributaries join the main river valley at
almost right angle. They develop mainly
in limestone regions (Figure 4.21).
SE
Tributaries joining the
U
main river Main river flow

Figure 4. 22: Rectangular drainage

E

pattern
N

Radial pattern
It is a drainage pattern or arrangement
LI

of streams flowing outwards, down the

Main river flow flanks or slopes of the dome or cone
N

shaped upland, like a large volcano

(Figure 4.23). The stream flows outward
O

from the summit in all directions. Radial

Figure 4.21: Trellis drainage pattern patterns are found in the flanks of
mountain Kilimanjaro, Elgon, Cameroon
R

Rectangular pattern and Kenya.

This is a pattern which is similar to the
FO

trellised, but it has tributaries joining

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Discordant drainage
Stream flow
A discordant drainage system is one
which does not follow existing relief
features and geological structure of the
area. It is divided into two patterns,
namely antecedent and superimposed
drainage.
Antecedent drainage pattern
This is a drainage system where the

LY
Figure 4.23: Radial drainage pattern
river maintains its course by cutting the
Centripetal pattern newly uplifting relief keeping pace with
This is a drainage pattern in which all uplifting process (Figure 4.25). Examples

N
streams flowing from all directions of antecedent drainage include River
converge at the centre in the basin. The Ruaha in Tanzania and Brahamaputra

O
determining factor for its occurrence and Indus in India.
is slope. A centripetal pattern usually Stream cuts through
forms an inland drainage (Figure 4.24).
Examples of a centripetal drainage
include drainage into lakes Naivasha,
SE rising mountain

Baringo, Turkana in Kenya, and Lake

U
Chad basin in Chad. Other examples
include Lake Balangida in Hanang
Uplift
District and Lake Haubi in Kondoa,
E

Tanzania.
Stream flow
N

Figure 4.25: Antecedent drainage pattern

Superimposed drainage
LI

A superimposed drainage pattern is a

system which does not adjust with the
N

structure of the original rock by cutting

deeper through the existing landforms. It
O

does not adjust no matter the hardness of

the rock materials, but rather maintains
R

the same path, as illustrated in Figure

4.26.
FO

Figure 4.24: Centripetal drainage pattern

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Superimposed stream cuts through
older rocks regardless of topography

LY
N
O
Figure 4.26: Superimposed drainage pattern

Figure 4.27 presents an illustration of river drainage system categories.

Drainage SystemSE
Accordant Discordant
U
Dendritic Superimposed
Trellis
E

Radial Antecedent
N

Centripetal
Rectangular
LI

Figure 4.27: Drainage systems and patterns of a river

N

River capture
River capture also known as river piracy, is a process whereby a powerful river
O

diverts the course of the other neighboring weak rivers into its own course (Figure
4.28). A stronger river develops a pirate stream which advances towards a weaker
river until it totally captures the weaker river and diverts it to the stronger river
R

course.
FO

Conditions necessary for a river capture to occur

A river capture occurs due to the following conditions:
(a) The capturing river should be stronger or must have greater energy for
vertical erosion than the weak river;

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(b) The capturing river must be lying at a lower level and usually with a steeper
gradient than its weaker river;
(c) The capturing river must be flowing over relatively softer rocks. For example,
limestone rocks which are easily eroded;
(d) The two rivers must fall in the same catchment area; and
(e) The capturing river must have a pirate stream which has both powerful
vertical and headward erosion.
Landforms resulting from a river capture

LY
River capture can lead to the formation of pirate stream, elbow of capture, misfit
river and wind gap as shown in Figure 4.28.
Pirate stream

N
This is referred to as the capturing river. It is powerful and performs headward
erosion to capture the neighbouring weak river.

O
Elbow of capture
It is a band produced when a river has been diverted. However, not all right-angled
bends in rivers are due to river capture. SE
Misfit river
U
It is a beheaded stream having lost headwaters due to river-capture and has been
reduced in volume such that it becomes too small for its valley.

Wind gap
E

It is a valley of the beheaded stream below the point of capture or elbow and its
base may be dotted with gravel or alluvium. The wind gap is also referred to as
N

a dry valley.
LI

Elbow
Pirate river Wind gap
N

Misfit river
O
R
FO

(a) Before capture (b) After capture

Figure 4.28: Features formed by river capture

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River regime Impacts of rivers to human life
River regime refers to the seasonal Rivers have both positive and negative
fluctuation of water volume in the river. impact on human beings as discussed in
The following are three major types the following subsections.
of river regimes: simple, double and Positive impact of rivers
complex regimes. (a) Rivers provide water for domestic
Simple river regime uses such as cooking, drinking
This is a regime in which there is one and washing. For example, River
period of maximum volume of water on Ruvu is a source of water for Dar

LY
rain season and one period of minimum es Salaam;
volume of water on dry season. Ruvuma (b) Rivers provide ideal sites for
and Ruaha rivers in Tanzania are good the generation of Hydroelectric

N
examples. Power (H.E.P). For example,
the Pangani and Kihansi falls in

O
Double regime
Tanzania and Victoria falls along
Occurs where a river attains double
Zambia-Zimbabwe border are
maxima and minimum of water volume.
used to generate H.E.P. The power
A period of maxima volume of water
occurs along the equatorial zone like
Congo river. The increase of volume of
SE is useful in industries and homes;
(c) Alluvial deposits provide fertile
soils which are suitable for crop
U
water resulting from early summer snow
farming, for example, the Rufiji
melt and autumn-winter rains like Rhine
River Basin in Tanzania, the Nile
river in Europe. Double regime also
Valley in Egypt and the Hwang-
occurs in equatorial region where rivers
E

Ho River Valley in China;

like Congo and Amazon experience
(d) Rivers are sources of water for
maxima on March and September.
N

irrigation schemes. For example,

Complex regime the Kilombero sugarcane
LI

It is a regime of rivers passing through plantations in Tanzania are

various climatic regions. Such rivers irrigated by water from Kilombero
N

have several periods of maximum river, the Gezira irrigation scheme

volume of water since their tributaries in Sudan gets water from the
O

flow through regions with different Blue Nile, also the Mwea-Tebele
rain seasons. Examples of rivers with irrigation scheme in Kenya;
(e) Rivers provide a habitat for
R

complex regime are Nile river in Africa

and the Mississippi in U.S.A. The aquatic organisms such as fish
and frogs. Such organisms are for
FO

Mississippi river receives water from

different tributaries of Tennessee and example, Kihansi frogs which are
Ohio rivers. a source of tourist attraction;

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(f) Some rivers are navigable, so they infiltrate through because they are porous
can be used to transport goods and or pervious. Porous rocks have open
people from one place to another. texture, coarse-grained constituents and
Examples are Congo river in the loose cementation. These rocks include
Democratic Republic of Congo, sand, sandstone and gravel. Pervious
Nile river in Egypt, the Rhine river rocks such as carboniferous limestone,
in Europe and the Mississippi in chalk and jointed granite have joints and
U.S.A; and fissures through which water passes.
(g) Some rivers are used to mark

LY
Rocks which do not allow water to
boundaries between territories
infiltrate are refered as impermeable
or geographical units. For
rocks. If the impermeable rock underlies
example, River Ruvuma marks

N
a permeable rock the latter becomes a
the boundary between Tanzania
water-holding rock. The water holding
and Mozambique.

O
rock is sometimes called an aquifer
Negative effects of rivers (Figure 4.29). Examples of impermeable
Rivers can also have negative impact on rocks include granite, gabbro and cliorite.
human life as shown below:
(a) If polluted, rivers can spread
SE
The percolation of water stops when it
reaches impermeable rock, forming a
level of saturation or water-table. The
waterborne diseases such as
pores of rocks at this place are always
U
cholera and bilharzia;
filled with water. The level of the water
(b) Dangerous animals such as table fluctuates with seasonal changes
crocodiles and hippos live in in temperature and precipitation. The
E

rivers. These animals attack lowest level of water in an aquifer is

fishermen and other people who called the permanent water table. Any
N

use rivers or live nearby such level above it is a temporary or seasonal

areas; and water table. Aquifers are important
LI

(c) During times of heavy rains, river sources of water.

N

banks can overflow and cause

Groundwater may appear on the surface
floods that may lead to loss of
as springs or wells. A spring may push
O

biodiversity, life, properties

out water depending on the nature and
and destruction of important
relationship of the rocks in which the
infrastructures.
groundwater is held. A well differs from
R

Groundwater a spring in the sense that, the well is

Water which penetrates through the soil dug by man to extract water from the
FO

into the bedrock is called groundwater. aquifer. The position of the water table
Some water seeps through permeable is of vital importance in the sinking of
rocks. Permeable rocks allow water to wells. Wells which are sunk far down

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to the permanent water table contain water throughout the year while those sunk
just to the temporal water-table often dry up in the dry season.

LY
Aquifer

N
O
Water seeps out of an aquifer to forms
springs or well

SE
Figure 4.29: Aquifer

Groundwater in limestone or karst These features are formed when water

U
regions containing weak carbonic acid enters
the rocks through joints and dissolves
Groundwater influences the formation
them as it seeps down the cracks. A
E

of landforms in limestone regions. A

hole through which a river enters the
limestone is a well jointed permeable
underground water is called a sink-hole
N

rock of calcium carbonate. Groundwater

or swallow hole. These holes may merge
is absorbed into the limestone rock and
to form large hollows called dolines.
LI

mostly penetrates downward through

When many dolines join together, they
joints. There are many features that
form uvalas and when several uvalas
N

are formed on the surface of limestone

merge they form a very large depression
regions and others are formed under the
known as polje. As most of the surface
O

ground. Surface features include sink

water disappears underground, there is
holes or swallow holes, dolines, uvala
an absence of surface drainage in these
and polje (Figure 4.30).
R

areas.
FO

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Dolines
Sink hole
Uvala
Polje

LY
Figure 4.30: Surface features in limestone regions

N
Features that are formed underground in a limestone region include caves, stalactites,
stalagmites, natural pillars and resurgence rivers (Figure 4.31). Beneath the

O
surface, the weak acidic water continues to dissolve the rock forming caverns or
caves. As the dissolved rock drops from the roof of the caverns through joints and
falls to the floor, water evaporates, leaving behind rock features.
SE
Stalactites are sharp and slender calcite features growing from the roof of the
cave pointing downwards while the rock solution that drops on the floor of the
U
cave grows slender structures of calcite that point from the floor upwards known
as stalagmites. When stalactites and stalagmites join, they form natural pillars.
Some examples of caverns, stalactites, stalagmites and pillars are found in Amboni
Caves in Tanga, Tanzania. Some of the groundwater may flow for long distances
E

as underground rivers before finding its way to the surface as resurgence rivers.
N

The roofs of underground caverns and rivers may collapse to form gorges.
LI

Cave
N

Stalactite
O

Pillar
R
FO

Underground river Stalagmite

Figure 4.31: Ground features in a limestone region

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Exercise 4.2

Answer all questions.

Choose the correct answer.
1. Which of the following is an agent of erosion, transportation and
deposition of materials on the earth’s surface _____.
(a) mass wasting
(b) running water
(c) weathering

LY
(d) vulcanicity

2. Rain water which flows on the surface without following a proper

N
channel is called?
(a) groundwater

O
(b) river
(c) runoff

3.
(d) spring SE
The section of a river characterized by a sharp V-shaped valley and
interlocking spurs is_____.
U
(a) the old stage
(b) the middle stage
(c) the young stage
E

(d) the mature stage

N

4. Meanders and ox-bow lakes are characteristic features of rivers in

LI

the _____.
(a) young and old stage
N

(b) long profile stage

(c) middle and old stage
O

(d) old and young stage

5. The young stage of a river is usually dominated by _____.

R

(a) erosion and transportation

FO

(b) erosion and deposition

(c) transportation and deposition
(d) erosion only

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6. Renewal of a river’s power to erode its valley is called _____.
(a) river capture
(b) river meanders
(c) river rejuvenation
(d) river drainage

7. River piracy develops as a result of _____.

(a) decrease in erosive power of a weak stream

LY
(b) washing away of interlocking spurs
(c) deposition in the middle stage of a weaker stream
(d) backward or head ward erosion into a weaker stream

N
8. At which stage of a river is deposition dominant?

O
(a) The young stage
(b) The old stage


(c) The middle stage
(d) All stages
SE
9. One of the conditions for the formation of a delta is that, there must
U
be _____.
(a) enough load deposited in the middle course
(b) active erosion in the upper and middle courses
E

(c) a coast characterized by heavy tides, especially where the

N

river enters the sea

(d) enough load deposited in the upper and lower courses
LI

Action of ice Thick accumulation of ice on a slope

N

When water temperature falls below makes the bottom layers melt under
freezing point, solidifies to form ice. pressure. This action triggers off the
O

The action of ice on the earth is referred movement of ice downslope. A mass of
to as glaciation. Tiny droplets of water moving ice is called a glacier. Glaciers are
(water vapour) in the atmosphere may common in polar and subpolar regions
R

also freeze to form white powdery on snowcapped mountains in temperate

regions and on very high snowcapped
FO

flakes called snow. In polar and sub-

polar regions, extensive areas may be mountains in the tropics. Examples are
covered by a permanent thick layers of the glaciers on top of Mount Kilimanjaro
ice and snow called ice sheets. in Tanzania.

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A snowline is a line on a hill slope or Plucking on the back wall of the basin
mountain side that represents the lower steepens it, while abrasion on the floor
limit of permanent snow. Below this deepens it. Sometimes a cirque can be
line, the snow that falls during summer filled with water to form a corrie lake or
will melt. The elevation of the snow tarn. Telek Tarn on the slope of Mount
line varies considerably in different Kenya is an example of a corrie lake.
regions. In the tropics, the snowline is
as high as 5 500 metres above sea level. An arêtes
Glacial erosion involves the processes This is a steep-sided-knife edged ridge

LY
of plucking, abrasion and sapping. separating two cirques or corries in a
Plucking involves the removal of blocks glaciated highland area. It is formed by
of bedrock which have been loosened by plucking back of the cirque. Examples

N
ice. This process is common in areas with of arêtes are found on the sides of
jointed rocks. Abrasion occurs when mount Matterhorn in the Swiss Alps, in

O
rock debris frozen into the base of the Switzerland.
glacier is dragged over the surface bed
A pyramidal peak
rock thus eroding the surface. Sapping
involves wearing of rocks by alternate
freezing and thawing of water at the
base of cracks along the mountain sides.
SE
It is a sharp peak formed when the sides
of the cirques are cut and deepened by
frost action.
U
Pyramidal
Highlands glacial erosional features Arete
peak
Features produced by glaciations in
Corrie
highlands differ from those produced
E

in lowlands. While in the highland

there is erosion, in the lowlands there
N

is deposition. The main features

LI

produced in highland glaciated areas

include arêtes, cirques, pyramidal peaks,
hanging valleys, glacial lakes, truncated
N

Figure 4.32: Erosional glaciation

spurs, u-shaped valleys, ribbon lakes and features in highland
O

fiords (Figure 4.32). These features are

formed through glacial erosion processes A u-shaped valley
of plucking, abrasion, freezing and It is a steep-sided valley with a flat floor
R

thawing (sapping). produced by vertical and lateral erosion

of moving ice. Hanging valleys are
FO

A cirque produced by unequal down cutting on

This is also known as a corrie. It is a the tributary valleys and the main valley.
steep sided, semi-circular basin curved Greater erosion of the main valley by
on the side of a mountain by a glacier. the greater mass of ice will deepen the

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floor so that the tributary valleys hang above the main valley and form a hanging
valley. When a glacier flows through interlocking spurs it straightens the valley
by cutting the projecting spurs to form truncated spurs with steep ends.

Lowlands glacial erosional features

Erosional features of glaciated lowlands are roche moutonnee and crag and tail.
These features are described in the section that follow.

Roche moutonnee

LY
It is formed when a resistant residual mass of rock rises above the surrounding
land surface. The upstream side is smoothed by ice abrasion but the leeside of the
rock is plucked to form a steep slope (Figure 4.33)

N
Grevasses

O
ent
vem
Glacier
mo
SE
U
Figure 4.33: Roche moutonnee

Crag and tail

E

This is a mass of resistant rock with a steep ice smoothed rock face at one end
and a gentle slope of a rock glacier drift at the other side of the rock (Figure 4.34).
N
LI

Eroded Less resistant rock

steep side
N

gives the tail

O
R
FO

Movement of ice
Resistant rock (crag)

Figure 4.34: Crag and tail

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Glacial depositional features
Depositional features produced in highland glaciation include moraines, drumlins,
eskers, outwash plains, erratic and boulder clay plains as shown in Figures 4.35
and 4.36.

Moraine
These are rock particles and fragments mainly transported and deposited by glacier.
There are four types of moraines namely lateral, medial, ground and terminal (Figure
4.35). A lateral moraine is the load carried along the sides of a glacier. A medial

LY
moraine is formed when adjacent lateral moraines join while a terminal moraine
is a bulk of the debris transported at the front of the glacier and deposited when
the glacier melts. A ground moraine is carried as load at the bottom of the glacier.

N
O
Medial moraine

Terminal moraine
SE
U
OW
FL
ICE Lateral moraine
E
N

Figure 4.35: Moraines

LI

Drumlins
These are elongated hills or ridges of boulder clay usually oval and half egg-like
shape. They occur about 1 kilometer long and between 25 to 100 meters high.
N

They often occur in groups giving rise to a “basket of eggs-like” topography.

O

They are depositional features formed when materials carried by the ice exceed
its capacity and get deposited.
R

Eskers
These are long, narrow, meandering ridges of sand and gravel. They are about 40
FO

meters high and their materials occur in layers. They are formed when ice retreats
leaving bonded materials following the pattern of the stream.

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Outwash plains
These are wide, gently sloping plains of fluvial glacial deposits of sand, gravel
and silt which result from massive volumes of melt water, spreading materials.
Erratics
These are boulders of varying sizes which are deposited by ice sheets and glaciers
when the ice melts. Erratics help in tracing the direction of the quaternary ice flow
but when they occur in large numbers, they hinder farming activities.
Boulder and clay plain

LY
It is a uniform boulder plain resulting from deposition by ice sheets and glaciers.
It is an extensive flat low-lying land consisting of boulders and clay that were
randomly deposited by ice sheets.

N
Esker Boulder and clay
Drumlin

O
ier
glac Outwash plain
Rec
eed ing
SE
U
E
N

Kettle lake
LI

Figure 4.36: Features of glacial deposition

N

Importance of glaciation
O

Glaciated landforms have economic importance to human life in different ways.

For example, corries may become good sites for formation of lakes. Corrie lakes
R

in Switzerland and Canada have helped in attracting development of the countries’

tourism industry. Hanging valleys may form waterfalls suitable for generating
FO

hydro-electric power, a good example is found in Switzerland. All these features

create good sceneries for social recreation, study and tourism. Glaciated highland
areas attract tourists because of the spectacular features they form. Such features
include pyramidal peaks, arêtes and cirques. Winter sports are also possible in

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these areas. Materials deposited by glacial erosion like sand and gravel can be
used for building. Furthermore, areas which are under glacial activities have very
few diseases because the prevailing cold conditions do not favour the survival of
vectors like mosquitoes and snails. Fertile soils like moraine soils are useful for
agricultural activities including cultivation and pasture.

Revision exercise 4

Section A

LY
1. Match each item in Column A against its corresponding item from
Column B.
Column A Column B

N
(i) Water in a solid form (a) snow

O
(ii) Removal of blocks of rock due to ice (b) ice
action
(c) glacier
(iii) Erosional features caused by action of
(d) arête, corrie and
ice in the highlands
(iv) Moving mass of ice
(v) Glacial depositional features which
SE pyramidal peak
(e) abrasion
may hinder cultivation if they occur in (f) plucking
U
large numbers
(g) moraines
(vi) Frozen water in a powder form
(vii) Rock particles and fragments mainly (h) roche moutonnee
E

transpoted by glacier (i) erratic

N

2. Describe the importance of erosional and depositional features formed

by the action of ice.
LI

3. Describe the following features:

(a) Snowline
N

(b) Moraine
(c) U- shaped valley
O

(d) Glaciated landform

4. Distinguish between the following:
R

(a) Sheet erosion and rill erosion

(b) Corrasion and corrosion
FO

5. In which ways can the physical features associated with ice and
glacier be turned into economic opportunities?

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Section B
Choose the appropriate answer from the box.

karst scenery, sink hole, spring, caverns, ice cap, gorges, moraines,
stalagmites, glacier, basket of eggs, hydraulic action, stalactite,
topography, abrasion, pyramidal peaks

6. A mass of moving ice is known as _____.

7. A thick, permanent layer of ice on an elevated plateau is termed as

LY
_____.
8. Erosion by glaciers is geographically referred to as _____.

N
9. Structures which grow downwards from the roof of a cavern due to
evaporation are referred to as _____.

O
10. An opening through which a stream disappears to form underground
stream is known as _____.
11. SE
Features which are formed when the roof of a cavern collapses are
known as _____.
12. A landscape of sink-holes, underground streams and caves is known
U
as _____.
13. Groundwater appearing as an outflow on the surface is known as
_____.
E

14. One of the erosional features of glaciers is termed as _____.

N

15. Scenery groups of drumlins are termed as _____.

LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter
Five
The action of wind and waves
on the Earth’s surface

Introduction

LY
Forces that act on the earth’s crust or close to the earth surface, through the
action of wind and waves produce different features on the landscape. In this
chapter, you will learn about wind processes, actions and the resultant erosional

N
and depositional features in the arid (desert) regions. You will also learn about
wave action as well as features produced by wave erosion and deposition in the

O
ocean. The competencies developed in this chapter will enable you to identify
the resulting landscape features of wind and wave actions and sustainably make
use of the features for wellbeing.

The action of wind in desert

SE
Determinants of wind action
areas The action of wind could be slow or fast
U
Wind is air in motion. The frequently depending on the speed and strength
blowing wind in desert and semi-desert of the wind, nature of the load being
regions normally act as a key agent of transported, obstacles in the path of the
E

erosion, transportation and deposition. wind such as vegetation cover as well

A desert is a landscape characterised as weather conditions.
N

by sparse or no vegetation and receives

The speed and strength of wind determine
very little or no rainfall for prolonged
LI

the distance and size of the load

period of time.
transported. Winds with high velocity are
Due to the scarce vegetation and usually stronger, and therefore transport
N

broad open landscape wind blows more heavier materials than winds of
strongly compared to other areas hence lower velocity. Weather conditions
O

contributing to the hostility of the areas to associated with weak winds lower the
both plants and animals. In humid regions rate of transportation while conditions
R

erosion by wind is less manifested. This associated with strong winds increase
is because rock particles in humid areas the speed and distance of transportation.
FO

are bound together by water and plant Nature of the load transported also
roots. However, areas where vegetation influences the distance moved. Lighter
have been cleared and the land is bare, materials are moved longer distances
wind erosion is more experienced. compared to heavier ones. Also, lighter

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materials are carried even higher in the sometimes very extensive. Generally,
air compared to heavier ones. light fine material is carried over greater
Obstacles in the path of the wind also distances than coarse rock fragments
affect transportation by wind. For which are carried over short distances
instance, large rock boulders, bushes, or rolled along the ground because they
tall buildings and vegetation block wind are heavier.
thus reducing its velocity and strength to Abrasion
carry the load. Wind gradually drops its This refers to the constant blasting,
load by starting with heavier materials. grinding and scratching of rock surfaces

LY
Although vegetation cover reduces the by sand and rock fragments carried by
velocity and strength of the wind in wind, which hurls these against the rock.
such a way that the materials cannot Abrasion is most effective at the base

N
be transported over long distances, it of rocks because the load of the wind is
binds together the materials of the earth’s greater here. Abrasion contributes to the

O
surface, thus reducing the impact of formation of features like rock pedestals,
deflation. zeugens, yardangs and ventifacts.
Weather conditions also affect
transportation rate by wind. When it
rains some of the dust particles in the
SE
Attrition
Attrition refers to the breaking up of rock
particles through collision against each
air are washed down by the rain, and other as they are transported by wind
U
sunny weather facilitates abrasion and from one place to another. The outcomes
deflation. Meanwhile, moist surface of this process are the formation of
bound materials together by moisture. rock particles which form the essential
E

Essentially, wind action causes erosion, materials of extensive sand deserts. This
transportation and deposition. Wind process results into the formation of sand
N

erosion and deposition form features dunes and barchans.

unlike transportation. The wind erosional
LI

and depositional features formed depend Features formed by wind erosion

more on the type of rocks and nature and Features which result from wind erosion
N

strength of the processes of wind action. are rock pedestals, yardangs, zeugens,
deflation hollows, inselbergs and
O

Wind erosion ventifacts. These features are described

The mechanism of erosion by wind in the following subsections.
involves three processes, namely
R

Rock pedestals
deflation, abrasion and attrition. Rock pedestals are tower-like structures
FO

Deflation or shapes composed of alternate bands

Deflation refers to the blowing away of of soft and hard rocks. They are also
rock waste that lowers the land surface called mushroom rocks. Example of the
and produces depressions that are rock pedestals is in the Gara Mountains

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in Saudi Arabia. They are primarily formed by wind action whereby weak band
of the rock gets eroded while the hard band remains to form rock pedestals as
shown in Figure 5.1.

Before Soft rock After

Hard rock

LY
N
O
Figure 5.1: Rock pedestals

Yardangs
SE
Yardangs are elongated rock ridges of about 100-500 metres long with gentle
slopes separated from one another by furrows. These standing ridges are 5 to 15
meters high with lengths of up to 1000 metres. Yardangs are formed when layers
U
of soft and hard rocks are vertically arranged one beside the other, and lie parallel
to the direction of the prevailing wind. Wind abrasion erodes the softer rocks to
form troughs and leaves the more resistant rocks standing as ridges. These ridges
E

are called yardangs as shown in Figure 5.2. Examples of yardangs are found in
Salah (Central Algeria) and near Kom Ombo in Egypt.
N

Before After
LI

Yardangs
Hard rock
N
O
R

Soft rock
FO

Figure 5.2: Yardangs

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Zeugens
These are flat-topped ridges with steep slopes which are separated by grooves or
furrows in desert regions. They may be up to 30 meters high. Zeugens are formed
when layers of hard and soft rocks lie horizontally, one above the other. Mechanical
weathering opens up joints on the surface rock, therefore enabling wind abrasion
to erode the underlying softer layer. They result into the formation of a ridge and
furrow landscape. The formed ridges are called zeugens, as shown in Figure 5.3.

Before After

LY
Zeugens
Soft rock

N
O
Hard rock
SE
Figure 5.3: Zeugens
U
Deflation hollows
These are depressions in desert regions resulting from wind removal of loose
materials from flat areas of dry-uncemented sediments normally in deserts. Small
E

hollows called pans are common in the Kalahari Desert. Larger depressions like the
N

Qattara depression in Egypt were formed by wind deflation. When these hollows
are filled with water they form oases. Some deflation hollows may be influenced
LI

by faults as shown in Figure 5.4.

N

Depression produced Prevailing wind

by deflation
O
R
FO

Figure 5.4: Deflation hollow

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Inselberg
These are isolated steep-sided and
round topped masses of rock that rise Hard rock
from flat plains. They may be formed
through wind action that takes away the
weathered particles leaving a mass of
resistant rock standing like round topped
masses (Figure 5.5). They occur due to
the removal of weathered fragments by

LY
wind erosion. Inselbergs are common
Soft rock
in the Kalahari Desert, part of Algeria,
North West Nigeria, Mozambique and

N
Western Australia.

O
Figure 5.6: Ventifacts (Dreikanter)

Inselberg
SE
Transportation by wind
Materials that are transported by wind
U
Talus could be in form of dust, silt, boulders
boulders
and pebbles. Transportation by wind
takes place in three processes, namely
E

suspension, saltation and surface creep

or traction. Suspension is a process of
N

transporting fine materials held in the

Figure 5.5: Inselberg air above the ground. Dust and other
LI

small particles are usually transported by

wind in this way. The process whereby
Ventifacts
N

materials are transported by bouncing on

Ventifacts, also known as dreikanter, are
the ground as they are moved by wind
sharpened and flattened rocks, smoother
O

is called saltation.
in their wind facing sides due to sand
blasting by the action of wind. The Since this process occurs in a repeated
materials are too heavy to be transported manner, the materials can be transported
R

by wind as shown in Figure 5.6. across a reasonable long distance.

FO

When strong winds carry much heavier

materials which can neither be uplifted
nor bounced, the process is called surface
creep. During surface creep, materials

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roll on the surface from one place to another and the distance moved depends on
the strength of the wind.

Activity 5.1

Read different books or visit websites to identify different wind erosional features,
then do the following.
(a) draw different wind erosional features in your exercise book.

LY
(b) Using a clay soil or modelling clay, mould a model resembling wind
erosional feature.
(c) With the supervision of your subject teacher, describe the moulded

N
feature in the classroom.

O
Exercise 5.1

Section A
Choose the correct answer.
SE
U
1. The dominant agent of erosion, transportation and deposition in arid
and semi-arid regions is called _____.
(a) running water
E

(b) ice
(c) wind
N

(d) waves
2. Erosion by wind takes place through the processes of _____.
LI

(a) abrasion, attrition and deflation

(b) abrasion, collision and blowing
N

(c) collision, abrasion and attrition

O

(d) deflation, blowing and dust

3. The following are processes of transportation by wind _____.
R

(a) abrasion, attrition and deflation

(b) plucking, abrasion and saltation
FO

(c) soil creep, mudflow and jumping or bouncing

(d) saltation, suspension and surface creep

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Section B
Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect
statement.
4. Saltation is a process of transporting materials by bouncing on the
ground.
5. The process of removing finer grains of silt and clay from the earth’s
surface is called deflation.
6. Most of the desert features like yardangs, zeugens, barchans and

LY
many others are attractive to tourists.
7. Wind transports sand particles more easily than rock and stone
particles.

N
Section C

O
Write short answers on the following:
8. State the differences between inselbergs and ventifacts.
9.

Wind deposition
SE
How does the process of wind transportation occur?

barchans and seifs or longitudinal dunes.

Other sand depositional features include
U
Many factors account for the nature
and distribution of wind depositional loess deposits.
landforms. The nature of the surfaces Sand dunes
from which the sand is worn away, is These are hills of sand deposited by wind
E

one of the key determinants. These in the desert. The formation of dunes is
may consist of deep sand, bare rock or
N

influenced by vegetation cover, size of

weathered rocks and pebbles. Eroded the sand particles, relief of the desert
LI

materials are transported by wind and and the velocity of wind. There are two
eventually deposited to form depositional types of sand dunes, namely barchans
features of different types and shapes.
N

and seifs dunes.

Factors that influence the rate of wind
(a) Barchans
O

deposition include the nature of land

surface on which wind is blowing. For Barchans are crescent-shaped sand dunes
example, presence of obstacles like which occur individually or in groups.
R

Their development can be caused by an

buildings, vegetation or hills influences
fast deposition. Similarly, decrease in obstruction such as a shrub or a rock.
FO

the speed of wind influences deposition.The windward side of a barchan is gently

sloping and the leeward side is steep and
Features formed by wind deposition slightly concave as Figure 5.7 shows. A
Features formed due to obstructed wind barchan moves slowly forward as grains
include sand dunes of two types, namely

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of sand are carried from the windward side to the leeward side. The migrating
barchans can bury settlements and farms. Barchans are found in Western Libya,
Eastern Chad, Northern Niger and Mauritania.
Horns

Barchans

LY
Wind

N
O
Figure 5.7: Barchans

(b) Seif dunes

SE
Seif dunes are long narrow ridges of sand which lie parallel to the direction of
the prevailing wind, as shown in Figure 5.8. The dominant wind blows straight
along the depressions between the dune lines, keeping them clear of sand, while
U
eddies help to build up the sides of the dunes. A seif dune usually develops from
a small sand ridge which as it forms it slowly moves forward in the direction
of the prevailing winds. Seifs are often several hundred metres high and many
E

kilometres long.
N

Seif dunes
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 5.8: Seif dunes

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Loess
This is an accumulation of fine particles of sand transported and deposited by
wind beyond the desert limits. Some of these particles are blown into the sea
while the rest are deposited in the desert margin where they accumulate to form
loess. Loess occurs extensively in the loess plateaus of Northern China at Hwang
Ho (Yellow River). It is also found in Central Belgium and France. Loess leads
to the formation of fertile soil.

Activity 5.2

LY
Read materials related to wind erosion and deposition, then;
(a) describe the mechanisms of wind erosion in your exercise book.

N
(b) with the aid of illustrations show the features formed by wind erosion.

O
(c) explain how features formed by wind action contribute to the economy
of the country.

Exercise 5.2
Section A
SE
U
Choose the correct answer.
1. These are some of the features resulting from wind erosion _____.
(a) inselbergs, cliffs and barchans
E

(b) rock pedestals, yardangs and zeugens

(c) ventifacts, sand dunes and deflation hollows
N

(d) seif dunes, barchans and transverse dunes

LI

2. Water sources that develop in deflation hollows in the desert are

called _____.
N

(a) springs
O

(b) oases
(c) geysers
(d) mudflow
R
FO

3. The crescent-shaped depositional features found in desert are called

_____.
(a) seif dunes

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(b) zeugens
(c) yardangs
(d) barchans

Section B
Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect
statement.
4. Loess areas are not good because they constitute soils that are formed

LY
from fine-grained dust blown by wind from deserts.
5. Some of the features that are formed by wind action are barriers
to transportation across deserts.

N
6. Human activities accelerate erosion by wind.

O
Importance of wind erosion and
depositional features
Wind erosion and depositional features
SE Activity 5.3

have great importance including In a group, discuss with

U
provision of productive land and tourist examples the significance of
attractions. Loess deposits form fertile wind action to human life.
soil which favours the growth of crops Write this information in your
E

like grains, cereals, fruits and sugarcane. exercise books.

Water in the oases and deflation hollows
N

can be used for irrigation, domestic and Wave action and coastal
industrial purposes. In addition, such features
LI

water can be a useful habitat for aquatic The constant action of waves, currents
organisms.
N

and tides alter or modify the shape of

Features formed due to wind erosion and the coastline by creating both erosional
O

deposition such as sand dunes, zeugens, and depositional features. A coastline is

yardangs and rock pedestals can attract a strip of land bordering the sea. In some
both domestic and foreign tourists, inturn cases, a coastline may have cliffs and
R

boost the countries’ economies and beaches composed of sand and pebbles.
increase foreign currency. Furthermore, A coastline is therefore subjected to
FO

wind erosion and depositional features constant effects of waves. This makes
provide sites for geographical study. wave action a dominant agent of coastal
or marine erosion and deposition.

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Coastal erosion
Waves are most powerful agents of coastal (also referred as marine) erosion. They
are caused by winds which set up a series of undulating water swells which flow
forward and backward. The water from breakers creeps up the beach as swash
and retreats as backwash. The swash wave is more powerful than the backwash
wave. Therefore, swashes are termed as constructive waves because they deposit
materials on the sea shores (Figure 5.9(a)). Constructive waves have stronger
swash than backwash to the extent they deposit materials easily along the shore.
Backwashes are termed as destructive waves because they take materials from the

LY
shore back to the sea (Figure 5.9(b)).
Strong wash

N
Ocean

O
Weak backwash

SE
Figure 5.9(a): Constructive waves
U
weak wash
E

Ocean
Strong backwash
N

Figure 5.9(b): Destructive waves

LI

The extent to which wave action shapes water impedes waves forward
or modifies the coasts depends on the movement, while deeper water
N

following factors: encourages powerful strong

(a) Strength of the wind that blows waves to reach the shores. Strong
O

over the sea. The stronger the waves have greater effect than
wind the greater the effect. weak waves;
Usually, strong winds generate (c) Nature of the rocks on the coast.
R

stronger waves which lead to Weaker rocks are eroded easily

more destruction or construction; than stronger ones. The chemical
FO

(b) Depth of the sea water along composition of the rocks also
the coast. Strong or weak wave determines the rate of erosion in
formation depends on the depth the coast; and
of the sea. Normally, shallow

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(d) Alignment of the coast. Waves example, water can react with
reaching an indented coastline salt rocks and desolve it. This in
wear back the outstanding turn causes the rocks to become
headlands which are suitable less resistant to erosion hence, get
for the development of natural carried away easily.
harbours while waves reaching a Features produced by wave erosion
straight coast will be refracted. Wave erosional features along the coast
There are four main processes involved include cliffs, wave-cut platforms, capes
in marine erosion by waves, namely and bays, caves and arches, stacks,

LY
hydraulic action, corrasion, attrition blow holes and geos. These features are
and solution. described in the sections that follows.
(a) Hydraulic action Cliff

N
This process takes place when A cliff is formed when wave erosion

O
water is hurled against a cliff undercuts the shore to form a steep slope
causing air in cracks and joints towards the sea or ocean (Figure 5.10).
to become suddenly compressed.
Repeated compression and
expansion eventually result in
rock fragmentation. It is the
SE Cliff

Wave cut
platform
Clif
U
ability of the moving water or f re
trea
t
wave to dislodge and transport
rock particles. Ocean
E

(b) Corrasion
Corrasion also known as abrasion
N

Figure 5.10: Cliff and wave cut platform

is the process whereby boulders,
pebbles and sand are thrown Wave cut platform
LI

against the base of a cliff by A wave cut platform is a fairly flat part
breaking waves and this causes of the shore that develops when a cliff
N

undercutting and rock breaking. is pushed back by waves, whereby the

(c) Attrition rock wastes form a terrace. This terrace
O

Attrition occurs as boulders and becomes widened to form a wave-cut

rocks are hurled against the shore platform, as shown in Figure 5.10.
R

and against each other by breaking Caves and ledges

waves and they gradually break When a cliff consists of layers of
FO

up into small pieces. different rocks, or rocks with joints or

(d) Solution faults, the less resistant rocks are eroded
Minerals in some rocks react more rapidly. Through abrassion and
chemically with sea water. For hydraulic action, they are turned into

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hollows which later become caves at sea level while the most resistant rocks
project seawater as ledges (Figure 5.11).

Caves Ledge

LY
N
Figure 5.11: Cave and ledge

O
Blow hole
This is an opening formed when a cave tunnel becomes enlarged and extended
into the top of the cliff. This opening is called a blow hole (Figure 5.12).
Blow hole SE
U
E

Figure 5.12: Blow hole

N

Geo
This refers to a long narrow inlet of the sea that penetrates into a cliffs. Geos are
LI

formed as a result of the collapse of the roof joining the cave and a blow hole
(Figure 5.13).
N

Geo
O
R
FO

Figure 5.13: Geo

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Natural arch
This is formed when caves develop on either sides or both sides of the headland such
that they ultimately join together to form a natural arch, as shown in Figure 5.14.
Stack
This is a pillar of rock formed when natural arches collapse, separating the headland
from its terminal. This terminal is called stack and is left standing on the seaward
side of the cliff line, as shown in Figure 5.14.
Stump

LY
This is an isolated mass of rock that has been formed as a result of a stack being
considerably eroded and hence reduced in size, as shown in Figure 5.14
Headland Arch

N
O
SE Stack
Stump

Figure 5.14: Stack, stump and natural arch

U
Waves as agents of deposition produced by waves deposition.
The rate of deposition in the ocean or Beaches
E

along the coast is influenced by the energy, These are formed when the eroded
frequency of breaking waves, gradient materials are transported and deposited
N

of the shore, supply of the sediment, on the sea shore. Such materials include
configuration of the coastline and depth sand, boulders or mud and shingles. A
LI

of the water. A shore with a gentle slope shore is the distance between the highest
reduces the velocity of the backwash water tide and the lowest water level in
N

leading to deposition of materials. Also, the sea, lake or ocean. A beach may also
abrupt changes in coastline direction lead be defined as a gently sloping platform
O

to halting of longshore drift and hence formed when constructive waves deposit
deposition of sediments. Deposition sand, shingles and pebbles upon the
occurs more where the swash is weaker
R

shore. A beach covered by sand is called

than the backwash. The swash moves the a sandy beach (Figure 5.15) while the
materials up the beach and the weaker
FO

one covered by shingle is called shingle

backwash is unable to return the material beach. Shingle beaches are also referred
carried by the swash to the sea. The to as rocky or pebble beaches.
following sections describe features

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LY
N
O
Figure 5.15: Sandy beach in Zanzibar
Source: tanzania-bush-and-beaches-1.jpg (1500×430) (barkingzebratours.com)

Spit SE
It is a low-lying narrow ridge of sand or pebbles joined to the midland or island
on one end and the other end terminating into the sea. It is formed by a longshore
drift. It usually lies perpendicular to the coast and it is also known as an offshore
U
bar, as shown in Figure 5.16.
Sand bar
This is a ridge of sediments which is parallel to the coast (Figure 5.16). It is
E

normally formed at the river mouth. A bar differs from a spit in the sense that a
N

spit lies perpendicular to the coast while a bar lies parallel to it.
LI

Spit
N
O
R
FO

Sand bar

Figure 5.16: Spit and Sand bar

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Tombolo
This occurs when one end of a spit is attached to the mainland and the other is
attached to an offshore island. It is a ridge which starts as a spit then grows out
into the sea and finally joins the coast and offshore island, as shown in Figure 5.17.

Tombolo Coast
Off shore island

LY
N
O
Mud flats
SE
Figure 5.17: Tombolo

These are formed when tides deposit fine silt along a bay or an estuary. This silt
U
together with alluvium result into a platform of mud called a mudflat. When these
mud flats consist of vegetation like grass and mangroves, they form a swamp. The
vegetation is called salt marshes because it grows in areas where water is salty
E

(Figure 5.18).
Mudflat
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 5.18: Mudflats

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Socio-economic importance of coastal Coral reefs
erosional and depositional features A coral reef is a limestone rock which
Features resulting from coastal erosion are made of calcium carbonate and
and deposition have the following calcareous algae formed when coral
importance: polyps die. Polyps are tiny sea creatures
of many colours and shapes, some with
(a) Extensive coastal plains sponge-like shapes, while others are
provide suitable sites for human smooth and rounded with a hard skeleton
settlement; of calcium carbonate.

LY
(b) High tides can be harnessed to Formation of coral reef coasts
produce hydroelectric power. (A When coral polyps die, their skeleton
good example can be cited from made of calcium carbonate accumulates

N
Northern France); to form coral limestone. Calcareous
(c) Water masses and oceans at the algae which precipitates calcium

O
coast modify the climate of the carbonate helps to cement the space
surrounding regions; between the skeleton. Thereafter, the
skeleton is compressed and compacted
(d) Beaches are used for recreational
activities such as jogging,
swimming and playing grounds
SE
under its own weight to form a coral reef.
The process of piling up of skeletons,
compressing and compacting them by
U
for different games; and
using their own weight helps to form
(e) The features create employment masses of rocks called coral reef coasts.
opportunities to the local In order for the coral polyps to survive
E

community such as tourist guides they should develop in tropical oceans

who earn money directly from the on the eastern side of the continents
N

tourists. between 30°N and 30°S of the equator

where temperature is not less than 21°C.
LI

Exercise 5.3 They need clear oxygenated water with

plentiful supply of plankton (food for
N

Answer all questions. polyps). Again they need sediments, free

1. Describe how the processes salt water and sunlight which penetrate
O

of wave erosion occur. about 50 metres deep. They also need

2. Explain the importance plentiful supply of plant food. There are
three types of coral reefs namely fringing
R

of coastal erosional and

depositional features. reefs, barrier reefs and atolls. These
types are described in the sub-sections
FO

that follow.

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Fringing reef
This consists of a platform of coral connected to, and built out from a coast. The
seaward edge sloping down into deep water falls steeply to the sea floor. The
distance of the reef from the shore ranges from 450 metres to over 1 800 metres.
A fringing reef grows seaward from the land. It is separated by a shallow lagoon
between the coast and the edge of the reef, as shown in Figure 5.19. It is found
along the coasts of Tanzania and Kenya. Despite being evident in Tanzania and
Kenya, the fringing reefs extend from Mozambique to Somalia.

LY
Lagoon Fringing reef

N
O
Sea

SE
Figure 5.19: Fringing reef
U
Barrier reef
This is normally located several kilometres away from the shore, and is separated
from the shore by a deep water lagoon or any other body of water, as shown in
Figure 5.20. The coral of the barrier reef is often joined to the shore, although the
E

lagoon may be too deep for coral to grow on its bed. A good example of a barrier
N

reef is Mayotte Island located between Malakasis and Mozambique.

LI

Deep water
Barrier reef
N
O
R
FO

Figure 5.20: Barrier reef

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Atoll reef
This is a circular-elliptical or horse shoe shaped coral reef enclosing a lagoon
without islands in between, as shown in Figure 5.21. Atolls are common in the
Pacific and Indian oceans. Some atoll reefs are very large, for example, the Suradiva
in the Maldives which is 64 km long. The best example of an atoll in Africa is the
Aldabra atoll that lies between Zanzibar and Madagascar about 700 km from the
African coast.
Reef

LY
N
Sea

O
Figure 5.21: Atoll reef

Importance of coral reefs

(a) They provide good fish breeding grounds;
SE
U
(b) They attract tourists who contribute to the national income and in turn boost
the economy of the country. Mbudya Island in the Indian Ocean near Dar
es Salaam and numerous coral rag sites in Zanzibar are good examples of
coral islands that attract tourist;
E

(c) They provide habitats for sea turtles, algae and fish;
N

(d) They act as raw materials in pharmaceutical industries, for example, the
production of Plaster of Paris (P.O.P);
LI

(e) They are used as raw materials in manufacturing of cement and gypsum
N

powder;
(f) They protect coastlines from erosion, flooding and storm damage; and
O

(g) They are used for decoration.

R

Disadvantages of coral reefs

(a) They hinder development or occurrence of natural harbours;
FO

(b) They are barriers to navigation since they tend to lead to the development
of shallow lagoons;

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(c) They block waves hence hindering development of erosional and depositional
features like beaches and curves which can be tourists attractions; and
(d) Coral masses discourage swimming in the sea or oceans. Diving in coral
coasts is dangerous.

Activity 5.4

Read various textbooks and documents on actions of winds and waves,

LY
then do the following:
(a) use illustrations to describe features formed as a function of wave
erosion and deposition.

N
(b) write a summary on the importance of coastal erosional and

O
depositional features to human life.
(c) explain how you would apply the competencies developed after
studying this chapter in your daily life.
SE
U
Exercise 5.4

Answer all questions.

E

1. Explain the processes involved in the formation of coral reefs.

2. Categorise the features in the box below into their respective erosional,
N

depositional or coral reef features.

LI

spit, bays, wave-cut platforms, lagoon, caves, beaches, cliffs,

arch and stack, tombolo and mud flats
N
O
R
FO

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Revision exercise 5

Section A
Choose the correct answer.
1. Marine erosion is a constant action of _____.
(a) Wind and running water
(b) waves, currents and tides
(c) swash and backwash

LY
(d) wave breaks

2. This is not a factor influencing the extent to which wave action shapes

N
the coast _____.
(a) the strength of wind

O
(b) the depth of the sea along the coast
(c) the type of ocean currents washing the coast
SE
(d) the nature of rocks on the coast

3. The most active agent of marine erosion and deposition is _____.

U
(a) wave
(b) current
(c) tide
E

(d) wind
N

Section B
LI

Answer the following questions:

4. Define coral reef.
N

5. Describe the necessary conditions for coral formation.

O

6. With examples, describe the three types of coral reefs.

7. What are the advantages and disadvantages of coral reefs to human
R

beings?
FO

8. What will happen if dynamite fishing continues along the East zone
of the Indian ocean?

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Chapter
Six Soil

Introduction
Soil is an important component of life on earth. Both flora and fauna depend on

LY
the soil for their survival. In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning of
soil, factors for soil formation, its composition, importance, characteristics, and
simple classification of soils. You will also learn about soil erosion and ways of

N
conserving the soil. The competencies developed from this chapter will enable you
to conserve soil as an essential natural resource. This will help to increase land

O
productivity and enhance industrial productivity for the wellbeing of the society.

Concept of soil sandy soil. The important factors for soil

Soil is the thin uppermost layer of the
earth’s crust composed of inorganic and
SE
formation are parent rock, climate, relief,
living organisms and time as explained
organic materials. Soil constitutes rock in the equation: S= f(p, c, r, l)t whereby;
U
particles, mineral matter, water, air, ‘S’ stands for soil, ‘f’ stands for factors
decayed matter and living organisms. for soil formation, ‘p’ stands for parent
The constituents are in different rock, ‘c’ for climate, ‘r’ for relief, ‘l’ for
living organisms and ‘t’ for time.
E

proportions, thus forming different soil

types. Soils are important as they support
N

growth of useful vegetation to animals Climate

and humans. They are also used for Climate is an influential factor that
LI

supporting different activities such as determines the nature of weathering

agriculture and forestry. in a particular area. Climate has the
greatest role in soil formation through
N

Factors for soil formation precipitation, temperature and wind.

O

Weathering is the key process in soil These elements of weather influence rock
formation, this is because the inorganic weathering, rate of chemical reactions
matter in the soils is derived from and the characteristics of the soil. A
R

weathered materials known as regolith. place with more rain is likely to have
This may consist of transported materials a better developed soil than a dry area
FO

such as alluvium, colluvium and loess or because water is necessary for chemical
it may be partially weathered materials reaction and biological activities. The
derived from the underlying parent rock. chemical reaction decomposes the
For example, sandstone will produce a parent rock to produce small particles

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and contributes to chemical properties of Relief or topography
soil. Biological activities are important Steep slopes develop thin layers of soils
for the breakdown of rock materials and because the weathered materials are
addition of organic materials. removed easily while in gentle slopes
Temperature affects both chemical and lowland areas deep soil is formed
reactions and biological activity in because of the accumulation of eroded
the soil. Relatively higher temperature materials from the steep slopes. Most
accelerates the rate of chemical soils on flat areas are poorly drained
weathering and biochemical changes because infiltration rate is low. Soil at

LY
of soil organisms. Chemical reaction is lower areas is better developed since most
generally increased by relatively higher of the weathered and eroded material are
temperature. Thus, tropical soils are accumulated here. Gentle slopes have

N
likely to have parent materials which are deep soils while flat or lowlands soils are
thoroughly altered chemically, whereas even deeper. Such areas are recipients of

O
soils of the frozen tundra region have organic and inorganic materials eroded
parent materials which are composed from elsewhere. This makes chemical
largely of mechanically broken materials. weathering more effective. In areas of
High temperature also influences rock
disintegration through alternate change
SE
depressed lowland, the soil is always
young as it is poorly drained. Thus it
may become water logged, for example,
of temperature at night and during day
U
time. peat soil.
Living organisms
Bacterial activities are increased by
Plants and animals play an important role
warmer soil temperature. In the humid
E

in soil formation. Plants supply organic

tropics, bacteria decompose most of
matter such as leaves, twigs, fruits and
the dead plants that lie on the ground.
N

seeds when decomposed. Plants and dead

However, there is little humus on the
animals are decomposed by bacteria and
top soil of the humid tropics because
LI

changed into soil. Vegetation affects soil

much of the humus formed is leached.
development since it supplies most of
In forests of cold continental climates,
N

the organic materials and minerals after

decomposition by bacterial action is
decomposition. Plant roots and animal
reduced and therefore the ground is
O

burrowing help the disintegration of

covered by a layer of decomposing and
rocks to produce smaller particles. In
partially decomposed vegetation. Wind
addition, organisms such as ants, worms,
R

may increase the rate of evaporation

and mice contribute in mixing minerals.
from the soil and may remove surface
Human beings are also a part of living
FO

soil in arid regions. Wind-blown dust

organisms which play an important
may accumulate and form the parent
role in the formation of soil through
material of a soil.
various activities including cultivation,

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construction and irrigation. Soil also determines the type of natural
Parent materials vegetation of a place. In addition, soil
Parent materials are unconsolidated is used in the construction of buildings
minerals and organic deposits in rocks and making of pottery which uses well-
from which soils develop. These sieved soil, for example, sand and clay.
materials are the key factors for soil Soils are habitats for living organisms
formation which contribute to the such as ants, bacteria, earthworms and
physical and chemical characteristics snakes. Furthermore, in a battle ground,
of soil, for example, soil structure, colour people might make tunnels in the ground

LY
and texture. The parent materials are for protection. Dead bodies and other
weathered under the influence of climate rubbish are buried in the soil, which
and organisms to form soil. For example, decompose and add humus to the soil,

N
soil developing on weathered granite will thus contributing to soil fertility. In
be sandy, while soils derived from basal addition, soil is a source of minerals

O
and limestone have a fine texture. Soil since it is derived from parent materials
fertility also depends on the nature of of different composition. Researchers
parent materials, for example, an infertile use soils to investigate mineral content,
sandy soil may result from sial parent
materials.
SE
to support agricultural development.
On the other hand, some soils are of
cultural value in some communities. For
Time
U
example, red ochre and clay are used for
Time refers to the duration taken in body decoration by the Maasai. Clay is
the process of soil formation from the also mixed with herbs and used by some
beginning to the time it matures. This communities for medicinal purposes.
E

means a newly broken up rock will take

time before it is changed into actual soil.
N

The longer the time a rock is exposed to Components of soil

weathering agents, the more it contributes Soil is mainly composed of different
LI

to maturity of the soil. Soil is referred materials which include organic matter,
to as mature if it has been acted upon inorganic matter, water and air.
N

by all soil-forming processes for a long

period of time, to develop a permanent Organic matter and living organism
O

soil profile. Soil can take about 3 000 Organic matter and living organisms
to 12 000 years to become sufficiently constitute 5% of soil components.
mature for farming. Organic matter includes humus derived
R

Importance of soils from decayed remains of organisms,

FO

fallen leaves and grasses. Plant and

Soils support plant growth which animal remains are the main sources
includes a wide range of vegetation and of organic matter. Soil organisms such
crops, depending on the type of soil. as bacteria and fungi break down the

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organic matter depending on the nature Water
of the soil forming processes. They also Soil water or moisture accounts for
perform weathering through burrowing. 25% of the soil. Water contained in the
Plant roots also penetrate the soil for soil is called soil water. It is derived
further breakdown. Decomposed essentially from rainfall runoff and
vegetation and plants add nutrients in irrigation. Water is important for
the soil. regulating soil temperature, dissolving
Organic matter is very important because and transferring nutrients, controlling
of its role in the formation of humus. chemical reactions in the soil as well as

LY
Humus is important because of the mechanical weathering. Water also plays
following: a significant role of washing soluble
minerals such as salts from the top soil

N
(a) It improves the soil structure. to the sub-soil. This process is known
A soil with humus has a well- as leaching.

O
developed soil profile as the
top layer will consist of enough Air
organic content; Soil contains gases which account
for 25% of soil components. Air is
(b) It increases pore space, making
it easier for air and water to
penetrate the soil;
SE
contained in pores (spaces between
soil particles) forming what is referred
to as soil atmosphere. It is this air that
U
(c) It reduces exposure of soil to provides oxygen for the metabolism of
erosion. Organic matter improves soil organisms. Air accelerates oxidation
soil compaction and supports and biological activity. Well-aerated soil
vegetation cover, thus reduces is productive while poorly-aerated soil
E

soil erosion; is less productive. Soil air facilitates

N

(d) It minimizes the leaching of plant growth as plant roots can efficiently
nutrients; and absorb water and mineral nutrients in the
LI

(e) It provides suitable medium for presence of oxygen. Soil air may include
valuable soil organisms. gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide and
N

nitrogen.
Inorganic matter
Soil properties
O

Inorganic matter constitutes 45% of the

total volume of the soil. It is formed Soil has physical, chemical and biological
when the parent rock disintegrates properties. These are discussed in the
R

into small particles. Mineral matter or sections that follow.

inorganic particles in the soil range in Physical properties of soil
FO

size from stones (feldspar) to relatively Physical properties of the soil include
small particles (clay), for example, porosity, colour, texture, density and
feldspar to clays. structure.

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Soil porosity smooth, sticky) and how it responds to
Porosity is the total amount of pore spaces rubbing between the fingers and thumb.
in a soil. The total volume of available Sand particles feel gritty and can be seen
pore spaces in a soil is a result of the individually with the necked eye. Silt
texture and structure of the soil. Soil particles have a smooth feel to the fingers
with coarse materials like sand have big when dry or wet and cannot be seen
pore spaces while soil with fine materials individually without magnification.
(grains) has small pore spaces. Sand and
clays are good examples, respectively. Table 6.1: Soil particle size(s) and type(s)

LY
Pores in the soil horizons control the Particle diameter Name of the
movement of water (intake, flow, and in (mm) soil
drainage) and air circulation. 2.00 – 0.2 Sand

N
Soil colour 0.2 – 0.02 Fine sand
This is the most obvious characteristic 0.02 – 0.002 Silt

O
of soil. From soil colour it is easy to tell Less than 0.002 Clay
how a soil has been formed, its contents
as well as its fertility. For example, a soil
which is dark in colour is rich in humus,
while red colour indicates the presence
SE
Soil texture in relation to the types of soil
is described graphically in a soil texture
triangle (Figure 6.1). A soil texture
of ferrous minerals. triangle is drawn to show the relation of
U
Soil texture sand, silt and clay concentration in soil.
This refers to the coarseness or fineness Texture concentration determines the
of a soil, relative to the size of individual type of soil. Naming of soil depends on
E

particles. These particles can be classified the textural percentage of particles. For
according to their size, from gravel, sand, example, if the ratio of silt is 65%, sand
N

silt to clay. Soil texture is important is 15% and clay is 20%, then the soil
because it determines the capacity of type will be silt-loam. In a soil texture
LI

the soil to retain water or release it. Table triangle, each corner of the triangle
6.1 shows soil particles and their sizes. represents a soil type consisting solely of
N

particle sizes, as illustrated in Table 6.1.

Soil texture can be estimated by sense
O

of feel. This is how the soil feels (gritty,

R
FO

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100 0
90 10
80 20

Pe
30

rce
70

nt
60
lay

40 Clay

sil
c

ay
50 50
nt

Cl
Silty

Sil
rce

40 clay

t
60 Sandy
Pe

clay Clay loam Silty clay

30 70 Sandy clay loam
loam

LY
20 80 Loam
Sandy loam Silt loam
10 90
Loamy Silt
0 100 Sandy sand
Sand
10

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0

N
Percent sand
Figure 6.1: Soil texture triangle

O
Soil structure and pore spaces while particle density
Soil structure is the appearance of soil by represents only the mass per unit volume
arrangement of individual soil particles
within the soil or the way soil grains
are grouped together to form larger
SE
of the soil solids. Pore spaces are not
included.
Chemical properties of the soil
pieces of aggregates. The structure These are properties relating to chemical
U
of the soil particles is described on processes taking place in the soil. The
the bases of shape and arrangement. major chemical properties of soil are its
That is, some soil clumps are made of acidity or alkalinity. Acidity or alkalinity
E

vertical columns, some have platy soil is determined by the amount of hydrogen
structures and others have spherical, ions in the soil and is commonly
N

primatic, blocky structures and so on. measured by a pH value. Soil with a pH

Soil structure determines plant growth value 7 is said to be neutral, with a value
LI

and the rate of soil erosion. less than 7 is acidic, and that with a value
Soil density greater than 7 is alkaline. Plants differ
N

Soil density is dry mass per unit volume. in their tolerance to acidity or alkalinity
and this influences their distribution. For
O

As the density of any object is measured

by mass divided by its volume, soil is example, coffee does well in acidic soils
measured in units expressed in grams per while leguminous plants thrive well in
R

cubic centimetre (g/cm3) or megagrams alkaline soils because each of the crop is
per cubic meter (Mg/m3). The two soil sensitive to a specific pH level. Human
FO

densities are bulk density and particle beings can treat the soil either to raise
density. Bulk density represents soil or lower its acidity.
density as a whole, including solid

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Biological properties of soil layer, there exists decomposed organic
The biological properties of soil refer matter, and that is why it is dark-brown
to the variety and concentration of in colour. In this layer the materials are
living organisms in the soil. Organisms washed downward where by nutrients
that may be contained in the soil are are taken from the topmost layer to
earthworms, bacteria and fungi. In lower layers. This process is known
moist areas with a lot of plant remains, as eluviation. The layer below the A
such as in the tropical forests, there is horizon is known as the B horizon. This
a high concentration of earthworms is the subsoil which is poor in humus,

LY
and bacteria, whereas in arid and semi- thus has a light colour. It is also less
arid areas living organisms are limited in organic matter but rich in mineral
in numbers and diversity. Coniferous matter as it receives mineral matter

N
forests have a lot of moisture and plant from the A horizon. The layer below
remains but the concentration of living the B horizon is known as the C horizon.

O
organisms is low because of the acidity It is characterised by weathered rock
of the soils. Biological soil properties fragments. Therefore, it is a very hard
include soil organisms and presence of rock. The layer has little or no organic
organic matter. These organisms have
various functions in the soil. They help
breaking parent material to release
SE
matter. The last layer is the D horizon
which is the bed rock. It is a rock which
has not been weathered.
U
nutrients such as magnesium, calcium
and iron. They also improve soil structure
and enhance water infiltration.
Humus
E

Soil profile Top soil

N

A horizon
Soil profile refers to the vertical sections
LI

of soil from the surface to the bed rock, Sub soil

characterized by distinct layers usually B horizon
N

of different textures and colours. Mature

soil consists of four layers, called
O

horizons. The main layers of the soil Weathered rock

fragments
are top layer (A horizon), sub-soil (B C horizon
horizon), weathered rock fragment (C
R

horizon) and bedrock (D horizon). These

Bed rock
layers are presented in Figure 6.2. The D horizon
FO

top layer contains the finest soil particles.

Humus in a soil is usually in the upper
part of the soil which is normally termed Figure 6.2: Soil profile
as A horizon (top soil). In this particular

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Activity 6.1

1. In a group, do the following:

(a) choose a portion of land in your school compound then excavate the
soil to two metres deep.
(b) identify the layers of soil you observe.
(c) compare the layers with the soil profile you have studied .

LY
(d) draw a well lebelled soil profile showing the layers identified in (b).
2. Use locally available materials to create a soil profile.

N
(a) Describe each layer of the soil profile you have created.

O
(b) Describe the importance of the uppermost layer of soil in your daily
life.

Exercise 6.1
SE
U
Answer all questions.
1. Why is it important to learn about soil properties?
2. Describe the importance of water in the soil.
E

3. Show the relationship between time factor and soil maturity.

4. Discuss factors that influence soil formation.
N
LI

Types of soil soil type needs constant manure.

Soil can be identified on the basis of its It is suitable for horticulture and
N

texture. Soil types according to texture other root crops like carrots. In
include sandy soil, clay soil, silt soil Tanzania, sandy soils are found
O

and loamy soil. in many places, but they are

dominant in the coastal belt.
(a) Sandy soil consists mainly of sand,
(b) Clay soil consists mainly of
R

hence has sufficient air spaces. It

very fine particles, with tiny air
is commonly referred to as light
spaces. It contains little air but
FO

soil. This light soil allows water

can hold much water. Therefore,
to pass through easily taking plant
it is referred to as heavy soil and is
nutrients with it. Therefore, this
difficult to cultivate. When it dries

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up it forms a very hard surface It can be a sandy-loam soil if it
with many cracks. Clay soils are contains more sand; silt-loam
often rich in plant nutrients. Clay soil if it contains more silt; and
soils are found in Mwanza and clay- loam soil if it contains more
Shinyanga regions in Tanzania, clay. Loamy soils are well-aerated
where they are known as mbuga and drained. Most volcanic areas
soils. have clay-loam soils such as those
(c) Silt soil consists of particles of found on the slopes of Mount
intermediate size between sand Kilimanjaro in Northern Tanzania.

LY
and clay. It has more air spaces
than clay soils but less than Activity 6.2
sandy soils. Therefore, it is more

N
suitable for agriculture than both Read various texts from the library or
sandy and clay soils. Silt soils are internet sources, then do the following:

O
commonly found in river flood
(a) describe the importance of soil.
plain.
(d) Loamy soil consists of particles of (b) visit different places with
various sizes. The type of loamy
soil depends on the proportion
SE different types of soil then
write down what types of soil
of sand, silt and clay in the soil. you have observed.
U
Exercise 6.2
E

Answer all questions.

N

1. Define soil profile and clearly show its horizons.

LI

2. Read various texts from library or internet sources on the types of

soil suitable for crop production. Mention the best type of soil for
each of the following crops and give reasons.
N

(a) Coconut
O

(b) Cashewnut
(c) Coffee
R

(d) Maize
(e) Tea
FO

(f) Rice

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Soil erosion particles loose, making them easy to be
Soil erosion is the removal of the top removed by agents of erosion.
soil by agents of erosion. The agents (c) Shifting cultivation
of erosion are running water, waves, This is a common practice in areas with
ice and wind. Soil erosion is usually a sparse population. It is a system of
accelerated by human activities such cultivation whereby land is cleared by
as overstocking, removal of vegetation slash and burn methods. A few years
cover and cultivation on steep slopes after the soil has lost its fertility, the land
without erosional control measures. is abandoned and people move to other

LY
There are four main types of soil erosion, virgin lands. The soil is left unprotected
namely; wind erosion, running water because there is no vegetation cover.
erosion, wave erosion and ice erosion. (d) Monocropping

N
Water erosion is one of the most common This is a practice of planting the same
erosion types that involves splash crop on the same land for many years.

O
erosion, sheet erosion, rill erosion and This kind of farming exhausts the soil.
gully erosion. Other types of erosion The soil then deteriorates in quality,

erosion.
Causes of soil erosion
SE
include geological and accelerated becomes loose and it can be easily
eroded by using agents like water.
(e) Building and excavation works
There are various causes of soil
U
Works such as construction of roads and
erosion, which include; deforestation,
buildings, mining and quarrying are also
overgrazing, shifting cultivation,
responsible for soil erosion. These works
building and excavation works.
expose the inner soil to agents of erosion.
E

(a) Deforestation These activities involve the removal of

This is a practice of cutting down trees. the top soil by machines which then
N

When trees are cut, the soil is exposed accelerates the rate of soil erosion.
to rain droplets, sun and wind. The rain
LI

drops loosen the topsoil hence making Relationship between human population
it more vulnerable to erosion. growth and rate of soil erosion
N

(a) As human population increases,

(b) Overgrazing the demand for land also rises.
O

This occurs when plants are subjected However, habitable and cultivable,
to intensive grazing over a long period land becomes inadequate to meet
of time or without sufficient recovery the increasing demand of human
R

periods thus reducing vegetation and population. When the population

exposing the soil to agents of erosion. increases, people start to cultivate
FO

The practice reduces the compaction on hills and valleys in order to

of soil and exposes the land to erosion produce enough food to feed the
which may result to desertification. population. This trend accelerates
Similarly, animal hooves make soil

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the rate of soil erosion. In other words, it adversely affects
(b) With population increase, it agricultural activities.
becomes difficult to maintain (d) Destruction and loss of properties.
soil conservation activities as the Erosion can damage roads, houses
demand for grazing and farming and bridges. This is because soil
becomes high, hence exposing erosion goes together with de-
land to agents of erosion. attachment of rocks which act as
(c) A large population needs more the foundation of these buildings,
area for shelter, fuel wood and roads and bridges.

LY
timber. Hence, people clear land (e) Source of materials for building
to build houses, harvest building and construction. When eroded
materials and firewood. All these material is deposited in form of

N
activities expose the land to agents sand it becomes a good resource
of erosion. for building and construction

O
Effects of soil erosion purpose.
Soil erosion is a serious problem which Ways of controlling soil erosion

as follows:
SE
has many effects on economic activities People are advised to control soil erosion
by applying soil conservation methods.
(a) Environmental pollution. Eroded Soil conservation is an effort made by
U
soil that is carried into rivers, lakes people to prevent soil erosion and hence
and oceans may contain chemical retain soil fertility. There are various
pollutants that may affect aquatic measures for controlling soil erosion
life and weaken some economic which include the following;
E

activities like fishing. (a) Use of proper farming techniques

N

(b) Siltation. Siltation reduces The use of proper farming

the water depth in the dams or techniques helps in conserving
LI

river channels hence leads to the land. These techniques are

water shortage that affects some listed in the sections that follow.
N

investments like hydro-electric

(i) Strip cropping
power thus accelerate the problem
This is the practice of planting
O

of power rationing.
alternate rows of crop plants
(c) Loss of productive soil. Soil
of the same family such as
erosion involves removal of the
R

beans and peas, with open

top fertile soil, leaving the subsoil
growing crops such as corn.
which is less fertile. This in turn
FO

This practice prevents wind

leads to low land productivity,
and erosion.
increasing the likelihood of
famine and hunger occurrences. (ii) Terracing
This involves creating artificial

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steps or bends on hillsides. At different nutrients to grow and
the front of each flat terrace, mature.
strips of grass may be grown Also, one could practice
to trap any soil that might be fallowing for one season or
washed away. more so as to help the soil
(iii) Mulching recover its fertility. Fallowing
This is the use of plant remains is a process of allowing the
such as pruned leaves to cover cultivated land to rest or
cultivated ground. The mulch uncrop for one or more

LY
protects the soil from direct seasons of shorter periods to
impact of raindrops and wind. regain from loss of fertility.
In this way, the soil is protected (b) Afforestation and reforestation

N
from splash and wind erosion.
Afforestation involves planting
(iv) Intercropping

O
of trees in areas where no forest
This is a practice where two or existed before while reforestation
more types of crops are grown is the planting of trees on land that
on the same piece of land
each with different benefits
to the soil. For instance, one
SE had forests before. Trees help to
hold soil particles together so that
they are not easily carried away
could plant maize and beans
U
by wind or by running water.
in the same farm. While beans
help to improve the nitrogen (c) Education
content of the soil, maize Education on environment and
E

draws nitrogen from the soil. population growth should be

(v) Crop rotation provided to all people. This will
N

help to create awareness about

This involves growing of
conservation of the environment,
LI

different crops on the same

hence reduce soil erosion as there
piece of land on a rotational
will be proper environmental
N

basis. Crop rotating prevents

management and optimum
exhaustion of particular
population growth that will
O

nutrients from the soil as

conserve the environment.
different crops require
R
FO

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Activity 6.3

Visit a nearby area which is affected by soil erosion and there after do the
following:
(a) observe the area and mention any types of soil erosion observed.
(b) with relevant examples, explain what might be the causes of the soil
erosion observed.
(c) what measures do you propose to rectify the problem?

LY
Revision exercise 6

Section A

N
Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect statement.

O
1. Soil erosion, climate change and deforestation are some of the threats
facing soil maturity.
2. Soil formation is a function of wind and waves through the process
SE
of erosion and transportation of materials.
3. Soil contains both organic and inorganic materials like decomposed
plants and weathered rocks.
U
Section B
Match each item in Column A against its corresponding item in
Column B.
E

Column A Column B
4. The way soil grains are grouped (a) soil texture
N

together to form soil lumps

(b) clay soil
LI

5. A measure of alkalinity or acidity

of a soil (c) soil structure
N

6. Inorganic matter, organic matter, (d) soil pH

water and air
(e) soil porosity
O

7. Vertical cross-section of a soil

from the surface to the underlying (f) components of soil
rock
R

(g) soil profile

8. Have particles of intermediate
(h) silty soil
FO

size between sand and clay

9. Size of individual particles (i) soil density
composing a soil

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Section C
Fill the blanks by selecting the correct answer from the box.

Humus, Parent rock, Soil, Water, Aeration, Time

10. _____ determines the mineral composition of soil.

11. _____ reduces the supply of oxygen in the soil.

12. _____ is derived from decaying plants and animals as well as their

LY
wastes.

13. _____ plays an important role in soil formation.

N
Section D

O
Answer the following questions
14. Briefly define the following terms:
(a) Soil erosion
(b) Afforestation
SE
(c) Porosity
U
15. Distinguish between soil texture and soil structure.

16. Outline four major factors which influence the formation of soil.
E

17. Highlight various methods you would employ to control soil erosion.
N

18. Discuss the socio-economic effects of soil erosion.

LI

19. With examples explain the economic importance of soil.

N
O
R
FO

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Chapter
Seven Elementary Surveying

Introduction
Land survey is something we do in our everyday life at home. We do land survey

LY
when determining points to erect poles for chicken sheds, determining sites to
establish vegetable gardens and erecting brick beacons to dermacate boundaries
of our land or farms. In this chapter, you will learn about the meaning and types

N
of land survey on the basis of instruments used. The competencies developed in
this chapter will enable you to use survey equipment for proper land use planning.

O
The concept of land survey survey method adopted and the size of
Land survey refers to the art, science and area to be surveyed. In this chapter
technology of measuring and recording
distances, angles, directions and
elevations in order to position features
SE
you will learn about land survey and
its classification based on the type of
instruments used. Types of land survey
on the earth’s surface relatively to other include chain or tape survey, plain table
U
features or absolutely. Features or points survey, prismatic compass survey and
are fixed in reference to a particular land leveling. In this chapter however,
reference datum, direction relative to only chain survey will be covered.
E

cardinal points and or angles relative to

Chain or tape survey
the earth’s core. Land survey gives us
N

Chain survey has its name derived from

data that forms a base for planning or
the principle instrument used (chain). It
map production.
LI

was built on the principles of the oldest

method used by early surveyors when
Types of land survey
N

demarcation of the land used ropes ( see

A number of criteria exists for classifying Figure 7.1). For example, the boundary
O

land survey. Some of the criteria include between pieces of farm lands of different
survey purpose, survey equipment used, owners, was marked by rope knots.
R

Knots
FO

Figure 7.1: Rope

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However, due to technological development, chains have been replaced by more
accurate and sophisticated linear measuring devices like tapes and land measuring
wheels (see Figure 7.2).

LY
N
Tape Distance measuring wheel

O
Figure 7.2: Measuring devices

Equipment used in chain surveying

SE
The necessary equipment used in chain surveying include a chain or measuring
tape or surveyors’ band, cross staff, wooden pegs, arrows, ranging poles, note
book and drawing equipment kept in a mathematical set.
U
A chain
A chain is used to measure short straight distances. It is made up of a tempered
steel wire. At the end of the chain, there is a handle for dragging it on the ground.
E

Chains have length ranging from 20 metres to 40 metres. They are made up of
rings which are connected by links. Small links are connected by rings. The length
N

from one ring centre to another ring centre is 200 mm counted in total to the end
of handles (see Figure 7.3).
LI

200mm 200mm
(20cm) (20cm)
N

Connecting
link
O

Small Large
R

link link
Ring
FO

Handle
Tally
(brass tags at every 5meters)

Figure7.3: Chain

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A tape Pegs are usually put at a starting point
It is made of steel, coated linen, or and at any point where a survey line
synthetic material. Measuring tapes are changes its direction, as shown in Figure
available in lengths of 20, 30, 50 and 100 7.5.
metres, usually indicated on the tape. A Pegs
tape is used to measure short distances
(see Figure 7.2).
Ranging poles
Ranging poles are straight round rods

LY
ranging between 30 and 40 mm thick
Figure 7.5: Wooden pegs
and 2 to 3 meters long. They are
made of wood or light alluminium A cross staff

N
metals. Ranging poles are used to mark It is made of wood or metal with eye
temporary points or stations or straight slits at right angles fitted on a stand (see

O
line of traverse. They are marked red Figure 7.6). It is used to establish right
and white or black and white to enhance angles on the ground perpendicular to
visibility, as indicated in Figure 7.4. the survey line.

Ranging poles
SE Cross staff
U
E

Eye slit
N

Survey line
LI

Stand
N

Figure 7.4: Ranging poles

O

Pegs
Pegs are short pieces of wood or metal
R

used for marking positions permanently

during survey. Wooden pegs are normally
FO

40 mm square and 50 cm long and they

can be made locally. The pegs are erected
in the ground. They are used for marking
permanent stations along the survey line. Figure 7.6: Cross staff

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Arrows A note book
They are made of steel wire of 35 - 40 All observations and measurements
centimetres long. The steel wire are taken during chain surveying are to
normally bend at the top into a circle. be recorded in a standard note book.
They are sometimes tied up at cherty Notebooks are used during fieldwork to
with red cloth to facilitate visibility. They record the data obtained. They should
are used to mark temporary points on the be spiral bound, of good quality, and
ground during survey ( see Figure 7.7). 150 mm x 100 mm in size. A hard pencil
is used for drawing in the field and a

LY
rubber is used to erase errors (see Figure
7.8).

N
O
SE
U
Figure 7.7: Arrows Figure 7.8: Note book, pencil and rubber
E
N

Exercise 7.1
LI

Answer all questions.

1. Explain how you will use the following equipment when doing a
N

simple chain survey:

O

(a) A note book, pencil and rubber

(b) Distance measuring wheel
(c) Ranging poles
R

(d) Cross staff

FO

(e) Arrows
2. Mention the types of land survey.
3. Explain why chain survey is referred to as a simplest method of
surveying.

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Chain or tape surveying process cannot work alone in the field, he or she
Chain surveying is a method of surveying should be accompanied by assistants
in which only linear measurements are who work in the field to form a survey
taken in the field by using a chain or tape team. Mostly a survey team is composed
measure. It measures a series of straight of three people, who include a leader, a
lines on the ground and all points or follower and a booker.
features are fixed relative to the line of (i) The leading chain person(leader)
traverse by either right angles (offsets) This is the one who initiates
or tie lines.

LY
movement along the Line of
Measuring by a chain or tape Traverse (LT) by holding the
Chain or tape survey involves measuring chain and arrows and moving
of a series of short straight lines on the

N
forward.
ground with a chain or tape measure to
(ii) The follower

O
locate points with reference to the line
of traverse by using tie lines or offset This is a member of the survey
method. The line of traverse is a series team who puts the ranging pole,
of straight lines on the ground measured
by a chain or tape from fixed points such
as trees, water taps or walls in the field
SE arrow or peg at the right point
and holds the chain straight to the
point. This helps the chain person
of survey. Actually, it is the main line to extend the chain accordingly.
U
along which other lines (ties and offsets)
The follower is also responsible
are to be drawn.
in ranging as is directed by the
Tie lines
E

leading chainman. Ranging refers

Ties are lines drawn from the line of to the process of establishing a
N

traverse at an angle ranging between straight line between two points

30°and 60° to a fixed point in the field, and or establishing points in a
LI

relative to the line of traverse. However, straight line. It involves the use
ties join the line of traverse at acute of different handy signal-codes to
N

angles or obtuse angles. be followed by an assistant. For

Offsets example, when a surveyor makes
O

These are lateral measurements taken a rapid swap of a right hand to the
from an object to the chain line (survey right, means an assistant should
line) at right angles (90°). Objects or move considerably to the right.
R

details recorded can be water tap, tree, Consistently when a surveyor

building angle or pole. swaps a left arm to the left, means
FO

an assistant should plumb a rod to

A person who conducts survey activities
the left. On the other hand, when
is known as a surveyor. The surveyor
a surveyor has both hands put

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together above the head and brings down, this means the range is correct.
A surveyor can have his hands put together and extend horizontally and
brings them down quickly to mean an assistant has to fix the ranging pole
where he/she is.
(iii) The booker
A booker is a professional surveyor who works in the field as a recorder,
sketcher and collector of all data obtained during the surveying process.
Objectives of chain survey

LY
Any land survey conducted has an objective to be accomplished. Survey can be
carried out to determine the size and shape of a farm, a lake, or a mountain so as
to make plans and maps; to collect land details; to locate features; to determine

N
horizontal and vertical distance and determine direction of features, among others.

O
Exercise 7.2

Answer all questions.

1. SE
What do you understand by the following terms in chain survey?
(a) Tie lines
(b) Offset
U
(c) Line of travers
2. If you are given a task to do a survey of a particular place, how many
people will you need in your team and what are the tasks of each
E

person?
3. Why do you think people do land survey?
N

Procedures in chain survey

LI

Any land survey has to go through some steps before field measurements are
carried out. The process involves three major steps: reconnaissance, observation
N

and measurement.
(a) Reconnaissance
O

This is the first step in land surveying. It is a step which involves visiting
the area to get familiar with it before the actual survey is conducted.
R

Reconnaissance equips surveyors with general knowledge of the topography

and thereafter be able to determine types of equipment required, personnel
FO

needed and other resources which can assist in the accomplishment of the
survey activity. It can involve going through topographical maps of an area
and any relevant documents. Reconnaissance involves the following two
important considerations.

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(i) Determining the purpose Methods of establishing and setting right
or objectives of the survey: angles during chain surveying
Understanding the purpose Several methods for setting or
of the survey can help determining right angles during field
the surveyor to decide on chain surveying exists. Right angles
the method of the survey. to a detail from the survey line can be
The purpose can involve established using readymade devices
determining the catchment like optical square, a square or a cross
area of water discharge; setting staff. Sometimes schools may not have

LY
boundaries to avoid land the identified survey equipment. In a
conflicts or planning land for situation when schools are unable to
settlement and electrification afford buying those industrial survey

N
system. equipment, two methods namely; 3-4-
(ii) Preparation for site 5 and rope method can be used. Those

O
reconnaissance: methods are easy and cheap for they do
When preparing for site not require cost full equipment. Methods
reconnaissance, surveyors are described as follows;
gather available information
on the area to be surveyed,
SE
(a) Setting right angle using 3-4-5
method
prepare equipment and Requirements
U
methods in order to determine Setting right angle using this method
the accuracy needed, and in the field requires a measuring tape,
identify devices according to two wooden rods or ranging poles, few
E

accuracy needed. locally made pegs and three persons.

(b) Observation and measurement
N

Steps in setting right angle are as follows;

In this step, methods of (i) Person 1 unfolds a measuring
LI

measurement are determined. This tape and holds together the zero
step involves the establishment mark and the 12 mark of the tape
of suitable station that would (the 12 mark is a sum of 3+4+5,
N

save as control points during the (Figure 7.9)). The surveyor may
O

surveying process. The step also decide on the ratios to be used,

involves determination of the that is, it can be 7-8-9 or 9-10-
relative positions and sizes of 11 depending on the distance of
R

natural and physical features. It an offset to be recorded and the

also includes processes of taking length of the tape.
FO

measurements (booking), like

distances between two points, and (ii) Person 2 stretches the tape along
determining right angles among the survey line AB towards B
others. to a 3 metre mark and holds it
(Figure 7.9).

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A 1st person

2nd person
3m
3rd person 4m

LY
5m
C B

N
Figure 7.9 Stretches the tape towards B and C

O
Person 1 and 2 are in the same line along the same line along the survey line AB
(iii) Person 3 stretches the tape to an offset to be recorded. The angle at where
SE
person 1 stands is the right angle. The third person will be holding at 8
metre mark on the tape (Figure 7.10).
U
1st person 3rd person
E

Right angle
N
LI

2nd person
N
O
R
FO

Peg

Figure 7.10 Setting a right angle

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When all sides of the tape are Tie a rope at the peg a loop to
stretched as described in step (i) help scratch the ground (Figure
to (iii), a triangle with lengths of 7.11).
3-4-5 metres is formed.
(ii) Stretch a rope from peg towards
(b) Setting a right angle by a rope A along the survey line. Make
method sure that a loop scratches
Requirements through survey line at point C
A rope of considerable length then keep dragging a loop you

LY
depending on the distance of an offset are holding towards point D to
from a survey line, a peg, a ranging make a semi-circle as shown in
pole, a tape and three persons. Figure 7.11. Therefore, the loop
of the rope will have crossed at

N
Steps in setting right angle by using point C and D.
rope method;

O
(i) Set a peg at a detail (offset) to be
recorded (in this case, a house).
SE y
U
A
E

C
N
LI
N
O

D
R

B
FO

x
Figure 7.11 Making a semi-circle by using a rope

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(iii) Measure the distance between point C and D along the survey line (for
example, the length between point C and D is 30 metres).
(iv) Divide the distance obtained in (iii) above by two so as to get its half, that
is 30 = 15 .
2
(v) Measure 15 metres from either C towards D or from D towards C. The
point from any of the points where 15m marks reads will be a right angle
to an offset (Figure 7.12).
y

LY
A

30 C
= 15

N
15 m

O
SE
15 m

D
U
E

x B
N

Figure 7.12 Setting a right angle

Procedure of measurement in chain

LI

(a) Establish a base line AB from

survey which all measurements are taken.
Assume the objective of your chain A base line can be established
N

survey is to determine the area of the along or across the farm where it
school farm. Basing on this objective, is seen from all parts clearly. For
O

you should have to identify the example, the baseline between

appropriate equipment to be involved, A and B in Figure 7.13 is seen
R

including a pencil, rubber, a notebook, clearly.

a scaled ruler for booking, a chain, pegs
FO

and arrows for surveying. The following

are the procedures;

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Baseline

Figure 7.13: School farm

N
(b) Take measurements at right angles (90º) from the chain line (baseline)
alternately on each side of the survey line (Figure 7.14). The measurements

O
can be booked in the field during chaining.
(c) Determine the area of each trapezium and rectangles obtained from the
SE
measurements, in this case they will be areas (in m2) of ten (10) figures
(a) – (j), see Figure 7.14.
U
E
N
LI
N

Figure 7.14: School farm with measurements

O

Area (a) Area (b)

1 20 m × 15 m = 300 m 2
(8 m + 20 m) 10 m
R

2
1 Area (c)
× 28 m × 10 m
FO

2 22 m × 20 m = 440 m 2
1
× 280 m 2 Area (d)
2
= 140 m 2 20 m × 10 m = 200 m 2

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Area (e) Area (g)
22 m × 40 m = 880 m 2
1
(a + b) h
2
Area (f) 1
(10 m + 27 m) 10 m
2
16 m × 5 = 80
1
× 37 m × 10 m
2
Area (h) 1

LY
× 370 m 2
25 m × 27m = 675 m 2 2
= 185 m 2

N
Area (i) Area (j)

O
27 m × 37 m = 945 m 2 30 m × 32 m = 960 m 2

Therefore, total area =

SE
142 m2 + 300 m2 + 440 m2 + 200 m2 + 880 m2 + 80 m2 + 185 m2 + 657 m2 +
945 m2 + 960 m2 = 4 805 m2
U
The size of the school farm is 4 805 square metres
E

Booking in chain survey and it has to start from the bottom

upwards.
N

Booking is a process during which the

measurements taken in the field are (ii) Features at the right-hand side
must be recorded on the right-
LI

recorded in a field notebook. This is

normally done by a surveyor and not by hand side while those at the left
an assistant so as to avoid unnecessary hand side must be recorded on the
N

errors. In booking, the following should left-hand side of the column.

O

be taken into consideration: (iii) All offsets and ties must be shown
(i) All linear measurements should on the side they appear along the
appear at the centre of the column survey line.
R
FO

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On your booking sheet draw parallel lines as shown in Figure 7.15.

LY
N
O
SE
U
Figure 7.15: Booking sheet or page
E

(c) Presentation of the survey data elongated either due to stretching of links
collected and joints or opening out of small rings.
N

Survey data collected are presented in For accurate work, it is necessary to test
a way that can be easily interpreted and the chain from time to time. Procedure
LI

understood by the intended user. Survey for adjusting an elongated chain include
data can be presented in form of maps, the following:
N

plans, or diagrams produced in a suitable (a) close up the joints of the rings
scale and with conventional signs and found to be opened out;
O

symbols. (b) reshape the damaged rings;

Testing and adjusting the length of a (c) remove one or more small rings;
R

chain and
(d) adjust the links at the end.
FO

Due to continuous use of a chain, its

length can get altered or changed. Its If the chain is found to be too short, the
length may be shortened due to the following procedure can be followed to
bending of links or the length may be correct the length:

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(a) Straighten the bent links Advantages of chain survey
(b) Open the joints of the rings Compared to other types of surveys,
(c) Replace one or more small circular the chain survey is the simplest and
rings by bigger ones commonest technique of surveying
(d) Insert new rings where necessary/ exercise. The equipment can be
needed easily replaced, example tapes, and
(e) Adjust the links at the end land measuring wheels. Normally,
a simple chain survey does not
Folding of the chain after use involve complicated mathematical

LY
To fold the chain, the leader should calculations. It does not deal with
move forward by pulling the chain at angular measurements either. It also
the middle then the two halves of the involves only few people to conduct

N
chain will come side by side. After this, the exercise. The survey team may have
only three people. It is thus, a cost-

O
commencing from the central position
of the chain, two pairs of links are taken effective technique.
at a time with the right hand and placed
Disadvantages of chain survey
on the left hand alternately in both
directions. Finally, the two brass handles
will come at the top. The bunch should
SE
Compared to other types of survey
techniques, chain survey has some
then be fastened by the strap. limitations. It cannot be conducted in a
U
Remember to include the leader and the built-up and large areas. It cannot easily
follower. The follower as mentioned be undertaken in densely wooded areas.
earlier is the surveyor who holds the It is mostly suitable in open ground areas.
E

chain at the zero end of the chain at the It may not be conducted in water logged
areas. It is subject to several chances
N

station. The one who drags the chain is

known as the leader and takes with him of accumulation of errors which may
be caused by problems with the chain.
LI

or her the ranging poles and arrows for

making points on the ground. Sometimes, the chain linkages may fail to
stretch properly and result to inaccurate
N

data. Also, sagging of the chain may

Activity 7.1 lead to errors in chaining. Chain survey
O

becomes a more complicated method

In a group, conduct a simple chain when there are obstacles in the area to be
R

survey around your school compound surveyed. It is also the oldest method of
following all necessary steps to surveying which involves heavy work, a
FO

determine the area in square metres. lot of time and cumulative errors.
Present it to your class.

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Conducting the chain survey accurately Obstacles in conducting chain survey
(a) Avoid establishing many survey Obstacles in chain surveying are objects
lines in order to avoid missing or features that obscure visibility along
out on some of them. the chain line or obstruct chaining.
(b) Avoid setting chain lines Obstacles which are common in chain
(mainline) along any obstacles survey include; obstacles which do not
that can obscure visibility or obscure visibility for example ponds and
measurement. wells and surveyors can walk around
them. Obstacles which do not obscure

LY
(c) Set one major line from which
other lines are developed to create visibility and surveyors cannot walk
triangles. around them such as rivers, and extended
swamps, hills and thick forests. Obstacles

N
(d) Make sure that all angles of
which obscure visibility but which allow
established triangles range
the surveyors to walk around include tall

O
between 30º and 120º.
buildings, compound walls, and areas
(e) Keep the chain line short and take with extreme steep slopes.
accurate measurements.
SE
Overcoming obstacles along the chain
line
Different techniques could be used in
Exercise 7.3
U
overcoming obstacles in chain survey.
Answer all questions. Some of the techniques are described in
1. Explain what you would the following sections.
do when preparing for a
E

(a) Using the right angle method

chain survey.
This method is applicable to those
N

2. Give four 4 reasons why

obstacles which do not obscure
chain survey is important
visibility but obstruct chaining
LI

in our life.
across it. The barrier (for example,
a pond) can however be walked
N

around, as indicated in Figure

7.16.
O
R
FO

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F E

LY
N
C D

O
A
SE
Figure 7.16: Overcoming a pond as an obstacle
U
Procedure: (b) Using congruent triangles or a
similar triangle technique
(i) Fix a ranging pole at a starting
E

During the process of taking

point (A), then walk around and
measurements along the chain
put another ranging pole at point
N

line (base line), one may find an

(B) along the survey line to make
obstacle which obstructs chaining
LI

a straight chain line AB;

but not ranging poles. If the
(ii) Insert a ranging pole at C and F obstacle is a river for example,
N

along the survey line AB; one of the methods of overcoming

(iii) From point C and F establish a such obstacle is to use similar
O

perpendicular line CD and FE at triangles. See the procedure

right angle to avoid the obstacle; described after Figure 7.17.
R

(iv) From point D develop a line DE at

right angle to avoid the obstacle;
FO

(v) Thus, the distance of line DE =FC.

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N
O
Figure 7.17: Overcoming a small river as an obstacle by congruent triangles
Procedure:
Suppose AB is a chain line.
SE forest, rock or others. This method
is used in overcoming obstacles
which obscure visibility and may
U
(i) Fix two poles at C and D on either not be walked through easily.
side of the river. Points C and D Consider the right-angled triangle
should be along line AB. At point in Figure 7.18.
C develop a perpendicular line B
E

CE, such that an angle ACE is

N

equal to 90º. Bisect line CE at

O to make line DF, so that CO =
LI

EO. Set another line EF parallel c a

to the survey line AB.
N

(ii) Range yourself at point B in such

a way that line DOF is straight
O

(180º), thus CD = EF. A b C

(c) Using the pythagoras theorem

R

Figure 7.18: Right-angled triangle

The Pythagoras Theorem is one of
FO

the methods which can be used to If the two sides of a right-angled

calculate the dimensions of an area triangle are known, the third side can be
with obstacles such as a building, calculated. From the Pythagoras theorem

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this is written as follows:

(AB) = (AC) + ( BC)

2 2 2

⇒ c 2 = a 2 + b2
(a2+b2= c2)

Procedure:
Assume, the main line is AB

LY
(i) Erect a ranging pole at point A;
(ii) From point A, develop a straight line to point C, such that point C is at right

N
angle to point B where it avoids the obstacle;
(iii) From point C develop a perpendicular line to point B, such that point A and

O
B are in a straight line (Figure 7.19); and
(iv) Apply the Pythagoras Theorem to determine the distance of line AB.
Where:
CB=a
SE
AC=b
U
AB=c
Formula (a2+b2= c2)
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 7.19: Overcoming an obstacle a forest along LT

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(d) Using the rectangle method (vi) From point D, develop a straight
line to point D1 such that CC1=DD1
This method is used to overcome any
hence, BC1=B1C, (refer to Figure
obstacle obstructing both chaining
7.20).
and ranging.
Suppose AB is a chain line.
Procedure:
(i) Two points A and B are aligned

LY
at one side of the building;
(ii) From both points A and B develop
a perpendicular line, such that the

N
developed line clears the object at
A1 and B1, respectively;

O
(iii) Join points A1 and B1, such that the
line clears the obstacle to make
point C;
(iv) From point C develop a
perpendicular line to point C1,
SE
such that CC1 is the same distance
U
as AA1;
Figure 7.20: Overcoming a building as
(v) From point C1 develop a straight an obstacle
E

line to point D, such that C1D=AB;

and
N
LI

Exercise: 7. 4

Answer all questions.

N

1. Classify obstacles that may be encountered during a chain survey.

O

2. What would you do to overcome obstacles such as a pond in a chain

survey?
R
FO

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Common errors in survey (c) Gross errors
Errors are discrepancies arising as a Gross errors have their roots in
result of some fault and imperfection carelessness or negligence of the
of instruments used or the human surveyor and are entirely attributed to
error. Errors can be grouped into three human incompetence. They are also
categories: systematic (cumulative) called mistake error. Examples of gross
errors, accidental (compensating) errors errors are misplacement of a ranging
and gross errors. pole, miscounting of bands and/or poor
spelling of numbers in words. Erroneous
(a) Systematic errors

LY
booking can be prevented by reading the
Systematic errors are also called
number loudly and the booker repeating
cumulative errors. They are errors
it. For example, one could read fifteen
caused by expansion or contraction of

N
(15) instead of fifty (50). Only careful
steel band. Therefore, the steel band
reading such as one-five for fifteen and
needs to be standardized especially in

O
five-zero for fifty can prevent such
case of temperature variation whereby
mistakes.
each band is standardized at a certain
Sources of errors in chain survey
temperature. Also, systematic errors
may occur and where the base line is not
straight or the ranging rods are slightly
SE
Sources of errors in chain survey can
result from several factors including
human error, instrumental error
in a zigzag position or in case the tape
U
and environmental error. A single
is not properly stretched.
measurement error can be transferred to
(b) Accidental errors other measurements. This could include
Accidental errors, also called random faults in the equipment such as a chain
E

errors or compensation. They are a result which does not stretch properly. This may
of lack of perfection of the human eye
N

be caused by lack of seriousness among

or in the methods and equipment used. the survey team when conducting the
LI

They are errors which decrease with survey. The surveyors may fail to stretch
the increasing number of observations the chain properly leading to differences
taken. In chain surveying, accidental in measurements. This happens when
N

(compensation) errors can occur due the arrows do not touch the outer edge
O

to variations in tension of stretching of the brass handle or measuring tape.

or improper holding of the tape. In Most of the time, incorrect positioning
both cases, the distance measured will of the arrows along the chain line
R

roughly be longer or shorter than the leads to errors. The use of too many
actual distance. If the same distance is or too long chain lines can also cause
FO

measured four times and an average errors in a chain survey. Consistently,

taken, then a good approximation of unclear calling out of measurements at
the true value can be obtained. low voices can contribute to errors in
booking.

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Ways of avoiding errors or discrepancies Development of survey techniques
in chain survey today
There are several ways that can be Although old techniques of land
used to avoid errors in chain survey. survey like chain survey, plain tables
Before undertaking any survey, the and compass surveys are being learnt
chain should be checked and repaired today, they are being replaced by several
for any damage. It is advised to avoid new geomatic devices like Global
steep slopes and major obstacles. The Positioning System (GPS) (see Figure
idea of keeping chain lines short and 7.21). Technology is changing the type

LY
measuring them accurately ensures and nature of surveying, and number of
all lines are included, also calling out human power needed for each survey
measurements to a booker as clearly practice.

N
as possible and asking them to repeat
minimize errors. The accuracy of the

O
chain can be verified by laying it against
an accurate tape. If there is any error,
readings must be adjusted. A stepping
method should be used when chaining
along a sloping ground. This involves
SE
holding a chain or tape horizontally
U
over short distances. The chain should
not be allowed to bulge. It should be
stretched and straightened properly to
Figure 7.21: GPS machine
ensure correct positioning of arrows or
E

poles since they must touch the outer GPSs are advanced survey devices
N

edge of the brass handle or measuring used to locate positions and measure
tape and be perfectly upright. All these distances between points, by utilizing
LI

go along with proper booking, detailed satellite signals. The instrument is

note booking, and making neat sketches mostly preferred because it can collect
N

and writings. information more quickly than the use of

a chain or tape. The use of GPSs helps
O

to reduce the number of equipment

Exercise: 7.5 to be used in a survey; hence a single
surveyor can accomplish the entire work.
R

Identify and explain the different Moreover, it helps in locating positions

sources of error in chain survey. on the earths surface and can draw a
FO

map on its own, hence reduces all hand

drawing tasks.

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The importance of surveying in social and economic activities
Surveying has shown a significant role in day-to-day human activities. It helps
to prepare topographical maps which could show hills, valleys, rivers, villages,
towns and forests of a region. Also, it helps to prepare cadastral maps showing
the boundaries of a field to officiate possession of land and solve conflicts related
to houses and other properties. In this case, surveying is significant for land use
planning. An engineer’s map which shows features like irrigation canals, railways
and roads is the work of survey. Some maps showing railway communications with
different parts of a country are the products of surveying. Moreover, surveying can

LY
be used to prepare a contour map to determine the best possible route for roads and
railways. Geological surveys produce maps which show underground resources.
Surveys also can add details to existing plans on large scale maps.

N
O
Revision exercise 7

Section A
Answer the following questions:
SE
1. Describe the uses of the following, in chain surveying:
U
(a) Coloured tie rug on arrow (b) Cross staff
(c) Ranging poles (d) Measuring tape
2. Explain the meaning of the following terms as used in chain surveying:
(a) Ranging (b) Chaining
E

3. What is the use of survey to a Geographer?

N

4. Describe the instruments used in chain surveying.

5. Write short notes on the following terms as applied in chain surveying.
LI

(a) Offsets (b) Tie lines

6. What preparation has to be done before carrying out a chain survey?
N

7. Describe social and economic benefits of surveying.

O

8. Identify the merits and demerits of a simple chain survey.

9. Identify the purpose of surveying by giving examples from your
area.
R
FO

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Section B
Match each item in Column A against its corresponding item from
Column B.
Column A Column B
10. Carelessness or negligence by the (a) Systematic error
surveyor.
(b) Line of traverse
11. Thin steel skewers for making
points on the ground. (c) Observation

LY
12. Series of straight lines on the (d) Tie line
ground measured by a chain or
tape from the fixed points. (e) Gross error
13. A step which involves visiting

N
(f) Offsets
the area before conducting actual
survey. (g) Reconnaissance

O
14. Lines marked during field survey, (h) Arrows
joining the line of traverse at right
angles .
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter
Eight Map reading and interpretation

Introduction
Map reading and interpretation are important skills which a person needs to

LY
have. These skills are essential and necessary in deriving information from maps,
regarding spatial distribution of phenomena, such as settlements and population,
landscape, vegetation, livestock, water bodies and other natural resources. In

N
this chapter, you will learn about the concept of map reading and interpretation,
interpret topographical maps through recognizing features on a map, generate

O
information from maps and interpret information based on daily activities. The
competencies developed in this chapter will enable you to interpret and generate
information from topographical maps which are important in your daily activities.

The concept of map reading

SE
areas, reading grid systems and positions,
and interpretation
U
interpreting contour lines and direction.
Map reading is an act of recognizing Importance of maps
or identifying natural and man-made Maps provide information on the
E

features and their spatial relationship nature and distribution of geographical

on a map. Map interpretation is about phenomena such as settlements,
N

deriving information from maps in population, landscape, livestock and

relation to particular needs. Also, it can vegetation. From maps we can get
LI

be defined as a process of examining a information like distance between

given topographical map of an area for the points or heights of landscape. Maps
N

purpose of identifying its geographical also provide a basis for the study of
information. Map reading and map geographical problems, such as land
O

interpretation always go together. There degradation, floods and deforestation.

are basic essential elements that help us to Maps show political boundaries of
read and interpret maps. These elements different geographical units such as
R

are north direction, frame or margin, villages, districts, regions and countries.
title, scale, grid and key or legend. Map They also show boundaries of different
FO

reading and interpretation involve skills land properties.

such as measuring distances, calculating

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In addition, maps are essential in any maps are sometimes called distribution
field of study, as they are used to show maps. Dots maps are good examples of
settlements, plantations and mines. statistical maps.
Maps that show routes may help
travellers, pilots and tourists to reach Essentials of a map
their destinations. People who forecast A map has key essential elements such as
the weather, use weather pattern maps. title, key or legend, scale, north direction
Also, people who study earthquakes use and frame or margin. Maps also have
maps showing plates in the earth’s crust. lines to show position, for example, grid

LY
Again statistical maps provide valuable lines, latitudes and longitudes.
information for statistical analysis.
Furthermore, maps are used in military A map title
A map title is an element which tells the

N
activities such as location of military
camps, military traps and bridges. reader what the map is all about. A map

O
title is important because it describes the
Types of maps main theme of a map.
There are two main types of maps
A map scale
prepared according to purpose, namely
topographical and statistical maps.
SE
A map scale is the ratio between the
distance measured on a map and its
Topographical maps corresponding actual distance on the
U
These are maps which show both ground. Map scales enable calculation
man-made and natural features. Man- of actual ground distances from map
made features are sometimes called distances. Map scales can be expressed
E

cultural features. Topographical maps in the following three ways.

may portray man-made features like (a) As a statement, for example, one
N

roads, buildings, and administrative centimetre on the map represents

boundaries. Topographical maps may the distance of one kilometre on
LI

also portray relief features such as the earth’s surface or ground.

mountains, valleys, and drainage features Sometimes this can be written as
N

such as lakes, rivers and swamps. They 1 cm to 1 km.

also portray vegetation like woodlands
O

and forests. (b) As a representative fraction (RF),

1
Statistical maps for example, or 1:100
100 000
R

These are maps which provide 000. This means one centimetre
quantitative information. These are on the map represents 100 000
FO

maps which show the value of different centimetres on the ground. It

phenomena such as the distribution of should be noted that a centimetre
population, rainfall, crops, minerals, is the basic unit used in a map
temperature, and vegetation. Statistical scale unless guided otherwise.

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(c) As a linear scale, which is a way of expressing a map scale in a straight line
divided into equal intervals proportional to the actual length on the ground.
A linear scale is also called a bar scale. It is divided into a primary section
and a secondary section as shown in Figure 8.1.

1000m Km

Secondary divisions

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Primary divisions
Figure 8.1: Linear scale

A key

N
Maps use symbols and signs to represent information. A map key explains the

O
meaning of symbols and signs on the map. All signs and symbols applied in the
map must be shown on the key. A key enables map readers to understand the
meaning of details found on the map.
A margin SE
This is a line drawn around a map to show the bounded area of the map. It is also
known as a border or a frame.
U
North direction
North direction is important in determining the bearing of a particular feature on
a map. The North direction on a map is useful to identify the north bearing of
E

mapped areas and then to locate other directions of the area such as East, North-
East, South-East and South-West.
N
LI

Activity 8.1
N

Visit the library or the Internet choose any map of your interest then do
O

the following:
(a) identify the type of map you have chosen.
R

(b) mention the criteria you have used to categorize the map.
(c) mention the importance of the map you have chosen.
FO

(d) list any five features found on that map.

(e) mention basic things which helped you to depict those features.

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Reading and interpreting Normally, a grid reference has six digits,
topographical maps the first three digits are Eastings and
Reading a map means studying and the next three digits are Northings. For
identifying various features which example, a grid reference of 675246,
are shown on the map with the help means 675 represent Eastings and 246
of conventional symbols and signs. represent Northings.
Interpreting maps means observing Latitude and Longitude
the features shown on the map for the Latitudes and longitudes are used for
purpose of judging their significance. giving the position of a place. These

LY
It involves translating the information lines are always needed in the process of
by describing the features shown on map making. Nearly all maps indicate
the map. In order to read and interpret latitudes and longitudes along their

N
topographical maps you need to know edges. A latitude is measured northwards
how different symbols are used to and southwards from the centre of the

O
represent different features shown on earth which is the equator, while a
the map. longitude is an angular measurement
Ways of showing position on a map
The position of a place on a map can be
given in a number of ways. These include
SE
eastward and westward from the centre
of the earth which is the Prime Meridian.
In an atlas, a list of all places shown on
using place name, grid reference, latitude
U
a map is provided at the end of the book.
and longitude, and bearing and distance. This is the index of the atlas. For each
Place name place, position is given by latitude and
longitude. For example, Dar es Salaam
E

A place on a map can be located by its

name. For example, on the map of Africa on the map of Tanzania is located on
N

different places can be located such as latitude 7 degrees South and longitude
Accra in Ghana, Dodoma in Tanzania 39 degrees East.
LI

and Lake Tana in Kenya. Place names Bearing and distance from a place or
may be considered adequate where a point
N

rough idea of the location of a place is Some of the problems concerning names
all that is required. can be resolved simply by combining
O

Grid reference description of place names with bearing

Grid reference is a network of parallel and distance. For example, a dispensary
R

vertical and horizontal lines on a map could be located 5 kilometres 45 degrees

used to fix positions. The vertical lines from Bagamoyo town. The angle which
FO

are referred to as the Eastings since is measured clockwise from a fixed zero
their values increase eastwards. The line known as North is called bearing.
horizontal lines are known as Northings The purpose of bearing is to give an
since their values increase northwards. accurate indication of the direction of

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one place from another through the use Note: Where the distance ends is
of angle degrees. where the object is located.

The following are the procedures for For example, from Figure 8.2, identify
locating an object or place on a map by the feature located 4 km and 45 degrees
using bearing and distance: from point P grid reference 100200. The
(a) identify the point on the map by map scale is 1cm represents 0.5 km.
using grid reference;
Solution:
(b) establish a cardinal point at the
1 cm : 1 km

LY
point identified;
2
(c) measure the forward bearing;
(d) change the map scale and use it x : 4 km

N
to convert the ground distance 1 cm × 4 km
into map distance; 1 km

O
(e) draw a straight line from the point 2
along the angle of observation; 4 cm 1
and × = 8 cm
(f) measure the distance obtained
from the point along the line.
1 SE2
Map distance = 8 cm
U
E
N
LI
N
O

P
R
FO

Figure 8.2: Using bearing and distance to find a place or point on a map

Therefore, the feature which is located 8 cm and 45° from point P is a swamp.

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Exercise 8. 1
Answer all questions.
1. Suppose you have been given a map of Tanzania with grid references, place
names, latitudes and longitudes, which way will you use to show the position
of a place? Explain why you have chosen this method.
2. From a map of Tanzania Mainland, identify the location of Dodoma by using
grid reference.

LY
3. Calculate the ground distance between grid reference 400530 and 305551.

Regions of Tanzania Mainland

N
N

O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Methods of representing relief on topographic maps
Relief entails the physical shape or appearance of the surface of the earth.
Cartographers (or map makers) use several methods to show relief of the landscape.
These methods are explained in the sections that follow.
Trigonometric stations
These are small triangles used on maps to show the exact elevation of the highest
point in given areas. The triangle has a black dot inside followed by a number
showing the exact height from the sea level (Figure 8.3). Many stations could

LY
be located on the peaks of hills so that they could be seen from many directions.
There are two types of trigonometric stations: primary and secondary trigonometric
stations. Primary trigonometric stations show high points in the area mapped, while

N
secondary trigonometric stations show high points in the area mapped but which
are lower than primary trigonometric stations.

O
2546
SE 254
U
Primary trigonometric station Secondary trigonometric station

Figure 8.3: Trigonometric stations

E

Spot heights
This is a method of showing relief which uses dots to show the exact height or
N

relief of an area. The relief is indicated by a dot followed by a number of the

LI

exact height of a place on a map. Figure 8.4 provides an example whereby 110
is a spot height.
N

Side view Map view

O
R
FO

Figure 8.4: Spot height

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Layer tinting or layer colouring
This is a method of showing relief by different colours. A specific colour is used
for each band of elevation which represents a definite elevation range (Figure 8.5).
For example, brown colour can be used to show the highest height above sea level
and green to show the lowest height above sea level. However, a map user cannot
determine the exact elevation of a specific point by using this method.

Side view Map view

LY
N
O
Height in metres (m) above sea level

More than 300

SE 100 - 200
U
200 - 300 Less than 100
E

Figure 8.5: Layer tinting or colouring

N

Form lines This sometimes is used in combination

Form lines are not measured from any with contour lines to emphasize the
LI

datum plane and have no standard features (Figure 8.6).

elevation. They give only a general idea
N

of the relief. They are represented on a

map as pecked lines and are not labeled
O

with representative elevations.

Hill shading
R

This indicates relief by a shadow effect

achieved by tone and colour that results
FO

in the darkening of one side of terrain

features such as hills and ridges. The
steeper the slope the darker the shading. Figure 8.6: Shaded relief or hill shading

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Hachuring Contours
This is a method of representing relief of Contours are lines drawn on a map to
an area by using hachures. Hachures are join all places of the same height above
short, broken lines that are used to show the mean sea level. The sea level is
relief specifically showing direction and regarded as zero height.
steepness of slopes. They are sometimes
used with contour lines. Hachures are Mean sea level is the average level
used extensively on small scale maps between high and low tide marks.
to show mountain ranges, plateaus, Contours are drawn on a map at intervals

LY
and mountain peaks but they do not of the same numerical value known as
represent exact elevations (Figure 8.7). the vertical interval. The vertical interval
Hachures that are close together indicate of contours is therefore the vertical

N
steep slopes. The degree of thickness difference between two successive
of hachures increases with the degree contour lines.

O
of slope, and they point towards the
direction of slope.
Activity 8.2
SE
In a group, do the following:
(a) Make a mound of clay of about
U
30 cm high to represent a hill
Fig. 8.8(a).
(b) Place a ruler upright by the side
E

of the mound.
Hachures (c) By using a straight piece of
N

Figure 8.7: Hachures wood with a pointed end tied

to the ruler at 10 cm, mark and
LI

Benchmark (BM)
A benchmark is a place where the exact draw a line around the mound.
N

elevation is known. It is a reference (d) Move to 20 cm and then 30 cm.

mark of a known elevation cut or set Mark and draw similar lines.
O

on a stone, concrete or aluminum plate In the end there will be many

or other durable material used in the circles around the mound at
determination of altitudes. Benchmarks intervals of 10 cm.
R

are used as reference points from which (e) Viewed from above, the pattern
other objects on the ground can be of circles formed on the mound
FO

determined. Benchmarks on maps are would look as shown in Fig.

indicated by symbol (x) followed by 8.8(b). This represents the plan
elevation values of the given points on of the mound on a flat surface.
the map together with letters BM.

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side ‘A’ of the hill has a steeper slope
than side ‘B’. Contours on side A are
closely spaced while those on side B
are widely spaced. This is because the
horizontal distance from one contour to
another on side ‘A’ is shorter than that
on side ‘B’.

LY
N
Figure 8.8(a): Mound 30 cm high

O
SE
U
Figure 8.9: Hill with steep and gentle
E

Figure 8.8(b): Plan of the mound in slopes

contour
N

The closer the contours the steeper the

Contours and associated landforms slope, the farther apart the contours,
LI

Although contour lines basically the gentler the slope. Contour lines are
represent heights of different places normally presented by brown colour. The
N

above mean sea level, they also form patterns of contours represent different
different patterns which depict different landforms like valleys and spurs, saddles
O

landforms. Contours do not cross one and cols, ridges, escarpments, slopes of
another. Sometimes it occurs that different degrees of steepness, plateaus
contours are so close that they touch and plains. Landforms or relief shown
R

each other. In certain cases, they are on contour maps may be divided into
widely spaced. In either case, the vertical two major categories, namely highlands
FO

interval remains the same. In Figure 8.9, and lowlands.

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Highland landforms
Valleys and spurs
These often occur side by side on a hill side. The patterns of contours showing
the two features are similar. Where there is a valley, contour lines resemble a V
or U-shape. The pointed end of V or U points to the higher ground. This is shown
by ascending order in which the contour lines are marked. In the case of a spur,
the V or U bends towards the lower ground (Figure 8.10).

LY
N
O
SE
Figure 8.10: Valley and spur on a hill side
U
A saddle
The space between two peaks of a mountain or a mountain range is called a saddle
or a col. A saddle is generally wider than a col. Saddles provide convenient passages
E

across mountain ranges. Contours showing a peak are usually closer. Inner curves
are at higher elevation than outer curves and the peak is within the inner most
N

curve (Figure 8.11).

LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 8.11: Saddle and a col

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A ridge
This is a geographical feature consisting of a chain of mountains or hills that forms
a continuous elevated crest for some distance. It can also be defined as a narrow
and long relief feature with steep slopes. Contours for a ridge run almost parallel
to each other (Figure 8.12).

LY
N
O
Escarpment
SE
Figure 8.12: Ridge

An escarpment is an area of highland with a very steep slope on one side and a
U
gentle slope on the other (Figure 8.13). The steep slope of an escarpment is called
the scarp slope, and the gentle slope is known as the dip slope.
E
N
LI
N
O
R

Steep scarp Gentle dip slope

slope
FO

Figure 8.13: Escarpment

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A plateau
This is an extensive highland region with an undulating surface. A plateau is easily
identified on a map by the absence of contour lines on the higher land surface
and with a series of contours close together on either side, (Figure 8.14). In some
cases, it is possible to find contours on a plateau surface, indicating the presence
of a hill or hills.

LY
N
O
SE
U
E

Figure 8.14: Plateau

N

Slopes concave slope are widely spaced at the

lower elevation and closely spaced at
LI

These can either be steep or gentle.

Slopes which are constantly steep or the higher elevation (Figure 8.15(b)).
A convex slope has a steep slope at the
N

gentle are usually referred to as even

slopes (Figure 8.15(a)). However, bottom and a gentle slope at the top
of the ground. Contours of this slope
O

some slopes bear both characteristics.

For example, a concave slope is gentle are closely spaced at the lower ground
at the lower elevation and gets steeper and widely spaced at the higher ground
R

at the higher elevation. Contours of a (Figure 8.15(c)).

FO

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LY
N
Figure 8.15(a): Steep slope

O
SE
U
E
N

Figure 8.15(b): Concave slope

LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 8.15(c): Convex slope

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Exercise 8.2
Answer all questions.
1. How can you depict a plateau on a topographical map?
2. Differentiate between the following features on a topographical map;
(a) a valley and a spur
(b) a saddle and a col

LY
(c) mountains and plateaus
3. Using vivid examples explain the importance of valleys to human life.

N
Lowland landforms A V- shaped valley
A gorge The contours portraying a V-shaped

O
This is a deep narrow steep-sided river valley are V in shape and point upstream
valley. The contours of a gorge are close (Figure 8.16). The stream crosses each
together forming a narrow V shape contour at its highest point when the V-
pointing sharply upstream. The river
in the gorge crosses each contour at the
SE
shape is wide, and when the contours
are further apart, it indicates a wide and
highest point of each (Figure 8.16). less steep valley.
U
Spur Steep slope
E
N

Escarpment
LI
N
O

Cliff
R
FO

River Valley Gorge

Figure 8.16: Gorge, V- shaped valley and cliff

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Levees
These are natural ridges built up by a
stream along the edges of its channel. In
a contour map, the ridges are shown by
pecked lines at right angles to the course
of the river (Figure 8.17).

LY
Levees

N
O
River
SE
A delta
Figure 8.18: Flood plains

Levee A delta is a flat area of alluvial material

U
(clay, silt, sand, mixture) at the mouth of
a river crossed by many distributaries.
In a contour map, a delta is marked by
many distributaries that enter a lake or
E

sea. The lowest contour marking the

N

Figure 8.17: Levees delta follows roughly the outline shape

of the delta (Figure 8.19).
LI

A flood plain
This is an area of lowland built up
by the deposition of alluvium (Figure
N

8.18). During flooding, the river floods

the lowlands and spreads a layer of
O

silt over the flood plain. The contours

are spaced in a way that they mark the
R

general width of the flood plain. The

other higher contours are evenly spaced
FO

marking the gentle slope of the banks of

the flood plains.

Figure 8.19: Delta

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Coastline landforms A cliff may be shaded by short lines
Estuary drawn at right angles to the coast, river
An estuary is the mouth of a river where or lake to mark the steepness of the cliff
it enters a lake or sea. Also, an estuary (Figure 8.21). In a contour map, when
refers to the tidal mouth of a river where a cliff has a steep slope, the contours
the tides meet the river currents of fresh are closer together. When a cliff face
water. The contours of an estuary are is vertical, the contours are so close
widely and evenly spaced forming a together that they overlap or join to form
wide U shape that points upstream a single contour line (Figure 8.22).

LY
(Figure 8.20).
Estuary

N
O
SE
Figure 8.20: Estuary
U
Cliff
A cliff is a high steep rock face along a
E

coast, river or lake. A cliff is a vertical or

near vertical feature. In a contour map,
N

a cliff may be indicated in two ways.

Figure 8.22: Cliff, with overlapping
LI

contours
N

Coral fringed coastline

A coral fringed coastline is formed by
O

a coral platform which lies close to the

shore. It is separated from the mainland
or island by a lagoon or shallow channel.
R

A fringing reef may be 0.5 to 2.5

kilometres in width. In a contour map,
FO

the coral fringed coastline is marked

clearly by shading or by using symbols
Figure 8.21: Cliff to show the areas with coral fringing
reef in the sea (Figure 8.23).

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LY
N
O
Figure 8.23: Coral fringed coastline

Exercise 8.3 SE
Section A
U
Choose the correct answer.
1. In Figure 1, a river marked PR is shown crossing a 300-contour line. Which
of the following statements is true?
E

(a) The direction of flow is shown by the arrow “A”

N

(b) The direction of flow is shown by the arrow “B”

(c) The direction of flow cannot be told from this information
LI

(d) The river has no direction

N
O
R
FO

Figure 1

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2. In Figure 2, what does X represent?
(a) A ridge
(b) A dip
(c) A col
(d) A hill top

LY
N
O
Figure 2
SE
3. In Figure 3, what does XY represent?
U
(a) A spur
(b) A valley
E

(c) A saddle
(d) A hill
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 3

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4. What kind of slope is represented in Figure 4?
(a) An escarpment
(b) A convex slope
(c) A concave slope
(d) A gentle slope

LY
N
O
SE
Figure 4

5. What kind of slope is represented in Figure 5?

U
(a) A scarp slope
(b) A dip slope
E

(c) A convex slope

N

(d) A steep sided valley

LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 5

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6. What kind of slope is represented in Figure 6?
(a) An even slope
(b) A convex slope
(c) A concave slope
(d) A very gentle slope

LY
N
O
Figure 6
SE
7. Which feature is represented by the contours in Figure 7?
U
(a) A valley
(b) A plateau
E

(c) A ridge
N

(d) A hill
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 7

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8. Which feature is represented by the contours in Figure 8?
(a) A scarp slope
(b) A dip slope
(c) A convex slope
(d) A steep sided valley

LY
N
O
SE
Figure 8
U
9. Contours marked by letter Y in Figure 9 represent ____.
(a) A scarp slope
E

(b) A dip slope

N

(c) A gentle valley side

(d) A concave slope
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 9

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Section B
Match items in Column A with their corresponding meanings in Column B.
Column A Column B
10. A space between two peaks of a (a) A scale
mountain.
(b) A legend
11. Short broken lines that are used to show
relief. (c) Margin
(d) A trigonometric
12. A small triangle used on maps to show

LY
station
the exact elevation of height in a given
area. (e) Hachures

N
13. This explains the symbols and signs (f) A saddle
used on a map.
(g) A valley

O
14. A ratio between the map distance and
actual ground distance.

Cross section
SE is desired;
U
A cross section is used to show relief (b) Draw a straight line to join the
variations across a region. In drawing a two end-points, A and B;
cross section from a map, the following (c) Two end points of the area to be
E

stages are followed: sketched should be marked AB

(a) Mark two end points as A and B (Figure 8.24).
N

between which the cross section

LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 8.24: Two end points are marked AB

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(d) Hold the edge of a piece of paper along AB, and mark on the paper where
every contour cuts the paper edge. Values of contours are written and a
note of any significant features (man- made or natural) is indicated on the
paper, as shown in (Figure 8.25).

LY
N
O
Figure 8.25: Straight edge of paper

SE
(e) Prepare a vertical scale after marking the values of contours on the paper.
The horizontal scale of the cross section is in the same scale as that of the
map (Figure 8.26).
U
E
N
LI

Figure 8.26: Framework

N

Take the highest contour line on the map to be 400 meters. In drawing,
O

an allowance should always be given for the peak by showing the next
contour (500 m contour).
(f) The horizontal base-line represents the line between two points. The marked
R

paper is placed along the base line so that ‘A’ on the paper falls on ‘A’ on
the scale. Then, each contour along the horizontal line is marked. With
FO

a pencil and a ruler vertical lines are lightly drawn up to the line which
represents the contour height (Figure 8.27).

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LY
N
Figure 8.27: Straight edge of paper on a scale

O
(g) Prepare a frame for drawing the Intervisibility
cross section
SE
Map makers and readers are interested
The first line will fall on the in knowing from a map whether one
100-meter contour so that the place is visible from another place or not.
vertical line will be drawn from This is called intervisibility. It is easy
U
the base-line to the 100-meter to tell whether a place is visible from
contour line. The next vertical another if it is known that the portion
line will be drawn to the
of the land surface between the two
E

200-meter contour. Note that the

observation points is lower. But when
heights of mountain summits are
not exactly known in this case it is not known, then it is necessary to
N

but we know that they are above draw a cross section between the points.
LI

400 meters but not as high as If two places A and B were to represent
500 meters. The approximate two observation points, a cross section
summits of the hills can be would make it possible to tell whether
N

drawn quite easily by joining the two places are intervisible or not
the tops of the vertical lines (Figure 8.28).
O

with a smooth curve. Write the

names of other important relief
and man-made features above
R

the corresponding features on

the cross section.
FO

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A cross section of a hill

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N
Figure 8.28: No intervisibility between A and B

O
To determine intervisibility, we draw a line of sight joining the two points in a
cross section. If a mountain or a hill develops between two points A to B, the
two points are not intervisible because the hill or mountain is an obstacle (Figure
SE
8.27). When a basin or depression develops, there is intervisibility because when
a line of sight is drawn it passes straight without being obstructed (Figure 8.29).
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R

Figure 8.29: There is intervisibility between A and B

FO

It is important to note that intervisibility can be affected by other factors such as

presence of buildings, vegetation, hills and mountains.

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Exercise: 8.4
Study the following contour map and answer the subsequent questions.

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N
O
1 Km

SE
(a) Draw a cross-section between points A and B.
U
(b) State the intervisibility between points A and B.
(c) Give reasons for the intervisibility stated in (b) above.
E

Vertical Exaggeration (VE)

N

Vertical Exaggeration (VE) is defined as the number of times by which the vertical
scale (VS) is larger than the horizontal scale (HS). It is a comparison between the
LI

horizontal and vertical scales of a cross profile. In other words, vertical exaggeration
is a scale that is used in cross section perspectives in order to emphasize vertical
N

features, which might be too small to identify, relative to the horizontal scale.
O

To show relief clearly, the vertical scale on a relief section is nearly exaggerated.
Vertical Exaggeration (VE) must be stated after one has drawn the cross section.
Mathematically, Vertical Exaggeration could be expressed as follows:
R

Denominator of Horizontal Scale (DHS) VS

FO

VE = or
Denominator of Vertical Scale (DVS) HS

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Where:
(a) Vertical scale is derived from the contour interval of the given map. It is
the scale on the vertical axis of the cross section;
(b) Horizontal scale is the one given on the map from which a cross section
is drawn (Example, 1: 50 000); and
(c) Both vertical scale and horizontal scale must use the same units of
measurements.
For example, if a map scale is 1:100 000 and the vertical scale is one cm to

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100 m then the vertical exaggeration is calculated as follows.
Solution

N
Vertical Scale (VS)
Vertical Exaggeration (VE) =

O
Horizontal Scale (HS)

HS = 1:100 000
VS = 1 cm to 100 m
SE
= 1:100 000
U
Therefore;
1:10 000
VE =
1:100 000
E

1 100 000
N

VE = ×
10 000 1
LI

100 000
VE =
N

10 000
VE = 10 times
O

OR
R

Denominator of Horizontal Scale (DHS)

Vertical Exaggeration (VE) =
Denominator of Vertical Scale (DVS)
FO

100 000
VE =
10 000
VE = 10 times

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Vertical Exaggeration (VE)= 10 times either left to natural vegetation or they
are planted with trees. When steep slopes
This means that the vertical scale is 10
are cleared of their vegetation cover, soil
times larger than horizontal scale.
erosion by running water occurs. House
Note: 100 m have been converted into builders eliminate slopes by construction
centimetres where by 1 m =100 cm of level floors.
If for any reason one wishes to measure
the degree of a slope, it is important to
Exercise 8.5

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compare vertical interval to horizontal
Answer all questions. distance. The resulting ratio is called
gradient.
1. Calculate the VE of a cross section

N
where the map scale is 1:300 000 In map reading, the calculation of
and VS is 1:10 000 gradient is done by comparing the

O
vertical interval between two places and
2. Find the HS when the VS is 1:100
the horizontal distance between them.
and the VE is 4
The difference in height between two

000 and the HS is 1:25 000

SE
3. Find the VE when the VS is 1:10 places is called the vertical interval.
The vertical interval can be obtained by
subtracting the altitude of the lower point
U
from the altitude of the higher point.
Gradient
Gradient is the measure of a slope. Slope The horizontal distance between the two
is an important concept in Geography points is measured on the map, which is
E

because it affects people’s daily lives. then converted into ground distance by
Transportation routes such as roads, the use of the map scale. In calculating
N

railways and airport runways avoid steep gradient, both vertical and horizontal
slopes because they demand more energy lengths must be brought to the same unit
LI

from both human beings and vehicles. of length. The formula for calculating
Some farmers cultivate their fields in gradient is:
N

gentle slopes whereas steep slopes are

O

Vertical Interval (VI) Highest − Lowest Height

Gradient = or Gradient =
Horizontal Equivalent (HE) Horizontal Equivalent(HE)
R
FO

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Procedure Solution:
(a) Identify the points by using grid Data given;
reference or any other method; Highest height = 700 m
Lowest height =300 m
(b) Find the map distance between the Map distance = 8.4 cm
points; Horizontal equivalent=?
(c) Change the map scale, for instance Highest-Lowest Height
1 cm to ½ km; Gadient =
Horizantal Equivalent (HE)

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(d) Use the map scale converted in (c)
to change map distance into ground Then, if 1 cm 2 km
distance; 8.4 cm ?

N
(e) Change the ground distance in km
8.4 cm × 2 km

O
into metres; and
1 cm
(f) Feed in the formula the distance
= 16.8 km
obtained.
For example,
SE
(a) Change the ground distance obtained
(16.8 km) into metres.
Using, Figure 8.30, find the gradient
U
between point A and point B if the map Then, if 1 Km 1000 m
scale is 1 cm to 2 km; and the points
are 8.4 cm apart. 16.8 Km ?
E

B 16.8 Km × 1000 m
N

70
0 1m
= 16.8 × 1000 m
LI

0
60 = 16800 m
N

0 (b) Feed in the formular the data obtained

50

Gradient = V.I
O

0 H.E
40

(700 − 300) m
R

Gradient =
0 16 800 m
30 A
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0 2 Km 4 Km 0
20 Gradient = 400 = 4
16 800 168
Figure 8.30: Contour map

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1 Map interpretation
Gradient = or 1 in 42
42 In topographic maps, information about
location, landscape and cultural features
is shown with the help of conventional
This means that to every 42 m of
symbols and signs. From such
horizontal distance, there is a rise
information, one can read and interpret
(vertical distance) of 1 m.
the relief, drainage, climate, vegetation,
Where the ground is flat, the gradient is settlement and economic activities of a
zero and it reaches 1 when the angle rises particular location shown on a map.

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to 450. Gradient increases indefinitely Describing relief of an area
to a vertical position. Gradient may be Relief refers to the physical shape of
expressed as a ratio or fraction such as the surface of the earth which includes

N
1:50. In normal circumstances slope is mountains, hills, plateaus, plains,
not even, it changes over short distances. valleys, depressions and escarpments.

O
Therefore, most of the gradient calculated These physical landforms on the earth’s
will be average gradient. surface differ in shape and size. The
It should be noted that vertical interval
is the difference in height between
SE
relief sometimes called topography of
a map refers to the shape of the land
surface. Various relief features on a
the higher elevation and the lower
topographical map can be identified by
U
elevation while the contour interval is
the difference between two successive the use of contours and a number of
contours. conventional symbols.
E

Describing the relief of a map, several

Exercise 8.6 things should be considered. For
N

example, when the contour lines on a

Answer all questions. topographical map are close together,
LI

1. Calculate the gradient of a map, this indicates a hill or mountainous

using the data given below: area (highland area), while cases where
N

contours are far apart it indicates the

The highest point is marked 800 presence of a gentle slope or a lowland
O

m. The lowest point is marked 600 area.

m. Map scale is 1:50 000, Map
distance is 4 cm. The following are useful hints for
R

interpreting relief on a map:

2. Using Figure 8.28, calculate the
(a) Describe the relief of a region
FO

gradient from point A to point B

(highland, low land or both) by
where the map scale is 1:100 000
explaining its characteristics
without forgetting to indicate

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the general altitude as shown Equator are characterized by
on the map. an Equatorial climate. Areas
(b) State the major landforms shown between 5º and 15º North and
on the map (mountains, valleys, South of the equator are likely
hills and plateaus) by giving the to have Savanna or Tropical
position of each landform with climatic characteristics. Deserts
the aid of direction and place are located between latitude 20º
names. and 30º North and South of the
Equator.
Describing the drainage of an area

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(b) Presence of water surfaces and
Drainage is the outflow of water from an
drainage patterns
area through a system of natural streams
such as rivers, lakes, swamps and other A general high density of streams

N
water bodies. To interpret drainage indicates that the area receives
means to describe the distribution of heavy rainfall while the presence

O
of few streams, intermittent and
water features, direction of the main
seasonal streams, salt lakes and
rivers and types of drainage patterns, that
bore holes indicates aridity.
is whether it is dendritic, radial, trellised,
parallel or centripetal or fault-guided.
Water features can either be natural
SE
(c) Vegetation
(i) The presence of forests in a
or artificial. Drainage can tell about map indicates heavy rainfall.
U
the surface relief and features as it is (ii) Woodland vegetation
influenced by the steepness or gentleness indicates medium rainfall.
or the hardness or softness of a rock and
(iii) Shrubs, thickets and
E

the amount of rainfall.

grasslands indicate dry
Describing the climate of an area conditions. Normally these
N

Climate is the average of weather areas experience light

conditions of a given area recorded over rainfalls.
LI

a very long period of time (not less than (d) Crops

30 years). At topographic map gives little
N

Different climatic conditions

direct evidence of climatic conditions, favour different crops. Areas
yet by looking at certain evidence, one
O

where coffee, tea and sugar

is able to describe the climate of a given cane grow indicate that the areas
mapped area. The following aspects may receive heavy rainfall while
R

help in describing the climatic conditions areas where cotton and sisal
of a certain area. grow indicate medium rainfall.
FO

Sorghum and millet grow in an

(a) Latitude of an area
arid or semi-arid climate.
Areas between 0º to 5º degrees
North and South of the

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Describing vegetation distribution economic activity such as mining,
Vegetation refers to the total assemblage agriculture and trade. There are two
of plant cover in an area. Vegetation is common types of settlements, namely
usually incomplete on mapped areas. rural and urban settlements.
The common natural vegetation shown Rural settlement
on maps include forests, woodlands, A rural settlement is a sparsely populated
thickets, mangroves, scrubs and community that exists in the country.
grasslands. Vegetation cover portrayed on Rural settlement develops in villages
a map may be either natural or artificial. and the majority of people (about 80%)

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Natural vegetation is identified by an are engaged in agricultural activities.
irregular pattern while artificial ones are
identified when they occupy a regular Urban settlement

N
pattern on the map face. Conventional An urban settlement is a populated area
symbols are used to give hints in comprising mostly man- made structures.

O
interpreting types and distribution of Urban settlements are commonly found
vegetation in an area. in district headquarters and regional
administrative centres and along
SE
The following hints might be useful in transportation routes. Approximately
interpreting the distribution and type of 80% of the urban population is engaged
vegetation. in non-agricultural activities.
U
(a) Read carefully the key of the map Aspects of settlements
on the part of vegetation symbols Any type of settlement consists of three
and distinguish each symbol to aspects: site, situation and functions.
E

avoid confusion. These aspects influence the growth of

(b) Study the whole map sheet and any settlement. Site is the actual place
N

identify all types of vegetation where people decide to locate their

represented by the symbols. settlement while situation refers to the
LI

(c) Comment on the distribution and position of the settlement in relation to

types of vegetation using direction the surrounding environment. Function
N

and grid reference. For example, is the reason why a settlement developed
shrubs are widely found in the in the first place. The function of a
O

South East. It is important to give a settlement describes all main human

specific location of each vegetation activities taking place in the area.
type.
R

The functions of settlements may be

Describing settlement in an area for administrative purposes, trading,
FO

Settlement is any habitable area where manufacturing, recreation as well as

people can live and perform a certain human residence.

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Settlement patterns
A settlement pattern refers to the shape or layout of a settlement. It refers to the way
buildings are distributed in an area. The common forms of settlement distribution
patterns are nuclear, linear and dispersed settlements.
(a) Nucleated settlement pattern
In a nuclear settlement pattern, buildings are grouped around a central
core such as a church, market, road junction or mining areas (Figure 8.31).
(b) Linear settlement pattern
This is a settlement along transport routes such as roads and river valleys.

LY
In this pattern, buildings are arranged in lines (Figure 8.31).
(c) Dispersed settlement pattern

N
A dispersed settlement pattern is where the buildings are spread out in an
area and are often found in upland areas. It represents scarcity of people in

O
a site where buildings are scattered over a wide area. Dispersed settlement
patterns are often associated with agricultural activities and are frequently
surrounded by farm lands (Figure 8.31).
SE
U
ar
Line
E

Dispersed
N

Nucleated
LI

Figure 8.31: Settlement patterns

N

Describing human economic dips and cattle holding areas. Fishing can
activities be identified by the presence of small
O

On a map, various signs are used coastal settlements along the sea shore,
to show different types of human lakes or large rivers. Lumbering can
economic activities. The following are be identified by the presence of forest,
R

useful signs or indicators for describing saw mills and minor roads ending in
forest areas. The presence of beaches,
FO

human economic activities on a map.

Pastoralism on a map can be identified highlands and other attractive features
by the presence of dispersed settlements, indicates possibilities for tourism
grasslands, water pans, water holes, cattle activities.

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In addition, mining and quarrying having impermeable rocks. If the place
activities are shown by signs of is dominated by seasonal streams and
smelting and quarrying. Manufacturing rivers the rocks can be described as
is identified by factory installations permeable rocks, as water passes easily
and special factories. In many urban from one place to another.
settlements, it is usually assumed
If the soil supports crop cultivation or
that there are various kinds of small-
is covered by plants, then the rocks can
scale industrial establishments. A
be described as igneous rocks, which
topographical map shows little direct

LY
are generally fertile.
information on trade. Communication
networks and ports indicate the Areas with little vegetation cover
presence of trade, while agriculture in indicate the presence of metamorphic

N
a topographical map can be identified rocks as they are not fertile. The presence
by the presence of scattered cultivation of a coral fringed coastal line indicates

O
for small scale agriculture, estates or the area is dominated by limestone rocks.
plantations for large scale agriculture,
and agricultural departments and centres. Describing human social activities

Describing rocks or geological nature

of an area
SE
On a map, various symbols and signs
can be used to show different social
activities carried out by people. For
U
Rocks are not shown directly on maps, example, the presence of a school
instead they may be recognized by indicates there is provision of education
analyzing the relationship between as a social service. Also, the presence of
E

landforms, soils and vegetation. For a hospital indicates that there is provision
example, the presence of conical of health services, while the presence of
N

hills, craters and hot springs suggest a church or mosque indicates that there
the presence of igneous rocks due to is provision of religion services. The
LI

volcanic activity. The presence of presence of roads, railways, telephone

rivers, seasonal swamps and valleys lines indicates that there is provision of
N

may indicate presence of sedimentary transport and communication services.

rocks due to erosion and deposition. If Also, the presence of a police post or
O

the place is characterized by stagnant military camp indicates that security

water bodies like swamps, lakes or services are available.
dams and rocks it can be described as
R
FO

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Revision exercise 8

Answer the following questions:

1. Study the Table below and fill in the blank spaces.

Human activity Evidence

(a) Pastoralism ……………………………….
(b) …………………. Presence of lakes, rivers, dams, coastal

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areas and rivers
(c) Trade ………………………………..
(d) …………………. Presence of factories or industries

N
(e) Transportation …………………………………..

O
(f) …………………. Presence of crops, farms and plantations
(g) Mining ……………………………………….
(h) ………………….
SE
Presence of highlands and beaches

2. Describe any five methods of representing relief on topographic maps.

U
3. Write the long form for each of the following map reading abbreviations.
(a) VE (b) HS (c) HD (d) VS (e) DHS
E

2. Write short notes on the following geographical terms:

N

(a) Vertical exaggeration

(b) Intervisibility
LI

(c) Topographical map

N

4. List any five factors that may help to give evidence of the presence of settlements
on a map.
O

5. Study the Map extract of Mpanda, then answer the questions that follow.
R
FO

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MPANDA
281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292

9305
9305

9304
9304

9303
9303

9302
9302

LY
9301
9301

9300
9300

N
92 99
92 99

O
9298
9298

9297
9297

281 282 283 284 285 286 287 SE 288 289 290

Km
291 292
U
KEY
Town or area with Forest...........................................................
Steep Slope.................................................
Permanent Buildings...................................
Contours (V,1.20m)..................Depression Tree Swamp................................................
Other Populate Area,
Houses.........................................................
Air Photo Principal Point with
E

All Weather Road: Film No........................................................ Papyrus Swamp, Marsh, Boge.....................

Bound Surface.............................................
Water Course, Waterfall Riverine Trees..............................................
All Weather Road: Rapids, Dams...............................................
Loose Surface............................................. Plantation: (Coffee C, Palm,
N

Water Course, (Wide), Sisal S, Sugar Su, Wattle W.........................

Waterfall Rapids..........................................
Dry Weather Roads.....................................
Woodland.....................................................
Main Track (Motorable).............................. Watercourse (Indefinite)..............................
LI

Borehole, WaterHole, Scrub............................................................

Other Track and Footpath............................
Well, Spring................................................
Cut Line....................................................... Scattered Trees.............................................
Railway, Siding, Station, Bund, Major Fence, Hedge.........................
Level Crossing............................................. Palm Trees....................................................
N

Railwa Light................................................. Cliff.............................................................. Seasonal Swamp..........................................

O

(a) With the evidence from the map, analyse the settlement patterns of the
mapped area.
(b) With the evidence from the map, describe the nature of relief in the mapped
R

area.
FO

(c) With evidence from the map, describe the types of drainage patterns found
in the mapped area.

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6. Study the Map extract of Morogoro and answer the questions that follow.
MOROGORO

LY
N
O
SE Km
U
KEY
Town or area with Forest...........................................................
E

Steep Slope.................................................
Permanent Buildings...................................
Contours (V,1.20m)..................Depression Tree Swamp................................................
Other Populate Area,
Houses.........................................................
Air Photo Principal Point with
N

All Weather Road: Film No........................................................ Papyrus Swamp, Marsh, Boge.....................

Bound Surface.............................................
Water Course, Waterfall Riverine Trees..............................................
All Weather Road: Rapids, Dams...............................................
Loose Surface............................................. Plantation: (Coffee C, Palm,
LI

Water Course, (Wide), Sisal S, Sugar Su, Wattle W.........................

Waterfall Rapids..........................................
Dry Weather Roads.....................................
Woodland.....................................................
Main Track (Motorable).............................. Watercourse (Indefinite)..............................

Borehole, WaterHole, Scrub............................................................

Other Track and Footpath............................
N

Well, Spring................................................
Cut Line....................................................... Scattered Trees.............................................
Railway, Siding, Station, Bund, Major Fence, Hedge.........................
Level Crossing............................................. Palm Trees....................................................
O

Railwa Light................................................. Cliff.............................................................. Seasonal Swamp..........................................

(a) With the evidence from the map, suggest economic activities that are likely
R

to take place in the area.

(b) Calculate the distance in kilometres of the railway from grid reference
FO

466533 to 510480.
(c) Find the bearing of Mazimbu Sisal Estate from Kiwanja cha ndege.

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Chapter
Nine Photograph reading and
interpretation

Introduction
Photograph reading and interpretation are important skills which help in the

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recognition of natural and artificial features and the assessment of the effects
of human activities on the environment. In this chapter, you will learn about the
concept of photograph, photograph reading and interpretation. The competencies

N
developed in this chapter will help you to interpret and generate information from
photographs in your daily activities.

O
Concepts of photograph of a camera; there are three types of
reading and interpretation photographs, namely ground or horizontal
SE
A photograph is an image or picture taken photographs, oblique photographs and
by a camera on the earth’s surface. These vertical or aerial photographs.
images can be stored or presented in hard
U
or softcopy. Photographs show the visible Horizontal photographs
part of the environment. Photograph Horizontal or ground photographs are
reading refers to the simple recognition pictures taken at ground level, whereby
E

of both man-made and natural objects in the camera and the object are at the same
a photograph. Photograph interpretation level (Figure 9.1). It is a picture taken
N

is the examination of a photograph or when the camera axis is horizontal to

image to identify objects and judge the object. These type of photographs
LI

their significance. Photograph reading usually focus on object in front the

and interpretation involve obtaining camera. The focus of a camera towards
N

information about natural and man-made the object may lead into close-up or
features portrayed in a photograph. general view of the object. The view of
O

object differs from one photo to another;

Types of photographs as a result of the distance of an object
Photographs also can be taken from from the camera. The objects which are
R

different positions towards the ground. closer to the camera appear larger than
Based on the position of the photographer the objects which are farther from the
FO

and alignment of the principle axis camera.

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LY
N
O
Figure 9.1: Horizontal photograph of Julius Nyerere International Airport Terminal 3

There are two types of horizontal side of the features, with a very
photographs namely; panorama and
close-up photograph.
SE wide horizon in the background.
Panorama photograph is also
(a) Panorama horizontal photograph: defined as the art of taking a
U
These are general view number of pictures from the
photographs which show many same viewpoint and combining or
items on an extensive landscape stitching them to make one image
E

(Figure 9.2(a)). They show one covering a wide view.

N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 9.2 (a): Panorama of Lake Manyara

Source: https://www.google.com/search?q=panorama+lake+manyara+flamingo&tbm...

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(b) Close-up horizontal photograph: objects that are farther from the
This is a particular view camera;
photograph which focuses on one (g) It does not show the top view
specific object that needs to be clearly; and
interpreted, as shown in Figure (h) The scale of the photograph
9.2 (b). decreases from the foreground
to the background. The camera
is close to the object.

LY
Activity 9.1

N
Read different sources on photograph,

O
then:

(a) write down the uses of

SE photographs.
(b) explain with examples how
horizontal photograph is useful
U
to our daily lives.

Figure 9.2(b): Close-up photograph

E

Oblique photographs
Characteristics of a horizontal ‘Oblique’ means neither parallel nor at
N

photograph right angle to a specified line. Oblique

It is taken when the principle axis photographs are therefore photographs
LI

(a)
of a camera is horizontal to the taken from an elevated angle of less
object to be captured; than 90°. There are two main categories
N

(b) It is taken at about 180º; of oblique photographs, namely; low

oblique photograph and high oblique
O

(c) It shows only the front view of

photograph.
the object;
(d) It covers a small area;
R

(a) Low or ground oblique

(e) It has three major parts which are photographs: These are taken
FO

foreground, middle ground, and when a photographer is on an

background; elevated ground such as at the top
(f) Objects which are closer to the of a hill, cliff, building or holds
camera appear larger than the the camera with its principle axis

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at a low elevated angle of less than 60° (Figure 9.3(a)) towards the ground.
A low oblique photograph (Figure 9.3(b)) is characterised by some features.
It is divided into three main parts: fore view, middle view and back view.
Objects at the fore ground are large and seen clearly. Objects decrease in size
from the foreground outward. The low oblique photograph has no horizon.
A three-dimension view is seen, that is top view, side view and front view.
ne
o-pla
P hot

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Camera lens

N
Vertical Axis

30º
Ca
me

O
ra
axi
s

SE
Coverage Area
Figure 9.3(a): Angle of a low oblique photograph
U
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 9.3(b): Low oblique photograph

Source: https://dvaerialphoto.com/benefits-of-oblique-aerial-photography/

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(b) High oblique photographs: These photographs are taken from the sky with
the camera tilted at an angle of less than 90º towards the ground (Figure
9.4(a)). The photographer may take the photograph while an aircraft or drone
is flying at low levels. These photographs cover quite a large area of land
and are similar in many ways to the ground oblique photographs, as seen in
Figure 9.4(b). Objects near the camera appear slightly larger than those far
away from the camera due to diminishing scale. Such photographs include
a horizon. High oblique photographs cover a larger area than horizontal
photographs.

LY
ane
-pl

Camera lens

N
oto
Ph

O
Ca
me
ra
axi
Vertical Axis

60º
s

SE
Coverage Area
U
Figure 9.4(a): Angle of a high oblique photograph
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 9.4(b): High-angle oblique photograph of Dar es Salaam harbour

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Activity 9.2

Find different photographs from books, journals or Geography past papers

then do the following:
(a) study them carefully.
(b) identify horizontal and oblique photographs.
(c) analyse the characteristics of each photograph seen.
(d) write your answers in your exercise book.

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(c) Vertical or aerial photographs: Vertical photographs are taken when the

N
principal axis of a camera is vertical (90°) to the general ground level (Figure
9.5(a)). They are taken vertically with camera directed above an object or

O
scenery (Figure 9.5(b)), focusing on specific area of interest on the ground.
Photo-plane

Camera lens SE
U
Camera axis/
Vertical axis

90º
E

Coverage Area
Figure 9.5(a): Angle of a vertical or aerial photograph
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

Figure 9.5(b): Vertical or aerial photograph

Source: https://blog.werobotics.org2018/01/17/flooding

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Characteristics of vertical or aerial photographs
Aerial photographs have the following characteristics:
(a) They are taken vertically at 90° with the camera positioned above the scenery;
(b) They focus on specific features on the ground but they also show the
surrounding scenery;
(c) They cover a relatively large area compared to horizontal and oblique
photographs;
(d) Only the top view of features is seen;

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(e) The sides of features are obscured by overhead cover; and
(f) The scale of a photograph decreases from the photograph centre.

N
Activity 9. 3

O
In a group, do the following:
(a) go to the library and read about vertical or aerial photographs, then present
the information in your class.
SE
(b) read different sources on types of photographs and differentiate between
oblique, horizontal and aerial photographs.
U
Similarities and differences between photographs and maps
Similarities
(a) Both have scales;
E

(b) Both are used in planning and management activities such as in

agriculture, engineering, construction and military;
N

(c) Both show natural and man-made features of the earth’s surface; and
(d) Both are used in field works or field studies.
LI

Differences
Table 9.1: Differences between maps and photographs
N

No. Maps Photographs

O

1. They are selective as they show what They are not selective. They show each
was intended to be presented. and everything which appear in the lens
of the camera.
R

2. The scale of a map is constant The scale of a photograph decreases

throughout a map. with depth, from the foreground to the
FO

background or from a focal point outward.

3. Features are constant all over the map Images at the foreground appear bigger
since the scale is used. than those at the the background.

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Table 9.1: Differences between maps and photographs (continues)

No. Maps Photographs

4. Maps use symbols and signs which Photographs show images or pictures of
require special skill to read and real objects.
interpret.
5. It is easy to calculate distance or area It is not easy to calculate distance or areas
on the maps because they have a on photographs because photographs have
constant scale. a diminishing scale.

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6 They take a lot of time to prepare, Photographs are less expensive to produce
thus they are more expensive to and they are faster to take.
produce. Maps are prepared from

N
photographs.
7. Maps require skills on Photographs require little knowledge on

O
photogrammetry. using the camera.
8. Maps bear titles. Photographs do not have written titles.
9. Maps have North direction.

Uses of photographs
SE
Photographs do not show direction.

example, beyond the moon, in large

thick forests and from the bottom
U
Photographs have various uses as of the ocean.
follows: (d) Various experts of different fields
(a) They are a source of information use photographs for planning and
about human activities such as
E

tracking environmental changes

farming, mining, fishing and overtime.
N

lumbering; and historical events

(e) Photographs summarize bulky
such as wars and natural disasters
verbal descriptions.
LI

like volcanic eruptions and floods.

(f) Anthropologists and sociologists
(b) Photographs are used to keep
study photographs of various
N

record of events such as volcanic

groups of people for clues on
eruptions, floods, impacts of
patterns of human behaviour.
O

earthquakes, effects of mass

wasting and other events. (g) Cartographers use photographs in
map-making. Due to advancement
(c) Photographs can accommodate
R

in science and technology,

many images outside the human
cartographers no longer draw maps
FO

reach. Photographs can bring

manually but use computers.
information from remote areas
where people cannot reach, for (h) Photographs can be used to capture
information of moving objects like

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moving flocks of animals, floods, (k) Photographs can be used to tell the
landslides and lava flow. morphology of a landscape. It tells
(i) Photographs can be used in whether a landscape is a highland
understanding weather of a place. or lowland. Highlands are shown
For example, the type of clothes by the presence of mountains
worn help to tell whether the and lowlands. Photographs can
weather is hot or cold. show the presence of such coastal
(j) Photographs may be used for features as beaches, coral reefs and
planning purposes. plains.

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Exercise 9.1

N
Answer all questions.

O
Study the following photographs and answer the questions that follow.

SE
U
E
N

A B
LI

Source:https://www.un-ihe.org/mapping-and-remotesensing
N

1. Which one between photographs A and B above is;

(a) an oblique photograph?
O

(b) a vertical photograph?

2. Give reasons to your answer in (1) above.
R

3. What is the difference between a low oblique photograph and a high oblique
photograph?
FO

4. Suggest the captions (titles) of photographs A and B.

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Reading and interpreting photographs
Photograph reading and interpretation involves translating the information by
describing features shown in the photograph. Photograph reading and interpretation
involves the following;
(a) Identifying and describing features in the photograph;
(b) Identifying and interpreting physical features in the photograph;
(c) Identifying and interpreting human activities in the photograph; and
(d) Associating or relating different features shown in the photograph.

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Identification and description of a photograph features
Photographs especially horizontal photographs can be divided into three parts,
namely foreground, middle ground and background (Figure 9.6).

N
O
BACKGROUND

SE MIDDLE GROUND
U
E
N
LI

FOREGROUND
N

Figure 9.6: Photograph divisions for description purposes

O

The foreground refers to the part of For example, the main features in the
the photograph nearest to the camera. foreground in Figure 9.6 is vegetation
Middle ground refers to the central cover (grass) while at the middle ground,
R

part of the photograph and background a leopard and vegetation are seen. The
refers to the part of the photograph background shows a forest.
FO

farthest from the photographer. These

Generally, the identification and
grounds are obtained by dividing the
description of features in the photograph
photograph horizontally into three parts.
are aided by a number of elements

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including; tone or hue, size of features, around an object. A photograph which is
shape of objects, shadow, location, taken in the morning has a dull shadow,
pattern, association, and knowledge while those taken in the noon are bright.
about the area from which the photograph
(c) Association
was taken.
Presence of a particular feature in a
(a) Tone photograph may indicate the probability
Tone refers to the colour characteristics of having other activity, condition or
of an object relative to other objects in features. For instance, the presence of

LY
a photograph. Colour of objects helps a filling station implies the presence
to identify objects. For example, water of automobiles, hence transportation
bodies appear blue, tarmac roads are activities. The presence of water bodies
shown by dark colour, while vegetation

N
may imply presence of fishing activity.
appears green and soil appears brownish Some features are always found in
or dark. However, the colour tones will

O
association with other related features.
depend on the nature of the photographs
A photograph can also be used to tell
whether black and white or colored.
the weather, season or even climate of
Variation in tone or colour allows
identification of shapes and pattern of
objects.
SE
the place. This can be done by looking
at the activities carried out, nature of
vegetation and the sky. A bright clear sky
U
with dry vegetation implies a dry period
(b) Shadow
or season. Presence of thick forests or
The time of day when the photograph
vegetation, crops and land scenery can be
was taken is indicated by the shadow of
used to tell about the climate of a place.
E

the images. For example, the image of

For example, thick forests indicate heavy
a photograph taken in the morning, has
N

rainfall and high temperature areas.

its long shadows casted to the west, as
Presence of animals, like camels and
shown in Figure 9.7. A photograph taken
LI

horses indicate aridity. Cattle, buffaloes,

in the evening, has its long shadows
elephants, lions, rhinos, giraffes, and
casted to the East. The photograph taken
N

zebras reveal a savanna type of climate

in the afternoon casts short shadows
with moderate rainfall.
O
R
FO

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LY
N
O
SE
Figure 9.7: Photographs taken in the morning
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/23985194@N06/5340775050/

The type of clothing worn by people the photograph suggest that the area in
U
appearing in a photograph and nature which photo was taken is a game reserve,
of houses might suggest the prevailing jungle, national park or zoo.
weather of the area. When people appear
(e) Prior-knowledge of the
to be wearing heavy clothing with faces
E

photographed geographical area

almost completely covered, it is an
Familiarity of the area in the photograph
indication of cold weather. When people
N

help to interpret and describe features,

appear in light clothes it indicates that the
surfaces and objects presented in
LI

weather is hot. Activities taking place

the photograph. Such geographical
in the area can also suggest the type
knowledge, can be used to establish the
of season. If people are seen planting
N

title of the photograph.

crops, it is the planting season if they
O

are seen harvesting crops, it is the

harvesting season. Identifying and interpreting physical
features
R

(d) Location Many physical features shown in

Presence of a particular object in a a photograph can be identified and
FO

photograph can suggest and give clues interpreted. These features can include
of several information. For instance, relief, vegetation, drainage, rock types
presence of a leopard (Figure 9.6) in and waterbodies.

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Relief Certain crops such as wheat and
Before interpreting physical features, apples are grown on high altitude;
it is important to identify first relief likewise, animals such as sheep
features on a photograph. This can be and dairy cattle are also reared
done by giving a general idea about the in high-altitude areas within the
area shown in the photograph. When tropics.
describing different sceneries and Drainage
landforms, it is important to go further Different drainage features can be
and describe the forces and processes identified in a photograph. These features

LY
that are responsible for their formation are like rivers, lakes and seas. In these
and modification. Relief features in features, different aspects can be studied,
a photograph may include flat and/or for example, the shape of river valleys,

N
mountainous forms. and stages. Presence of certain features
(a) Flat landscapes on the photograph can tell the nature of

O
Flat landscapes occur both in the rock over which a river might be
lowland and highland areas. In the flowing. For example, the presence of
lowlands, they are called plains rapids and waterfalls is an indication
and in the highlands, they are
called plateaus. Plain altitudes are
SE
that the river is flowing over steep land.
River meanders suggest that the river is
less than 500 metres while plateau into its mature or old stage. Interlocking
U
altitudes are more than 500 metres spurs indicate that the river valley is into
above sea level. It is difficult to its upper stage, and the topography is
estimate the altitude of an area made of alternating layers of hard and
E

directly from a photograph. soft rocks.

However, other features appearing
N

in the photograph and economic Rock types

activities may be used. In hilly This also suggest the type and nature of
LI

areas, ridges, escarpments and the bed-rock. By observing pattern of an

conical hills may easily be area in the photograph, one can be able
N

identified according to their to describe nature and type of rocks.

appearance. For example, a photograph shows river
O

(b) Mountainous areas layout to be trellis then it also suggest

Snow might be seen more often that the area has a hard rock.
R

at higher levels. The type of trees Climate

growing could give a clue about
Through studying photographs, one can
FO

the altitude of the land. If there

are crops growing or animals detect the weather and climate of a place.
being reared, these could also This can be done by observing different
give a clue as to the altitude. features contained in a photograph. The

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type of crops grown and vegetation on names of species of plants should be
the photograph can be used to detect the given, for example, eucalyptus trees
climate of a place. Vegetation types and and cacti. Planted vegetation should be
crops can also provide evidence about distinguished from natural ones by their
the season and climate of a place. For characteristics.
example, the presence of cacti signifies
Settlement
aridity or semi-aridity, and hence a desert
or semi desert climate. Crops such as A settlement is a place where people
sisal are grown in hot areas that receive establish a community. It comprises of

LY
low rainfall while sugarcane thrives in different buildings such as hospitals,
warm to hot climates with high rainfall. schools, mosques, churches, and
The type of clothes people are wearing markets. However, some settlements

N
in a photograph can indicate the weather are made up of institutional, industrial
and possible climate. Heavy clothes and commercial buildings most of which

O
indicate cold climate while light clothes may not comprise living houses. There
indicate warm or hot climate conditions. are two types of settlements: rural and
urban.
Vegetation
Photographs can show the type of
SE
In a photograph, rural settlements can
be indicated by the following features:
vegetation of an area. The vegetation
U
can either be planted or a natural (a) Many semi-permanent and few
forest. Natural forests would appear to permanent buildings such as grass
be distributed unevenly while planted thatched houses or iron roofed
forests would usually appear in clear houses with mud or brick walls;
E

straight lines. In planted forests, trees (b) Presence of farming, livestock

N

tend to be of the same type, size and keeping or fishing activities; and
height because they were planted at the (c) Scattered houses.
LI

same time. The plant characteristics that

may appear on the photograph can be Urban settlements can be identified by
N

used as a guide to the general types of the following features:

vegetation. (a) Permanent buildings, which
O

When describing vegetation on a given dominate the area;

photograph there are guidelines to be (b) Planned streets;
followed; the type of vegetation should
R

(c) Many motor vehicles on the road

be identified, for example, forests,
which may lead to traffic jams;
thickets, grasslands, and swamp plants.
FO

and
The plants should be described, by
giving details such as height, shape and (d) Many large buildings and
appearance of leaves. Where possible, warehouses marking industrial
areas.

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Identifying and interpreting human (d) Presence of rivers or coastal plain
activities indicates fishing;
To interpret land use or human activities (e) Communication networks,
taking place in a photographed area, the markets, shops and suggest
following clues can help. trading;
(f) Tourism may also be noted by
(a) The natural vegetation of the area, the presence of attractive features
for example, grassland or scrub such as beaches, caves, craters,
vegetation may suggest grazing; thick forests and zoos;

LY
(b) Presence of estates or farms (g) Mines indicate mining;
suggests crop farming and
(h) Factories indicate industrial
sometimes industrial work;

N
work; and
(c) The presence of domestic animals
(i) Forests indicate lumbering
suggests grazing while wild

O
activities.
animals may indicate tourism;

Activity 9. 4
SE
In a group, collect different photographs, then do the following:
U
(a) compare and contrast the photographs basing on their types.
(b) associate the features shown in the photographs with other activities.
E

(c) take the photographs and bring in class to discuss with fellow students.
N

Revision exercise 9
LI

Section A
N

A: Write TRUE for a correct statement and FALSE for an incorrect statement.
O

1. Ground photographs are also known as horizontal photographs.

2. The other name of an aerial photograph is a close-up photograph.
R

3. Foreground refers to the part of the photograph nearest to the reader.

FO

4. The key is very essential when interpreting a photograph.

5. There are two types of ground-level photographs.
6. Presence of wild animals on a photograph may suggest a grazing area.

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7. Photographs can be used as a source of information about people’s activities
such as farming, mining, fishing and lumbering.

Section B
Answer the following questions:
8. Compare and contrast photographs and maps.
9. Explain why photographs are important to geographers

LY
Section C
Study the photograph below and then answer the questions that follow.

N
O
SE
U
E
N
LI
N

10. Identify features found in the foreground, middle ground and background
of the photograph.
O

11. Name the crop shown on the photograph.

12. List three benefits of the crop you have named in number 2 above.
R

13. Under what scale is the type of farming practised? Why?

FO

14. Mention other crops which can be grown in this area.

15. Explain climatic conditions suitable for the growth of the crop mentioned
in number 2.

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Section D
Study the photograph below and answer the questions that follow.

LY
N
O
16. Name the crop shown in the photograph.
SE
17. Mention climatic conditions, which favour the growth of the crop.
18. Name at least three regions in Tanzania where this crop is grown on a
U
commercial scale.
19. With concrete evidence, explain the possible scale of production of the crop
E

as shown on the photograph.

N

20. What are economic potentials of this crop for the farmers of this region?
LI

21. With reference from other regions, what are the possible limitations or
hindrances facing the production of this crop in Tanzania?
N

22. Suggest the economic activities that might be carried out in the photograph.
O
R
FO

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Section E
Study the photograph below and answer the subsequent questions.

LY
N
O
SE
U
Source: https://dailynews.co.tz/news/2019-03-225c94c53044e81
E

23. What type of photograph is this?

N

24. With evidence, determine the time when the photo was taken?
LI
N
O
R
FO

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Chapter
Ten Application of simple statistics

Introduction

LY
Statistics is one of the important aspects in Geography. It gives numerical
facts which are collected and analysed systematically to be used for different
geographical purposes. In this chapter, you will learn about the concepts, types,

N
application and importance of simple statistics. The competencies developed from
this chapter will enable you to apply simple statistical techniques to analyse,

O
present and use data for different purposes.

The concept of statistics SE

generalise the entire population by the
Statistics is a discipline of collecting, use of samples. Descriptive statistics
organising, analysing, interpreting and involves a broad set of data obtained
U
presenting numerical data. Statistics from the field and summarised using
deals with numerical information known statistical measures.
as data. In Geography, the numerical
Statistical data
E

facts collected systematically are used

for different geographical purposes. Statistical data is a body of information
N

Examples of numerical information of a particular phenomenon given in

include total annual rainfall, temperature numerical form that can be organised,
LI

and crop production per year. A person summarised and presented using different
who collects, classifies, analyses, statistical methods. Geographical data
presents and interprets data is known comprise facts and statistics collected
N

as statistician. Data collected provide a for reference or analysis. These facts and
O

lot of information that may be arranged statistics are of different types, namely
systematically for easy understanding, primary and secondary data.
analysis and drawing conclusions. Primary data
R

Statistics can be classified into two Primary data are first-hand information
categories, namely inferential statistics about a particular phenomenon. The
FO

and descriptive statistics. Inferential information can be obtained through

statistics deals with all procedures that conducting fieldwork using tools or
enable one to draw conclusions and instruments such as questionnaires,

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observation guides and different types (ii) Grouped data
of interview guides. This refers to statistics without
Secondary data specific or exact figures but
Secondary data include those obtained groups of several values. For
from published documents such as example, age of students in
books, journals, articles and government a secondary school may be
publications. They are second hand represented in groups, as shown
information. in Table 10.1.

LY
Types of statistical data according to Table 10.1: Grouped data
the nature of data
(a) Discrete data Age group No. of Students
This refers to data which can

N
13-14 48
only be given as whole numbers, 15-16 70

O
for example, number of people,
17-18 62
animals, houses and vehicles.
This data represents things
Importance of statistical data to the
which are not divisible.
(b) Continuous data
This is data which is presented to
SE
user
Statistical data is used in land planning,
resources allocation and provision of
U
show a range of values. It can be
social services. Such data is also used in
in the form of fraction or decimal
forecasting future trends of geographical
places. It can also include data
phenomena and comparison and
whose values can be measured
E

explanation of different geographical

such as altitude, temperature and
phenomena. For example, a study of
N

years.
climatic data of an area could enable
Discrete and continuous data can be one to explain the existence of certain
LI

presented in form of individual or types of vegetation. Raw and bulky data

grouped data. is simply summarised by statistics for
N

easy interpretation and explanation.

(i) Individual data
Moreover, statistics enables us to
O

This refers to the exact value convert massive data into a simple and
or observation given to an manageable form by using measures of
individual item in a sample central tendency and dispersion for study
R

range, such as population in a purposes. Furthermore, geographical

country, number of students in a information can be made available in
FO

school or production of a certain a small space by summarising it in

commodity. different statistical forms.

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(a) Simple line graphs
Activity 10.1 Simple line graphs are types of graphs
Study more sources of statistical data and that are plotted by a single line. These are
write down other benefits of statistical drawn by plotting a dependent variable
data related to your daily activities. against an independent variable by
joining the points by lines. Simple line
graphs are used to show the relationship
Ways of presenting statistical data
between two variables, for example,
Data can be presented in several ways tonnes of tea produced over time. Figure

LY
including statistical graphs, maps, charts, 10.1 is an example of the simple line
diagrams and tables. This chapter focuses graph demonstrating coffee production
on how bar graphs, line graphs and pie (in ‘000 tonnes) from 2011-2015.

N
charts can be used to present data.
Procedure to construct simple line
Types of graphs graphs

O
Graphs are among the methods
In order to draw simple line graphs,
commonly used by geographers to
the following are the procedure to be
present statistical information. There
are two main types of graphs used in
statistical data presentation. These are
SE
followed:
(i) identify the required data;
line graphs and bar graphs. (ii) identify the independent and
U
dependent variables;
Line graphs
(iii) decide on horizontal and vertical
Line graphs are graphs that use lines scales. The vertical scale should
to connect several points which relate
E

be selected on the basis of the

to each other. The graphs are used to largest value in relation to space
N

illustrate trends over time for continuous available and the horizontal scale
data. They are also used to compare two should be selected on the basis
LI

different variables over time. A variable of number of years in relation to

refers to a measurable characteristics space available;
N

of a person, group or object that varies (iv) draw and divide the vertical
within the sample under investigation. axis (y-axis) and horizontal axis
O

For example; age, weight, distance, year, (x-axis);

rainfall, temperature and vegetation (v) join and plot the graph; and
cover. There are four types of line graphs,
R

(vi) write the title of the graph (the

namely simple line graphs, multiple
title of a graph is always derived
line graphs, divergent line graphs and
FO

from the question).

compound line graphs.

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Carefully study Table 10.2 showing coffee production (‘000 tonnes) from 2011-
2015 and then draw as simple line graph.

Table 10. 2: Coffee production from 2011 to 2015

Years 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Production (‘000 tonnes) 13 14 14.5 17.5 17.2

20

LY
Coffee Production (‘000 tonnes)

18

16

N
14

O
12
10

6
SE
4
U
2

0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

E

Years
N

Scale: Vertical Scale: 1cm to 2 000 tonnes; Horizontal Scale: 2cm to 1 year
Figure10.1: Coffee production from 2011 to 2015
LI

Advantages of a simple line graph Disadvantages of simple line graphs

N

Construction of a simple line graph is The simple line graphs has some
easy since it involves little data, and limitations. It gives the impression that
O

a single line is drawn. It is simple to the pattern or trend is constant. It can be

compare variations in the relationship difficult to determine an exact value at
R

between two variables because the a given point of the graph. The graphs
trend of the relationship can easily be cannot be used to present more than two
FO

seen. Also, it does not involve complex variables or data at a time.

mathematical calculations and exact
values can easily be extracted from the
graph.

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(b) Multiple line graph for constructing a multiple line graph
A multiple line graph which is also called is similar to that used in a simple line
a comparative or grouped line graph graph. Table 10.3 gives statistics of
represents more than one item on the crop production in tonnes from 2016
same graph, for example, production to 2019. The information is presented
of maize, tea, coffee and sisal during in a multiple line graph, in Figure 10.2.
a given period of time. The procedure

Table 10. 3: Crops production between 2016 to 2019

LY
Year 2016 2017 2018 2019
Crops (‘000 tonnes) (‘000 tonnes) (‘000 tonnes) (‘000 tonnes)

N
Maize 200 260 275 280
Tea 100 200 180 260

O
Coffee 150 220 200 170
Sisal 60 150 100 200

300
SE
U
250
Crops Production (‘000 tonnes)

200
E

150
N

100
LI
N

50
O

0 2016 2017 2018 2019

Years
R

Tea Coffee Sisal Maize

Scale: Vertical Scale = 1cm to 50 000 tonnes; Horizontal Scale = 2 cm to 1year

FO

Figure 10.2: Crops production from 2016 to 2019

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Advantages of a multiple line graph from the average (Figure 10.3). It is also
A multiple line graph is easy to interpret known as a loss and gain graph.
and enables easy comparison of data. Procedure to construct a divergent line
It is time and space saving as several graph
dependent variables are presented in one (i) Find the total value of items;
graph. It involves simple mathematical
knowledge and enables one to estimate (ii) Calculate the mean (average) of
the given data;
the intermediate value between two
specified periods. It provides good visual (iii) Subtract the average from each

LY
impression of the data presented. item value to get deviations;
Disadvantages of multiple line graph (iv) Put the zero line at the centre
of the graph as an average (The

N
It is comparatively difficult to draw a line must be thickened for the
multiple line graph since many items purpose of interpretation);

O
are presented in the same period of time.
(v) Choose a suitable scale; and
This may cause confusion when many
variables are illustrated and their lines (vi) Draw a horizontal line and
intersect. It is also difficult to compare
the lines since many lines are drawn in
SE vertical line whereby positive
values are shown above the zero
line and negative values below
the same graph.
the zero line.
U
(c) Divergent line graph Carefully study Table 10.4 showing sisal
This is a line graph which explains how production (‘000 tonnes) from 2003 to
variable values deviate from the mean. It 2007 and then draw a divergent line
E

shows fluctuations (rise or fall) of values graph.

N

Table 10. 4: Sisal production from 2003 to 2007

LI

Years 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

N

Production (‘000 tonnes) 70 160 120 210 185

Solution:
O

(i) Find the total value of production;

Total production is 70 + 160 + 120 + 210 + 185 = 745 tonnes

R
FO

(ii) Calculate the mean: This is obtained by adding the total value and dividing
it by the number of occurrences.

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∑X
X=
N
Where: X = Mean, ∑ = Summation, X = Value, N = Number of values
70 + 160 + 120 + 210 + 185
X=
5
745
Therefore, = = 149
5

LY
(iii) Find deviations: Deviation is obtained by subtracting the average (mean)
from each item.

Year Production (x) Deviation

N
X -X
2003 70 70-149 -79

O
2004 160 160-149 11
2005 120 120-149 -29
2006 210 210-149 61

(iv) Plot the deviation graph

2007 185 SE 185-149 36
U
80

60
Sisal Production (‘000 tonnes)

40

20
N

0
LI

-20

-40
N

-60
O

-80

-100
R

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Years
FO

Scale: Vertical Scale = 1cm to 20 000 tonnes; Horizontal Scale = 2 cm to 1year

Figure 10.3: Sisal production from 2003 to 2007

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Advantages of a divergent line graph graphs is a good alternative to group or
A divergent line graph is simple to read comparative line graphs. A compound
and easy to interpret. The variation of line graph is used to present multiple
the divergent line is seen clearly. It is data of different items cumulatively in
therefore suitable for determining loss each year. The procedure of plotting the
and profit or increase and decrease. values is the same as for a comparative
line graph. The main difference is that
Disadvantages of a divergent line graph instead of drawing lines with different
Constructing a divergent line graph is patterns or colours, they are all shown

LY
tiresome since it involves calculations, in bold but the space between one line
and drawing which are time consuming. and the next is shaded differently.
There is also the possibility of drawing
Procedure for constructing a compound

N
a wrong graph if the calculations are not
line graph:
accurate. It does not show actual values,

O
only data showing deviation from the (i) Establish a cumulative table;
mean is presented. The method is used
(ii) Select an appropriate scale for
to present only one item therefore it is dependent and independent
not suitable for many items.

(d) Compound line graphs

SE
variables; and

(iii) Follow other steps used in the

construction of a simple line
U
Compound line graphs are types of
graphs where a variety of variables is graph.
presented as subsequent lines (Figure
Carefully study Table 10.5(a), showing
10.4). The graphs are also known as
E

the production of cash crops (‘000

composite, cumulative or divided line
tonnes) from 2011 to 2016 and draw a
N

graphs. The use of compound line

compound line graph.
LI

Table 10. 5(a): Production of principal cash crops from 2011 to 2016
Crops Sisal Cotton Coffee Tea
N

Year (‘000 tonnes) (‘000 tonnes) (‘000 tonnes) (‘000 tonnes)

O

2011 113 42 53 14
2012 104 67 45 17
2013 92 50 53 17
R

2014 81 56 49 18
2015 86 60 48 17
FO

2016 74 59 67 10

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Before drawing a compound line graph, The values of the first column are used as
use the data provided in Table 10.5(a) to a starting point for adding other values on
construct a compound table. Then make the next columns, on the corresponding
use of the data to draw a compound line row.
graph.
Table 5(b): Preparation of a compound table

Year/Crops Sisal Cotton Coffee Tea

2011 113 113+42 113+42+53 113+42+53+14

LY
2012 104 104+67 104+67+45 104+67+45+17
2013 92 92+50 92+50+53 92+50+53+17
2014 81 81+56 81+56+49 81+56+49+18

N
2015 86 86+60 86+60+48 86+60+48+17
2016 74 74+59 74+59+67 74+59+67+10

O
Table 5(c): Cumulative table showing total value of each crop
Year/Crops Sisal Cotton Coffee Tea
2011
2012
2013
113
104
92
155
171
142
SE 208
216
195
222
233
212
U
2014 81 137 186 204
2015 86 146 194 211
2016 74 133 200 210
E

260
240
N
Crops production (‘000 tonnes)

220
200
LI

180
160
140
N

120
100
O

80
60
40
R

20
0
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
FO

Year
Sisal Cotton Coffee Tea

Scale: Horizontal scale 2cm to 1 year; Vertical scale 1cm to 20 000 tonnes
Figure 10.4: Cash crops production from 2011 to 2016

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Advantages of a compound line graph Disadvantages of a compound line
A compound line graph enables easy graph
comparison of values. It does not A compound line graph is hard to read
consume much time because several lines and interpret, as well as to choose a
representing each independent variable suitable scale when data differs by a
are combined. It does not involve long great magnitude. It can cause confusion
mathematical calculations hence enables when many variables are cumulative
one to estimate the intermediate value and not all values start from zero. The
between two specified periods. A lot of graph also cannot establish the cause

LY
data of different items is accommodated. of variation in the variables. The graph
does not present actual data because it
presents cumulative data.

N
Activity 10.2

O
Study the simple, multiple, compound and divergent line graphs presented in
this chapter.
SE
(a) With the facilitation of the teacher, find out different statistical data for
two or more crops production in Tanzania for five or more consecutive
years from different sources such as books, internet and reports from
U
government or private institutions.
(b) Use the data in (a) above to draw a simple line graph, a multiple line
graph and a compound line graph. Show the procedure to be followed
E

when drawing these graphs.

N

Exercise 10.1
LI

Answer all questions.

N

1. Mention four differences between multiple and compound line graphs.

2. Mention five advantages of interpreting statistical data in Geography.
O

3. Study the following data of maize production in country ‘Y’ (‘000 tonnes)
in the table below and answer the questions that follow.
R

Year 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019

Tonnes 70 120 80 110 150 60 130 140
FO

(a) Draw a divergent line graph showing maize production in country ‘Y’
(b) Comment on the characteristics of the graph that you have drawn.
(c) What is the usefulness of a divergent line graph?

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Bar graphs graph and percentage compound bar
Bar graphs are graphs that display graphs.
data using rectangular bars or columns
(a) Simple bar graph
of different heights to represent such
The construction and usage of a simple
data. Bar graphs use rectangular bars to
bar graph are similar to a simple line
visually display each value and how it
graph. However, instead of using a line,
compares to other values in the graph.
parallel bars are used. It consists of a
The greater the value, the longer the
number of bars placed side by side, the

LY
bar. They provide a simple and easy
length of each bar being set according
way to interpret data. They are used to
to the size of the number which it
graphically illustrate diverse information
represents. Simple bar graphs may be
such as the value of a country’s leading

N
drawn with a vertical or horizontal base.
exports and imports of goods over a
specified period of time, and mean Data in Table 10.6 shows coffee

O
monthly temperature and rainfall. There production in metric tonnes from 2010
are several types of bar graphs namely to 2014. Study carefully data in Table
SE
simple bar graph, multiple bar graph, 10.6 and draw a simple bar graph.
divergent bar graph, compound bar
U
Table 10. 6: Coffee production from 2010 to 2014

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Production (‘000 tonnes) 105 100 140 150 130
E

Procedure for constructing a simple bar graph:

N

(i) Identify the data;

LI

(ii) Identify the independent and dependent variables;

(iii) Choose a suitable vertical scale and horizontal scale ( see Figure 10.5);
N

(iv) Decide on horizontal and vertical scales. The vertical scale should be
selected on the basis of the largest value in relation to space available
O

and the horizontal scale should be selected on the basis of number of

years in relation to space available;
(v) Draw and divide the vertical axis (y-axis) and horizontal axis (x-axis);
R

(vi) Draw the bars by using the value of each bar (the values of coffee
FO

production in tonnes are shown in Table 10.6);

(vii) Shade the bars; and
(viii) Write the title of the graph (the title of the graph is always derived from
the question).

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160

140

120
Production (‘000 tonnes)

100

80

LY
60

40

N
20

O
0 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Year

SE
Scale: Horizontal scale: 2cm to 1 year; Vertical scale: 1cm to 20 000 tonnes
Figure 10.5: Coffee production from 2010 to 2014
U
Advantages of a simple bar graph (b) Multiple bar graph
A simple bar graph is simple to Multiple bar graphs are also referred to
E

construct, read and interpret. It is also as comparative or grouped bar graphs.

N

used to compare production from one Sometimes there are more than two sets
year to another and it involves simple of data to be compared in a bar graph.
LI

mathematical calculations. In this case, a multiple bar graph is

Disadvantages of a simple bar graph appropriate. Multiple bar graphs are
N

essential in presenting several items

This graph is not suitable for data having in the same category of line. Different
more than one item. Construction of bars colours or shading help to portray the
O

also may lead to accumulation of some values of different items presented, as

errors. It does not offer comparison of shown in Figure 10.6. Consider Table
R

different variables or data. 10.7 and draw a multiple bar graph.

FO

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Table 10. 7: Crop production from 2018 to 2020
Year 2018 2019 2020
Crops (‘000 tonnes) (‘000 tonnes) (‘000 tonnes)
Maize 200 260 275
Tea 100 200 180
Coffee 150 220 200

Procedure for drawing a multiple bar graph:

LY
(i) Identify the required data;
(ii) Identify the independent and dependent variables;
(iii) Decide on horizontal and vertical scales. The vertical scale should be

N
selected on the basis of the largest value in relation to space available and
the horizontal scale should be selected on the basis of number of years in

O
relation to space available;
(iv) Draw and divide the vertical axis (y-axis) and horizontal axis (x-axis);

SE
(v) Insert the values of the same year by drawing the bars;
(vi) Choose different colours to shade the bars and make sure one item is
represented by the same colour in different years (figure 10.6, Brown colour
U
represents maize, blue colour represents tea and green colour represents
coffee); and
(vii) Write the caption of the graph, scale and the key.
E
N
LI
N
O
R
FO

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300

250

200
Production (‘000 tonnes)

150

LY
100

N
50

O
0 2018 2019 2020

Maize
SE
Year

Tea Coffee

Scale: Horizontal scale: 3 cm to 1 year; Vertical scale: 1cm to 50 000 tonnes

U
Figure 10.6: Crop production from 1998 to 2000
E

Advantages of a multiple bar graph

A multiple bar graph is easy to construct. It is simple to make comparisons of
N

production in a given period and it is easy to interpret due to distinguished shading.

LI

Also, it does not involve long mathematical calculations.

Disadvantages of a multiple bar graph

N

More than one bar is drawn in a single year, therefore it consumes a lot of time.
O

In case a lot of data is to be presented, this may be difficult to understand.

(c) Divergent bar graph

R

Like the divergent line graph, a divergent bar graph shows how data deviates from
the mean. The procedure for drawing a divergent bar graph is similar to that of a
FO

divergent line graph. However, instead of using line graphs vertical bars are used
where positive values are presented by bars pointing upwards and negative values
presented by bars pointing downwards from the zero line (Figure 10.7). Consider

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Table 10.8(a), then draw a divergent bar graph.
Table 10.8(a): Sisal production from 2016 to 2020
Year 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Production (‘000 tonnes) 60 150 100 200 175

Procedure for constructing divergent bar graph:

(i) Determine the variables (dependent and independent variables);
(ii) Calculate the mean:

LY
∑X
X=
N

N
Where: X = Mean, ∑ = Summation, X = Value, N = Number of values

O
60 + 150 + 100 + 200 + 175
X=
5
=
685
5
= 137
SE
U
∴ X = 137 tonnes
(iii) Find the deviations of values from the mean; and
E

Table 10.8(b): Sisal production from 2016 to 2020

N

Year Production (X) Deviation

X -X
LI

2016 60 60-137 -77

2017 150 150-137 13
2018 100 100-137 -37
N

2019 200 200-137 63

O

2020 175 175-137 38

TOTAL 685

(iv) Plot the deviation graph

R
FO

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80

60

40
Sisal production (‘000 tonnes)

20

-20

LY
-40

-60

N
-80

O
-100 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Years
SE
Scale: Horizontal scale: 2cm to 1 year; Vertical scale: 1cm to 20 000 tonnes
Figure 10.7: Sisal production from 2016 to 2020
U
Advantages of a divergent bar graph
A divergent bar graph is easy to read and interpret. The fluctuation of values is
seen clearly, so it is easy to make comparisons. It gives good visual impression.
E

Disadvantages of divergent bar graph

Construction of a divergent bar graph consumes a lot of time. It does not show
N

actual values and the method is used to present only one item. Inaccuracy on
divergence may occur if the calculations are wrong.
LI

(d) Compound bar graph

N

Compound bar graphs are drawn by dividing one bar into several components.
They are also known as divided bar graphs. Instead of bars being placed side by
O

side, the component parts are placed on top of one another. Each component is
noted by the differentiated pattern or colour shading and the total length of the
bar compared with the vertical scale as shown in Figure 10.8.
R

Procedure to construct a compound bar graph

FO

(i) Obtain the data and arrange it starting with the highest item value;
(ii) Add the values of all components of each year, to establish a raw of totals;
(iii) Choose a suitable scale for dependent and independent variables;

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(iv) Draw the graph, insert the values for each component part;
(v) Choose a pattern or colouring for each component part; and
(vi) Insert a title, key and scale.
Carefully study Table 10.9(a) showing cash crops production from 2017 to 2020
and construct a compound bar graph.
Table 10. 9(a): Cash crops production from 2017 to 2020

Year 2017 2018 2019 2020

LY
Crops (tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes) (tonnes)
Maize 200 260 275 280
Tea 100 200 180 260

N
Coffee 150 220 200 170

O
TOTAL 450 680 655 710

Table 10. 9(b): Cumulative table

Years
2017
Maize (tonnes)
200
SE
Tea (tonnes)
200 + 100
Coffee (tonnes)
200 + 100 + 150
2018 260 260 + 200 260 + 200 + 220
U
2019 275 275 + 180 275 + 180 + 200
2020 280 280 + 260 280 + 260 + 170
E

Table 10.9(c): Cumulative table showing total value of each crop

Years Maize (tonnes) Tea (tonnes) Coffee (tonnes)
N

2017 200 300 450

LI

2018 260 460 680

2019 275 455 655
N

2020 280 540 710

O
R
FO

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800

Cash crops production (‘000’tonnes) 700

600

500

400

LY
300

200

N
100

O
0 2017 2018 2019 2020

Maize Tea

Scale: Horizontal scale: 2cm to 1 year; Vertical scale: 1cm to 100 000 tonnes
SE
Years
Coffee
U
Figure. 10.8: Cash crops production from year 2017 to 2020

Advantages of a compound bar graph

E

A compound bar graph facilitates easy comparison of values because it represents

many items. It is easy to interpret due to different patterns and colouring, making
N

it impressive to look at since different colours or patterns are used. It is a good

method to use as it accommodates many items or data. It presents the trend of
LI

data in different years.

N

Disadvantages of a compound bar graph

It is difficult to compare the components since all component parts do not start
O

upon the same base. It is due to this reason that it is recommended to write the
actual value on the face of each bar. It can also cause confusion if it is not properly
constructed. The method does not show rise and fall in production of an individual
R

component or time.
FO

(e) Percentage compound bar graph

This is a bisected column graph used to compare the percentage that each value
contributes to a total of 100% across categories as shown in Figure 10.9. Consider

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data for cotton purchase changes across years as shown in Table 10.10 and construct
a compound bar graph.
Procedure for constructing a percentage bar graph:
(i) Set the total of the data for each year;
(ii) Calculate the percentage of each data set for each year;
(iii) Draw the vertical axis (y-axis) to represent the dependent variables;
(iv) Draw the horizontal axis (y-axis) to represent the independent variables;

LY
(v) Label both axes using a suitable scale;
(vi) Plot the cumulative percentage values for each year; and
(vii) Use values for the compound to subdivide the cumulative.

N
Carefully study Table 10.10 showing cottons purchase in Tanzania from 2010/2011

O
to 2013/2014 and construct a compound bar graph.
Table 10.10: Cotton purchase changes from 2010/2011 to 2013/2014
Region/Year 2010/2011 2011/2012
Mwanza 106,000
(51%)
126,000
(45.3%)
SE 2012/2013
116,000
(47%)
2013/2014
123,000
(47%)
U
Shinyanga 28,000 46,000 40,000 45,000
(13.4%) (16.5%) (16.2%) (17.2%)
Kigoma 54,000 80,000 67,000 72,000
E

(26%) (28.8%) (27.1%) (27.4%)

Tabora 20,000 26,000 24,000 22,000
N

(9.6%) (9.4%) (9.7%) (8.4%)

LI
N
O
R
FO

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Cotton Purchase in %

LY
N
O
Year
Mwanza Shinyanga Kigoma Tabora

Scale: Horizontal scale: 2cm to 1 year; Vertical scale: 1cm to 10%

SE
Figure 10. 9: Cotton purchase changes from 2010/2011 to 2013/2014

Pie Chart
U
A pie chart can also be referred to as a simple divided circle or pie graph. The chart
involves division of circles into segments to represent given components of the
data, proportionally. The size of each segments in the circle is always proportional
E

to the value it represents as shown in Figure 10.10.

Procedure for constructing a pie chart
N

(i) Add up all the totals of the values to be represented to get a grand total;
LI

(ii) Find the percentage of each value using the grand total as it is in column c;
(iii) Get the size of the segments and find out their degrees (For example,
N

22.8% represents 82.08º as it is in column d);

(iv) Find the number which will give the size of the segments or divisions,
O

multiply each percentage by 360;

(v) Draw a circle of a convenient size and divide it using a protractor into
R

segments corresponding to the degrees of each value;

(vi) Shade the segments (Darker colours are best used for the smaller segments);
FO

and
(vii) Shade and label each segment.
(viii) Complete the pie chart by giving its heading.

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Carefully study Table 10.11(a) showing food crops production in 2004 and then
draw a pie chat.
Table 10.11(a): Food crop production in 2004
Crop Production (tonnes)
Maize 90,000
Beans 40,000
Potatoes 50,000
Rice 65,000

LY
Wheat 20,000
Sugar 20,000
TOTAL 285,000

N
Table 10.11(b): Percentage of each food crop production

O
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Crop Value Percentage for each Degree for each crop in
(tonnes)
90000
crop SE 31.58
a pie chart

Maize 90000 × 100% = 31.58% × 360° = 113.69°

285000 100
U
65000 22.8
Rice 65000 × 100% = 22.8% × 360° = 82.08°
285000 100
E

50000 17.54
Potatoes 50000 × 100% = 17.54% × 360° = 63.14°
N

285000 100

40000 14.04
LI

Beans 40000 × 100% = 14.04% × 360° = 50.54°

285000 100
N

20000 7.02
Wheat 20000 × 100% = 7.02% × 360° = 25.27°
285000 100
O

20000 7.02
Sugar 20000 × 100% = 7.02% × 360° = 25.27°
285000 100
R
FO

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LY
N
O
SE
U
Figure 10.10: Food crop production in 2004
E

Advantages of a pie chart

N

A pie chart is easy to construct, read and interpret. It illustrates statistical information
very accurately. It is also easy to determine the value of a component since it is
LI

indicated in each segment. Visual impression of the individual components is

clear, which improves the understanding of the information. Moreover, it is easy
N

to assess the proportion of individual components against the total. Thus, it is a

good method for comparison purposes.
O

Disadvantages of a pie chart

R

The actual data is hidden as values shown on the face of the segments may be
in percentage or degrees, and represented actual values remain hidden. Where
FO

the values of the data set vary slightly, it is difficult to visualize the proportional
differences between values.

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Activity 10.3
Study the data in the table below for regional ‘S’ and answer the questions that
follow.
Cash crop Tonnes
Sisal 40 000
Cotton 75 000
Cashew nut 90 000
Coffee 45 000

LY
Tea 30 000
Pyrethrum 50 000

N
1. Draw a pie chart showing cash crops production in the region ‘S’. Show
the whole procedure to be followed when drawing it.

O
2. Make an interpretation of the pie chart.

Exercise 10.2

Answer all questions.

SE
U
1. Explain how a multiple bar graph differs from a compound bar graph.
2. Why is statistical data presented by using graphs and charts?
E

Summarisation of massive data

Raw data collected from various sources can be summarised in an organized form
N

to make sense of the scored information by using statistical measures. The statistical
measures used in summarizing data include measures of central tendency. The
LI

measures of central tendency involve arithmetic mean (mean), mode and median.
N

Presentation of massive statistical data

When data is collected in the field, it is usually in a raw form. For the data to be
O

useful, it needs to be processed, arranged in a logical manner and presented in

such a way that the information can be easy to read and draw conclusions. For
this purpose, data may be arranged and presented in tables. The data from tables
R

may be presented in graphical forms using graphs and charts.

FO

Simple statistical measures and interpretation

These are statistical measures and techniques used to summarise and show the
distribution of data. They also indicate where the centre of distribution tends to

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be located. They inform about the shape and nature of the distribution. Their role
is to facilitate comparison between data.

Measures of central tendency

(a) Mean
Mean (arithmetic mean) is the same as average value of data. It can be calculated
for both individual and grouped data.
Calculating the mean for individual data

LY
The mean for individual data is obtained by adding data values and dividing the
resultant total by the number of occurrences.
Arithmetic mean is represented as:

N
∑X
X=

O
N
Where: X = Arithmetic mean, ∑ = Summation, X = Individual value,
N = Number of occurrences
SE
For example, coffee production from 2011 to 2020 (‘000 tonnes) is presented in
Table 10.12. Find the mean:
U
Table 10. 12: Coffee production in ‘000 tonnes from 2011 to 2020
Year 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Production 80 75 70 70 70 65 65 60 40 35
E

(‘000 tonnes)
N

Find the summation of the given data by number of variables;

LI

Solution:
80 + 75 + 70 + 70 + 70 + 65 + 65 + 60 + 40 + 35
N

X=
10
O

630
X=
10
X = 63
R
FO

Therefore, the mean of coffee production is 63 tonnes.

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Mean for grouped data

∑ fx
X=
∑f

Where: X = Mean
f = Frequency
x = Class mark (i.e. the average between lowest and highest scores

LY
of the class interval
∑ = Summation of

N
For example, find the mean from the following grouped data below in Table 10.13(a):
Table 10.13(a): Height of people in Mahande Street

O
Height (cm) Frequency
60-62 5
63-65
66-68
69-71
SE 18
42
27
U
72-74 8

Solution:
Table 10.13(b): Calculation of grouped mean
E

Height (cm) Frequency (f) Class mark(x) fx

N

60-62 5 61 305
63-65 18 64 1 152
LI

66-68 42 67 2 814
69-71 27 70 1 890
N

72-74 8 73 584
Total
O

∑ f = 100 ∑ fx = 6745

(a) Find the class mark (x) of each group.

R

For example, the class mark of the first column at the third row is 61. This is found
FO

by adding the highest and lowest scores of the class interval then divide by 2 in
the following formulae:

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X1 + X 2 Disadvantages of mean
2 (a) It is highly affected by extreme
60 + 62 values;
X=
2 (b) It is time consuming especially
X = 61 for grouped data; and
(b) Find (fx) (c) It cannot be established in an
This is found by taking the frequency open-ended data.
of each data times the class mark of the (b) Mode

LY
corresponding data.
Mode is the most frequently occuring
For example, the ‘fx’ of the first column value in data distribution. It is the score or
at the third row is 305. It is found by

N
value that appears more frequently than
multiplying 61 which is the class mark another score or value in a distribution.
with 5 which is the frequency of the

O
corresponding data. Calculating mode for individual data
The modal value can be unimodal,
(c) Find the summation of fx bimodal or multimodal. Unimodal

frequency to
SE
and divide by the total number of occurs when there is one (1) mode value
in a distribution
get the mean of the grouped data.
U
Example 1
X=
∑ fx
From the given scores below find the
∑f mode
E

2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 3, 2, 4, 5, 2, 3, 4,5,
6745
X= 6, 2, 3, 3, 9, 3, 11, 3. The mode in the
N

100 distribution is 3, which occurs 6 times

compared to others.
LI

X = 67.45 Bimodal occurs when the set of data has

Therefore, mean height is 67.45 cm
N

two modes. Where as data set with more

Advantages of mean than two modes is called multimodal.
O

(a) It is used to measure the centre

of a numerical data set;
Bimodal
(b) It is used for making comparison
R

in statistical data; Examples 2

(c) It is used to summarize statistical
FO

3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 10, 10
data; and
4 and 7 are modes of bimodal data which
(d) It is used to find other statistical
have occurred 3 times.
measures in some cases.

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Mode becomes useful in statistics in many ways. One of the important ways
is when a mode is used to describe the content of the distribution of data. But
sometimes the distribution is shown in a form of grouped data. Modal frequency
refers to the number of times the mode(s) have appeared in a data set.
Mode for grouped data
⎛ D1 ⎞
Mode = L ⎜ ⎟i
⎝ D1 + D 2 ⎠
Where:

LY
i = class interval size or class width
D1 = the frequency of the modal class minus the frequency of the next lower class

N
D2 = the frequency of the modal class minus the frequency of the next higher class

O
L = lower class boundary of modal class
Example

the mode of the given data. SE

How do we determine mode in grouped data? Consider Table 10.14 and calculate

Table 10.14: Age of children admitted in Kidale Hospital

U
Age Frequency
0-4 1
5-9 5
E

10-14 2
15-19 2
N

Procedure for calculating mode of a grouped data:

LI

(a) Calculate the lower class boundary of the modal class;

N

⎛ D1 ⎞
Mode = L + ⎜ ⎟i
⎝ D1 + D 2 ⎠
O

L (Lowest limit) 5 – 0.5 = 4.5

R

(b) Calculate D1
FO

D1 5 – 1 = 4

(c) Calculate D2
D2 5 – 2 = 3

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(d) Calculate i (c) Median
Class width = upper boundary – The median value of data is the middle
lower boundary value of the ordered data. It is obtained
i = 9.5 – 4.5 = 5 by arranging the numbers in ascending
or descending order of their values or
(e) Therefore, substitute in the descending order and then marking
formula, the number in the middle. If there are
⎛ 4 ⎞ two middle numbers, the median is the
4.5 + ⎜ ⎟ 5
⎝ 4 + 3⎠ average of those two numbers.

LY
⎛ 4⎞ Median for individual data
4.5 + ⎜ ⎟ 5
⎝ 7⎠
Example 1

N
4.5 + (0.57 × 5)
1, 3, 4, 11, 12, 3, 2, 6, 2
= 4.5 + 2.85

O
Therefore, mode is 7.35
Solution:
Advantages of mode
SE
1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4, 6, 11, 12
(a) It is useful to determine Mid score is 3, so the median is 3
production or trend of
commodities. Example 2
U
(b) It is not affected by the accuracy 3, 12, 7, 9,4,5,6,8,5,8
of a few extreme values. For Median = arranging numbers in order
example, in a certain examination of size; 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7, 8, 8, 9, 12
E

the results are 45,55,6, 90, and

99. Then the mode is not affected Therefore, the median is the average of
N

in this case. 6 and 7, that is

LI

(c) It is easy to read and interpret 6+7

the given area. = 6.5
2
N

Disadvantages of mode
Therefore, the median is 6.5
(a) It ignores other values in the
O

distribution, taking only the Median for grouped data

value with the highest frequency. Median can be calculated from grouped
R

(b) In some distribution, the modal data. ⎛N ⎞

value cannot be established. Median = L + ⎜ 2 − F ⎟i
FO

(c) It cannot be used for further ⎜ f ⎟

⎝ ⎠
calculation.
Where: L = lowest number of
the median class

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N = total number of frequency
f = frequency of the median class
F = cummulative frequency (also written as cf ) before median
class
i = class interval size (class width)

From the Table 10.15 find the median of the following data:
Table 10.15: Weight of people in Mahande Street

LY
Weight in Kg Frequency Commulative
frequency
60-62 5 5

N
63-65 18 23
66-68 42 65

O
69-71 27 92
72-74 8 100
Total N=100
SE
Median class is obtained from the middle or near middle number of cumulative
frequencies. For example, cumulative frequency = 100; therefore, 100/2 = 50.
U
Hence a nearby number to 50 is 65.
L = 66 – 0.5 = 65.5
N = 100
E

F= 23
N

f = 42
LI

i=3
⎛ 100 ⎞
Median = 65.5 + ⎜ 2 − 23 ⎟3
N

⎜ 42 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
O

= 65.5 + 1.92
Therefore, median is 67.42 Kilograms
R

Advantages of median
FO

(a) It can be determined for any type of data;

(b) It may be easy to understand because of being a half-way point;

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(c) It is not affected by extreme values in distribution.
Disadvantages of median
(a) Other values in the distribution are not included;
(b) It is not suitable for hypothesis testing;
(c) It is somehow difficult to obtain the median when data is odd; and
(d) It cannot be used for further calculation.

LY
Exercise 10.3
Answer all questions.

N
1. Elaborate how mean, mode and median are useful in daily life?
2. Find mean, mode and median from the grouped data given in the following

O
table.
Scores Frequency
40 – 42 5
43 – 45
46 – 48
SE
10
42
U
49 – 51 35
52 - 54 27
E

Revision exercise 10
N

Section A
LI

1. Define the term statistics.

2. What is the difference between secondary and primary data?
N

3. Why is statistics important in our daily life?

4. Write short notes on the following statistical terms:
O

(a) mode
(b) mean
(c) median
R

5. What is the meaning of continuous data?

FO

6. Differentiate between discrete data and continuous data.

7. Study the data in the following table then find the mean, mode and median
of these workers.

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Street A B C D E F G H I J
Number of workers 12 06 20 03 12 02 12 03 18 09
Section B
Choose the correct answer.
8. What are the four types of statistical data basing on their nature ____.
(a) Individual data, discrete data, raw data and secondary data
(b) Individual data, discrete data, grouped data and continuous data

LY
(c) Primary data, secondary data, grouped data and collective data
(d) Individual data, grouped data, statistical data and discrete data
9. Three common types of graphs in statistics are ____.

N
(a) Bar graphs, line graphs and pie charts
(b) Line graphs, scale graphs and bar graphs

O
(c) Linear graphs, line graphs and dotted graphs
(d) Bar graphs and line graphs
10. Measures of central tendency involve ____.
(a) Mode, mean and variables
(b) Mode, arithmetic mean and data
SE
U
(c) Mean, mode and median
(d) Arithmetic mean, arithmetic progression and arithmetic series

Section C
E

Answer the following questions.

N

11. Study the given table showing mark scores for form three students in
Changarawe Secondary School and calculate the mean, median, mode.
LI

Mark score Frequency

1-10 2
N

11-20 6
21-30 4
O

31-40 8
41-50 6
R

51-60 4
61-70 4
FO

71-80 2
81-90 3
91-100 1

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12. The following table shows attendance of students at Pangamawe Secondary
School. Draw a divided circle to present the data.
Form Number of students
I 90
II 80
III 75
IV 86
V 69

LY
VI 70
13. Study the table below and draw a grouped or comparative bar graph showing
the export of agricultural products in tonnes from 2018 to 2020.

N
Year /commodity 2018 2019 2020
Maize 12000 500 10000

O
Fruits 900 700 12000
Coffee 3000 5000 7000
SE
14. Rose and Othman are selling mathematical sets. Most of the time they
keep records in their notebook. One day their Geography teacher told them
about the simplest way of presenting data for a single variable over time.
U
The following table indicates mathematical sets sold from 2010 to 2016.

Year 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

E

Mathematical sets 90 100 40 50 20 70 120

N

(a) Name the simplest ways of presenting the data.

(b) Mention five advantages of the methods of presenting data mentioned
LI

in (a) above.
(c) Present the given statistical information by using any appropriate graph.
N
O
R
FO

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Glossary
Aquifer A permeable rock which stores and transfers water.

Arable A land suitable for cultivation of crops.

Assimilation The total process of plant nutrition, including photosynthesis

and the absorption of raw materials.

LY
Atoll A ring-shaped coral reef.

Barysphere The inner most part of the earth.

N
O
Bedding plane The boundary between adjacent layers or strata in a
sedimentary rock.

Bench mark
SE
Is a reference mark of known elevation cut or set in
stone, concrete or other durable material and used in the
determination of altitudes.
U
Biosphere The whole of the region of the earth’s surface, the sea, and
the air that is inhabited by living organisms.

Cartographer A person who studies and practices the art of making maps.
E

Cliff A tall, vertical, or near vertical, rock face.

N
LI

Climate Aggregate weather conditions of an area over a long period

of time which allow for the designation of seasonal patterns
N

and expected future weather.

Climate change Long term variations in climate, particularly related to

O

average annual temperatures and annual rainfall.

Clint Flat-topped block that forms the ‘paving stone’ in a limestone

R

pavement.
FO

Deforestation Removal of forest covers due to cutting or burning, or a

combination of the two.

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Denudation Stripping of surface cover. Can apply to both vegetation
and soils.
Dip slope A topographic (geomorphic) surface which slopes in the
same direction, and often by the same amount, as the true
dip or apparent dip of the underlying strata.

Distributary Facts and statistics collected together for reference or

analysis.

LY
Escarpment An elongated, steep slope at the edge of an upland area
such as a plateau or cuesta.

Geology The science that deals with the earth’s physical structure

N
and substance, its history, and the processes that act on it.

O
Geomorphology The study of the physical features of the surface of the earth
and their relation to its geological structures.

Latitude SE
The angular distance in degrees north or south of the equator
to a point on the earth’s surface.
U
Lithosphere A rock layer forming the outermost part of the earth.

Loam A soil having roughly equal proportions of clay, sand and silt.
E
N

Longitude The angular distance in degrees east or west of the prime

meridian at Greenwich to a point on the earth’s surface.
LI

Nitrogen fixation A process carried out by certain algae and soil bacteria
N

whereby atmospheric nitrogen is incorporated to form

nitrogen-based organic compounds.
O

Oasis A wet-point site in an arid area.

R

Pervious rocks Rocks that allow water to flow along cracks or joints.
FO

Plateau An area of highland, usually consisting of relatively flat

terrain that is raised significantly above the surrounding
area, often with one or more sides with steep slopes.

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Plucking A form of glacial erosion in which ice freezes on to rock
and pulls it away when the glacier moves on.

Regolith Rock material that has been weathered from the original
bedrock.
Ridge A long, narrow crest of a hill or mountain.

Scarp The steep slope of an escarpment.

LY
Scarp slope A slope in the land that cuts across the underlying strata,
especially the steeper slope of a cuesta.

N
Suspension The transport of load in the body of the water in a river

O
i.e., being carried along in the flow.

Systematic error An error that, as long as conditions are unchanged, will

Trigonometric
SE
always have the same magnitude and the same algebraic sign.

A fixed surveying station, used in geodetic surveying and

station other surveying projects in its vicinity.
U
Vent A pipe-like gap in the ground which allows volcanic material
E

to pass through to the surface.

N

Ventifacts A stone or pebble which has been shaped by wind-blown

sand, usually in the desert, so that its surface consists of flat
LI

facets with sharp edges.

N
O
R
FO

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Bibliography
Birch, T. W. (1971). African map and photo reading. London: Cox & Wyman Ltd.
Buckle, C. (1978). Landforms in Africa. London: Longman Group Ltd.
Bunnet, R. B. (1973). Physical geography in diagrams. London: Longman Group
Ltd.
Bunnet, R. B. (2008). Physical geography in diagrams for Africa. China: Pearson
Education Limited.

LY
Cain, H. R. (1966). Physical geography. London: Longman Group Ltd.
Colin, B. (2009). Land forms in Africa, An introduction to geomorphology. Malysia:
Pearson Education Limited.

N
Curriculum, Planning and Development Division. (1997). Understanding

O
geography. Singapore: Ministry of Education.
Durra S. E. (1990). Map reading, photograph interpretation and elementary
survey. Dar es salaam: General publications Ltd.
SE
Durra, S. E. (2003). Map reading, photograph interpretation and elementary
surveying for secondary level. Dar es Salaam: General Publication Limited.
U
Ferguson, A. G. & Ngau, P.M. (1981). Fieldwork and data analysis in geography.
Nairobi: Macmillan.
Forth, H. D. (1978). Fundamentals of soil science. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
E

Irandu, E. M. (1989). Human and physical geography. Nairobi: Longhorn Kenya

Ltd.
N

Hance, W. A. (1967). The Geography of modern Africa. New York: Columbia

LI

University Press.
Holmes, A. (1947). Principles of physical geology. London: Thomas Nelson and
N

Sons Ltd.
O

Karuggah, R. & Kusasu, J. (1991). Certificate geography – form 2. Nairobi:

Oxford University Press.
Leong, G. C. (1991). Certificate physical and human geography. London: Oxford
R

University Press.
FO

Lodha, R. M. (2010). Academic dictionary of geography. New Delhi: India

Publishers.
Mcmaster, D. N. (1971). Map reading for East Africa. London: Longman Group
Ltd.

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Mibei, G. (2014). Introduction to types and classification of rocks.
Monkhouse, F. J. (1975). Principles of physical geography. London: Tottenham
Court Road Wip 9HE.
Murray, A. (1967). Africa: The study map notes books. London: Collins Clear Press.
Mzezele & Kibuuka, P. (2011). Geography in focus form 3. Oxford University
Press (T) Ltd.
Pritchard, J. M. (1979). Africa: A study of geography for advanced students.
London: Longman Group Ltd.

LY
Pritchard, J. M. (1990). Practical geography for Africa. Hongkong: Longman
Group Ltd.

N
Pritchard, J. M. (1984). Practical geography for Africa. England: UK limited.
Robertson, C. E. (1980). The interior of the Earth: An elementary description.

O
Speak, P. & Carter, A. H. (1964). Map reading and interpretation. Longman
Group Limited.
SE
Strahler, A. N. (1969). Physical geography. New York: Columbia University.
Tanzania Institute of Education (2019). Geography for secondary school, student’s
book form one. Tanzania: Tanzania institute of education.
U
Tanzania Institute of Education (1987). Geography course book for secondary
schools, book three. Tanzania: Tanzania institute of education.
E

Trauran, H. C. (1975). A practical guide to statistical maps and diagrams. Nairobi:

East Africacan Pulishers.
N

Truran, H. C. (1995). A practical guide to statistical maps and diagrams. Nairobi:

LI

East African Educational Publishers Ltd.

Udo, R. K. (1982). The human geography of tropical Africa. London: Heineman.
N

Walters, G. (1991). First lesson in physical geography. England: Longman Group

UK Limited.
O

Waugh, D. (2009). Geography: An integrated approach (4th ed). UK: Nelson

Thornes.
R

Waugh, D. (2009). Geography: An integrated approach. China: Nelson Thorne’s

Ltd.
FO

Winter, D. J. (2001). An introduction to igneous and metamorphic rocks petrology.

prentice Hall.

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