Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

H8

Function:
A Function f from a set X to a set Y is a rule or correspondence that assigns to each
element x in X a unique element y in Y.
Symbolically we write it as f : X  Y and read as f is a function from X to Y.
Domain and Range of Function:
If f is a function from X to Y then
X is called the domain of f and the set of corresponding elements in Y is called range of f
For example:
Domain = a, b, c
Range = 1,2,3
Example 1: Given f  x   x3  2 x 2  4 x  1, find
1
(i) f  0  (ii) f 1 (iii) f  2  (iv) f 1  x  (v) f   , x  0
 x
Solution:
f  x   x3  2 x 2  4 x  1
f  0    0   2  0   4  0   1  0  0  0  1  1
3 2
(i)
f 1  1  2 1  4 1  1  1  2  4  1  2
3 2
(ii)
f  2    2   2  2   4  2   1  8  8  8  1  25
3 2
(iii)
f 1  x   1  x   2 1  x   4 1  x   1
3 2
(iv)
 1  3x  3x 2  x 3  2  4 x  2 x 2  4  4 x  1
 x3  x 2  3x  2
3 2
1 1 1 1 1 2 4
(v) f       2    4    1  3  2   1, x  0
 x  x  x  x x x x
Example 2: Let f  x   x . Find the domain and range of f.
2

Solution:
f  x  is defined for every real number x.
Further for every real number x, f  x   x 2 is a non- negative real number. So
Domain f  Set of all real numbers.
Range f  Set of all non-negative real numbers.
1
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

x
Example 3: Let f  x   . Find the domain and range of f.
x 4
2

Solution:
x
f  x 
x 4
2

f  x  is not defined if x2  4  0  x 2  4 or x  2
Domain f  Set of all real numbers except –2 and 2.
Range f  Set of all real numbers.
Vertical Line Test:
If a vertical line meets a graph in more than one point, then it is not a graph of a function.
y
y




 x
x
o
o

a function
not a function

Piece –Wise (Compound) Function:

A function which is defined by two or more than two rules is called Piece-wise function.
For example:
 x if 0  x  1
f  x  
 x  1 if 1  x  2
Algebraic Functions:
Algebraic functions are those functions which are defined by algebraic expressions.
For example:
f  x   3x  5, f  x   x 2  3x  2
We classify Algebraic functions as follows:
(i) Polynomial Function:
A function P of the form P  x   an xn  an1x n1  an2 x n2  ...  a2 x 2  a1x  ao
for all x, where the coefficients an , an1,..., a2 , a1, a0 are real numbers and the exponents
are non-negative integers, is called a polynomial function. If an  0 then P  x  is called
a polynomial function of degree n and an is the leading co-efficient of P  x  .
For example:
P  x   2 x 4  3x3  2 x  1 is a polynomial function of degree 4 with leading coefficient 2.
(ii) Linear Function:
If the degree of a polynomial function is 1, then it is called a linear function.
Symbolically we write f  x   ax  b where a  0, a, b are real numbers.
For example:
f  x   3x  4, f  x   x  2 are linear functions of x.
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Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

(iii) Identity Function:

For any set X, a function I : X  X of the form I  x   x x  X is called an
identity function.
(iv) Constant Function:
Let X and Y be sets of real numbers. A function C : X  Y defined by
C  x   a, x  X , a Y and fixed is called constant function. For example C : R  R
defined by C  x   2,  x  R is a constant function.
(v) Rational Function:
P  x
A function R  x  of the form , where both P  x  and Q  x  are polynomial
Q x
functions and Q  x   0 , is called a rational function.
Exponential Function:
A function, in which the variable appears as exponent (power), is called an
exponential function. The functions y  eax , y  e x , y  2x  e x ln 2 , etc are exponential
functions of x.
Logarithmic Function:
If x  a y , then y  log a x , where a > 0, a ≠ 1 is called Logarithmic function of x.
(i) If a  10, then we have log10 x (written as log x ) which is known as the
common logarithm of x.
(ii) If a  e, then we have log e x (written as ln x ) which is known as the natural
logarithm of x.
Hyperbolic Functions:

(i) sinh x 
2
 e  e  is called hyperbolic sine function. Its domain and range are the set of
1 x x

all real numbers.

(ii) cosh x 
2
 e  e  is called hyperbolic cosine function. Its domain is the set of all real
1 x x

numbers and the range is the set of all numbers in the interval 1,  .
(iii) The remaining four hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of the hyperbolic sine and
the hyperbolic cosine function as follows:
sinh x e x  e x 1 2
tanh x   ; sec hx   x x
cosh x e x  e x cosh x e  e
cosh x e x  e x 1 2
coth x   ; csc hx   x x
sinh x e x  e x sinh x e  e

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Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions:

The inverse hyperbolic functions are expressed in terms of natural logarithms and we
shall study them in higher classes.
(i)  
sinh 1 x  ln x  x 2  1 , for all x (ii)  
cosh 1 x  ln x  x 2  1 , x  1
1  1 x  1  x 1 
(iii) tanh 1 x  ln  , x  1 (iv) coth 1 x  ln  , x  1
2  1 x  2  x 1 
1 1  x2  1 1  x2 
(v) sech 1 x  ln    , 0  x  1 (vi) cosec h 1 x  ln   , x  0
x x  x x 
   
Explicit Function:
If y is easily expressed in terms of the independent variable x, then y is called an
explicit function of x.
For example:
y  x2  2 x  1, y  x  1 are explicit functions of x.
Symbolically it can be written as y  f  x  .
Implicit Function:
If x and y are so mixed up and y cannot be expressed in terms of the independent variable
x, then y is called an implicit function of x. For example,
xy 2  y  9
x 2  xy  y 2  2,  1 are implicit functions of x and y.
xy
Symbolically it is written as f  x, y   0 .
Parametric Functions:
Sometimes a curve is described by expressing both x and y as function of a third variable
“ t ” or “  ” which is called a parameter. The equations of the type x  f  t  and y  g  t 
are called the parametric equations of the curve.
The functions of the form:
x  at 2 x  a cos t x  a cos x  a sec
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
y  at y  a sin t y  b sin  y  a tan 
are called parametric functions. Here the variable t or  is called parameter.
Even Function:
A function f is said to be an even function if f   x   f  x  , for every number x in the
domain of f.
For example:
f  x   x2 , f  x   cos x are even functions of x.
Odd Function:
A function f is said to be an odd function if f   x    f  x  , for every number x in the
domain of f.
For example:
f  x   sin x, f  x   x3 are odd functions of x.

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Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

Some Important Results

Hyperbolic Identities:
 cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  cosh 2x
 cosh 2 x  sinh 2 x  1
 2sinh x cosh x  sinh 2 x
 1  tanh 2 x  sec h2 x
 coth 2 x 1  cosech 2 x
Parametric Equations:
x  a cos
 represent the equation of circle x2  y 2  a 2
y  a sin 
x  a cos x2 y 2
 represent the equation of ellipse 2  2  1 .
y  b sin  a b
x  a sec x2 y 2
 represent the equation of hyperbola 2  2  1 .
y  b tan  a b
x  at 2
 represent the equation of parabola y 2  4ax .
y  2at

EXERCISE 1.1

Q.1 Given that: (ii) f  0

(a) f  x   x2  x Solution:
(b) f  x  x  4 f  x   x2  x
Find Put x  0
(i) f  2  f  0   02  0

(ii) f  0 f  0  0

(iii) f  x  1 (iii) f  x  1
(iv) f  x2  4 Solution:
f  x   x2  x
(a) f  x   x2  x
Replace x by x  1
f  2 
f  x  1   x  1   x  1
(i) 2

Solution:
 x2  2 x  1  x  1
f  x   x2  x
f  x  1  x 2  3x  2
Put x  2
f  2    2    2 
2 (iv) f  x2  4

 42 Solution:
f  x   x2  x
f  2   6
Replace x by x 2  4
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Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

f  x2  4   x2  4   x2  4
2
(iii) f  x   x3  2 x 2  1
(iv) f  x   cos x
 x4  8x2  16  x2  4
f  x   6x  9
f  x 2  4   x 4  7 x 2  12
(i)
Solution:
(b) f  x  x  4 f  x   6x  9
(i) f  2  f a  h  f a
Solution: h
f  x  x  4 6  a  h   9   6a  9 
Put x  2 
h
f  2   2  4 6a  6h  9  6a  9

f  2   2 h
6h
(ii) f  0 
h
Solution: f  a  h  f  a 
f  x  x  4 6
h
Put x  0
(ii) f  x   sin x
f  0  0  4  4
Solution:
f  0  2 f  x   sin x
(iii) f  x  1 f a  h  f a
Solution: h
f  x  x  4 sin  a  h   sin a

Replace x by x  1 h
f  x  1  x  1  4 1
 sin  a  h   sin a 
h
f  x  1  x  3
 P Q   P Q 
sin P  sin Q  2cos   sin  
(iv) f  x  4
2  2   2 
1  a  h  a   a  h  a 
Solution:   2cos   sin  
f  x  x  4 h  2   2 
Replace x by x 2  4 2   2a  h   h  
 cos   sin  
h   2   2  
f  x2  4  x2  4  4
f  a  h  f  a 2   h   h 
f  x2  4  x2  8 h
 cos  a   sin   
h  2   2 
f a  h  f a (iii) f  x   x3  2 x 2  1
Q.2 Find and simplify
h Solution:
where, f  x   x3  2 x 2  1
(i) f  x   6x  9
f a  h  f a
(ii) f  x   sin x h
6
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

 a  h 3  2  a  h 2  1  a 3  2a 2  1 Put x  A in equation (i)

   
h P4 A


3 2 2 3

a  3a h  3ah  h  2 a  2ah  h
2 2
 1  a 3
 2a  1
2
(b) The area A of a circle as a function
h of its circumference C.
3a 2h  3ah2  h3  2a 2  4ah  2h 2  2a 2 Solution:

h Let r be the radius of circle, then
3a h  3ah  h  4ah  2h 2
2 2 3
A   r 2 …(i)

h C
C  2 r  r 
h 3a  3ah  h 2  4a  2h 
2 2
 C
h Put r  in equation (i)
f  a  h  f  a
2
 3a 2  3ah  h 2  4a  2h 2
 C 
h A  
(iv) f  x   cos x  2 
Solution: C2
A  2
f  x   cos x 4
f a  h  f a A
C2
h 4
cos  a  h   cos a (c) The volume V of a cube as a

h function of the area A of its base.
1 Solution:
 cos  a  h   cos a 
h Let x be the length of each edge of
 P Q   P Q  a cube, then
cos P  cos Q  2sin   sin  
 2   2  V  x3 …(i)
1  a  h  a   a  h  a 
  2sin   sin   A  x2  A  x2
h  2   2 
Ax
2   2a  h   h  
  sin   sin  
h   2   2   Put x  A in equation (i)

 A
3
f  a  h  f a  2  h   h  V
  sin  a   sin   
h h  2   2 
3
Q.3 Express the following: V  A2
(a) The perimeter P of square as a Q.4 Find the domain and the range of the
function of its area A. function g defined below, and sketch
Solution: the graph of g.
Let x be the length of each side of (i) g  x   2x  5
square, then Solution:
A x  A  x
2 2
g  x   2x  5
x A Domain g  R
P  4 x …(i) Range g  R

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Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

(ii) g  x   x2  4 Multiplying both sides by –3

3x  6
Solution: Adding 4 on both sides
g  x   x2  4 4  3x  4  6
4  3x  10
g  x  is defined in real numbers if g ( x)  10
x2  4  0 g  x    ,10 
x2  4 g  x    , 5   ,10 
x  2 Range g  (,10)
x  2 or x  2
Domain g  (, 2]  [2, )  x 1 , x  3
(vi) g ( x)  
Range g  [0, ) 2 x  1 , 3  x
(iii) g  x  x 1 Solution:
 x 1 , x  3
Solution: g ( x)  
g  x  x 1 2 x  1 , 3  x
Domain g = R
g  x  is defined in real numbers if For range:
x 1  0 If x  3
x  1 Subtracting „1‟ on both sides
Domain g  [1, ) x 1  3 1
Range g  [0, ) x 1  2
g ( x)  2
(iv) g  x  x  3
g  x   (,2)
Solution:
g  x  x  3 If x  3
Multiplying both sides by 2
Domain g  R 2x  6
Range g  [0, ) 2x 1  7
6 x  7 x  2 g ( x)  7
(v) g  x  
 4  3x 2  x g  x   7,  
Solution: Range g  (,2)  [7, )
6 x  7 x  2 x 2  3x  2
g  x   (vii) g ( x)  , x  1
 4  3x 2  x x 1
Domain g  R Solution:
For range: x 2  3x  2
g ( x)  , x  1
If x  2 x 1
Multiplying both sides by 6 g  x  is not defined if
6 x  12
Adding 7 on both sides x  1  0  x  1
6 x  7  12  7 Domain g  R  1
6 x  7  5 Note: After the correction
g ( x)  5 For range:
g  x    , 5 x 2  3x  2
g ( x)  , x  1
If x  2 x 1
8
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

x2  2 x  x  2 6  2a  b
g ( x)  , x  1 2a  b  6 …(i)
x 1
x( x  2)  1( x  2) Putting x  1 in f  x 
g ( x)  , x  1
x 1 f  1  (1)3  a(1)2  b(1)  1
g ( x) 
 x  2  x  1 , x  1 0  1  a  b  1
x 1 a  b  0 …(ii)
g ( x)  x  2, x  1 Adding equation (i) and equation (ii)
By putting x  1 2a  b  6
g  1  1  2  1 ab  0
3a  6
Range g  R  1
6
a
x 2  16 3
(viii) g ( x)  , x4
x4 a2
Solution: Put a  2 in equation (ii)
x 2  16 2b  0
g ( x)  , x4
x4 b  2
g  x  is not defined if Q.6 A stone falls from a height of 60m
x4 0 x  4 on the ground, the height h after x
Domain g  R  4 second is approximately given by
For range: h( x)  40  10 x 2 .

g ( x) 
 x  4  x  4  , x4
(i) What is the height of the stone
when:
x4 (a) x  1 sec.
g ( x)  x  4, x4 Solution:
By putting x  4 h( x)  40  10 x 2
g (4)  4  4
Put x  1 in h  x 
g (4)  8
Range g  R  8 h(1)  40  10(1)2
 40  10
Q.5 Given f ( x)  x3  ax 2  bx  1 .  30m
If f (2)  3 and f (1)  0 . (b) x  1.5 sec.
Find the values of a and b. Solution:
Solution: h( x)  40  10 x 2
f ( x)  x3  ax 2  bx  1 Put x  1.5 in h  x 
Putting x  2 in f  x 
h 1.5  40  10 1.5
2

f (2)   2   a  2   b  2   1
3 2
 40  22.5
3  8  4a  2b  1  17.5m
3  9  4a  2b (ii) When does the stone strike the
3  9  4a  2b ground?
12  4a  2b Solution:
12  2  2a  b  When stone strikes the ground,
12 then h( x)  0
 2a  b 40  10 x2  0
2
9
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

40  10x2 (iii) x  a sec , y  b tan represent the

40 x2 y 2
 x2 equation of hyperbola 2  2  1
10 a b
4  x2 Solution:
By taking square root on both sides x
x  a sec   sec
x  2 a
As time is always a positive quantity, y
y  b tan    tan 
therefore, b
x  2 sec. Squaring and subtracting
Q.7 Show that the parametric x2 y 2
 2  sec2   tan 2 
equations: 2
a b
(i) x  at 2 , y  2at represent the x2 y 2
 1
equation of parabola y 2  4ax a 2 b2
Solution: Q.8 Prove the identities:
x  at 2 …(i) (i) sinh 2 x  2sinh x cosh x
y Solution:
y  2at  t  L.H.S  sinh 2x
2a
e2 x  e2 x
Put t 
y
in equation (i)  …(i)
2a 2
2 R.H.S  2sinh x cosh x
 y 
x  a   e x  e x  e x  e x 
 2a   2  
 2  2 
y2
x  a 2
4a 
e   e 
x 2 x 2

y 2 2
x e  e2 x
2x
4a  …(ii)
2
y 2  4ax
From equation (i) and equation (ii)
(ii) x  a cos , y  b sin represent the
x2 y 2 sinh 2 x  2sinh x cosh x
equation of ellipse  1
a 2 b2 (ii) sech 2 x  1  tanh 2 x
Solution: Solution:
x L.H.S  sech 2 x
x  a cos   cos
a 2
 2 
y   x x 
y  b sin    sin  e e 
b
4
Squaring and adding  …(i)
 e x  e x 
2
x2 y 2
  cos 2   sin 2 
a 2 b2 R.H.S  1  tanh 2 x
2
x2 y 2  e x  e x 
 1  1  x x 
a 2 b2 e e 
10
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

e  e  x x 2

4
…(ii)
 1  e x  e x 
2

e  e  x x 2

From equation (i) and equation (ii)


e  e   e  e 
x x 2 x x 2
cosech 2 x  coth 2 x  1
e  e  x x 2
Q.9 Determine whether the given
function f is even or odd.
e2 x  e2 x  2e .e   e  e  2e .e 
x x 2x 2 x x x
(i) f ( x)  x 3  x

e  e  x x 2
Solution:
f ( x)  x 3  x
e2 x  e2 x  2  e2 x  e2 x  2
 Replace x by  x
e  e x 
x 2

f  x  x  x

3

4   x3  x
 …(ii)
e x
e x 2
    x3  x 
From equation (i) and equation (ii) f  x   f  x
sech x  1  tanh x
2 2
Hence f  x  is an odd function.
(iii) cosech x  coth x  12 2
(ii) f ( x)   x  2 
2

Solution:
Solution:
L.H.S  cosech 2 x
f ( x)   x  2 
2
2
 2 
  x x  Replace x by  x
 e e 
f   x     x  2
2

4
 …(i)
    x  2  
2

 e x  e x 
2

  x  2
2
R.H.S  coth 2 x 1
 e x  e x 
2 As neither f   x   f  x  nor
  x  x  1
 e e  f  x   f  x
Hence , f  x  is neither even nor odd.
e  e x 
x 2

 1
f  x   x x2  5
e  e x 
(iii)
x 2

Solution:


e x
e   e
x 2 x
e 
x 2
f  x   x x2  5
e  e  x x 2
Replace x by  x
 2e .e   e  e  2e x .e x  f  x  x x 5
2
e2 x  e2 x x x 2x 2 x


e  e  x x 2
f   x    x x2  5
e2 x  e2 x  2  e2 x  e2 x  2 f  x   f  x

e  e x  Hence f  x  is an odd function.
x 2

11
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

x 1 1
(iv) f ( x)  , x  1  x 
2 3
6
x 1
2
Solution:
 x3  6
x 1
f ( x)  f (  x)  f ( x)
x 1
Replace x by  x Hence f  x  is even function.
x 1 x3  x
f (  x)  (vi) f ( x) 
x 1 x2  1
( x  1) Solution:

( x  1) x3  x
f ( x)  2
x 1 x 1
f ( x) 
x 1 Replace x by  x
As neither f ( x)  f ( x) nor  x  x
3

f ( x) 
f (  x)   f ( x) x 1
2

Hence, f  x  is neither even nor

 x3  x
odd. 
x2  1
  x3  x 
2
(v) f ( x)  x 3  6

Solution: x2  1
x3  x
2
f ( x)  x 3  6  2
Replace x by  x x 1
2 f (  x)   f ( x)
f ( x)  ( x) 3  6 Hence, f  x  is an odd function.
1

   x    6
2 3
 

Composition of Functions:
Let f be a function from set X to set Y and g be a function from set Y to set Z.
The composition of f and g is a function, denoted by gof , from X to Z and is defined by
 gof  x   g  f  x    gf  x  , x  X
Example 1: Let the real valued functions f and g be defined by f  x   2 x  1 and
g  x   x2 1 .
Obtained the expressions for (i) fg  x  (ii) gf  x  (iii) f 2  x  (iv) g 2  x 
Solution:
(i) fg  x   f  g  x    f  x 2  1  2  x 2  1  1  2 x 2  1
gf  x   g  f  x    g  2 x  1   2 x  1  1  4 x 2  4 x
2
(ii)
(iii) f 2  x   f  f  x    f  2x  1  2  2x  1  1  4x  3
g 2  x   g  g  x    g  x 2  1   x 2  1  1  x 4  2 x 2
2
(iv)
We observe from (i) and (ii) that fg  x   gf  x 

12
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

Note:
(i) It is important to note that in general, gf  x   fg  x  , because gf  x  means that f
is applied first then followed by g, whereas fg  x  means that g is applied first
then followed by f .
(ii) We usually write ff as f 2 and fff as f 3 and so on.
f n  x    f  x  , n  Z   0
n
(iii)
Inverse of a Function:
Let f be a one-one function from X onto Y. The inverse function of f, denoted by f 1 , is
a function from Y onto X and is defined by x  f 1  y  ,  y Y iff y  f  x  , x  X .
Example 2: Let f : R  R be the function defined by f  x   2 x  1. find f 1  x 
Solution:
We find the inverse of f as follows:
Write f  x   2 x  1  y
So that y is the image of x under f.
Now solve this equation for x as follows:
y  2x  1
 2x  y 1
y 1
 x
2
1
 f 1  y    y  1  x  f 1  y  
2
To find f  x  , replace y by x.
1

1
 f 1  x    x  1
2
Example 3: Without finding the inverse, state the domain and range of f 1 , where
f  x   2  x 1
Solution:
We see that f is not defined when x  1.
 Domain f  1,  
As x varies over the interval 1,  , the value of x  1 varies over the interval
0,  . So the value of f  x   2  x  1 varies over the interval  2,  .
Therefore range f   2,  
By definition of inverse function f 1 , we have
Domain f 1  range f   2,  
Range f 1  domain f  1,   .
13
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

EXERCISE 1.2
Q.1 The real valued functions f and g Replace x by 2 x  1 in f  x 
are defined below. Find
 2  2 x  1  1
(a) fog  x 
 4x  2  1
(b) gof  x 
fof ( x)  4 x  3
(c) fof  x 
(d) gog  x 
(d) gog  x 
gog ( x)  g  g ( x) 
3
(i) f ( x)  2 x  1, g ( x)  , x 1  3 
x 1  g 
Solution:  x 1 
3
f ( x)  2 x  1, g ( x) 
3
, x 1 Replace x by in g  x 
x 1 x 1
(a) fog  x  3

fog ( x)  f  g ( x)  3
1
 3  x 1
 f  3
 x 1  
3  ( x  1)
3
Replace x by in f  x  . x 1
x 1 3( x  1)
 3  
 2 3  x 1
 1
 x 1  3( x  1)
6 gog ( x) 
 1 4 x
x 1 1
6  x 1 (ii) f ( x)  x  1, g ( x)  ,x  0
 x2
x 1 (a) fog  x 
x5 Solution:
fog ( x) 
x 1 fog ( x)  f  g ( x) 
(b) gof  x   1 
 f 2
gof ( x)  g  f ( x)  x 
 g  2 x  1 1
Replace x by in f  x 
Replace x by 2 x  1 in g  x  x2
3 1
  1
2x  1 1 x2
3
gof ( x)  1  x2
2x 
x2
(c) fof  x 
fof ( x)  f  f ( x)  1  x2
fog ( x) 
 f  2 x  1 x

14
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

(b) gof  x  1

Solution:
x  1  1
2 2

gof ( x)  g  f ( x) 
g  x 1  
1
x4  2 x2  1  1
Replace x by x  1 in g  x  1
1 
 x4  2 x2
 
2
x 1 1

1 x2  x2  2
gof ( x) 
x 1
1
(c) fof  x  fog ( x) 
Solution: x x2  2
fof ( x)  f  f ( x)  (b) gof ( x)
f  x 1  Solution:
gof ( x)  g  f ( x) 
Replace x by x  1 in f  x 
 1 
fof ( x)  x 1 1  g 
 x 1 
(d) gog  x  1
Solution: Replace x by in g  x  .
x 1
gog ( x)  g  g ( x)  2
 1  2 
 1      1
 g 2 
x   x  1  
1
Replace x by 2 in g  x 
2
 1 
x   1
 x 1 
1
 2  1  x 1 
2

 1   
 2  x 1 
x 
2

1  x 
 
 1   x 1 
 4
x  x2
gog ( x)  x 4 gof ( x) 
 x  1
2

1
 
2
f ( x)  , x  1 , g ( x)  x 2  1
fof  x 
(iii)
x 1 (c)
(a) fog  x  Solution:
Solution: fof ( x)  f  f ( x) 
fog ( x)  f  g ( x) 
 1 
f   x2  1
2
  f 
 x 1 

Replace x by  x 2  1 in f  x 
1
in f  x 
2
Replace x by
x 1
15
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

1 (b) gof  x 

1 Solution:
1
x 1 gof  x   g  f  x  


1  g  3x 4  2 x 2 
1  x 1 Replace x by 3x4  2 x2 in g  x 
x 1 2

x 1 3x 4  2 x 2
fof ( x) 
1  x 1 
2
(d) gog  x  x 2  3x 2  2 
Solution: 2
gof  x  
gog ( x)  g  g ( x)  x 3x 2  2

 g  x 2  1
2
 (c) fof  x 
Solution:
Replace x by  x 2  1 in g  x 
2

fof  x   f  f  x  

   f  3x 4  2 x 2 
2
 
   x 2  1
2 2
 1
  Replace x by 3x4  2 x2 in f  x 
gog  x     x  2 x  1  1
2 2

fof  x   3 3x 4  2 x 2   2  3x 4  2 x 2 
4 2 4 2

(iv) f  x   3x 4  2 x 2 , g  x  
2
,x  0 (d) gog  x 
x
Solution:
fog  x 
gog  x   g  g  x  
(a)
Solution:
fog  x   f  g  x    2 
 g 
 x
 2 
 f  2
 x Replace x by in g  x 
x
2
Replace x by in f  x  2
x 
4 2
2
 2   2 
fog  x   3   2 
x
 x  x 2

 16   4 
 3 2   2   2
 x   x x
48 8
 2
x x 2 x

48  8x 2

x2
 2 x
8 6  x 
fog  x   gog  x   2 x
x2
16
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

Q.2 For the real valued function f Now f 1  f  x    f 1  2 x  8

defined below find
Replace x by 2 x  8 in f 1  x 
(a) f 1  x 
8   2 x  8 
(b) f 1  1 and verify 
2
f  f 1  x    f 1  f  x    x 8  2x  8

(i) f  x   2 x  8 2
2x
(a) f 1  x  
x
Solution: x
y  f  x   2 x  8 f  f 1  x    f 1  f  x    x
y  2 x  8
2x  8  y (ii) f  x   3x 3  7
8 y (a) f 1  x 
x
2 Solution:
y  f  x   f 1  y   x y  f  x   3x 3  7
y  3x3  7
8 y
f  y 
1
y  7  3x3
2
y 7
Replacing y by x  x3
3
8 x
f 1  x   By taking cube root on both sides.
1
2
 y  7 3
(b) f 1  1   x
 3 
Solution: y  f  x   f 1  y   x
8 x
f 1  x  
1
 y  7 3
2 f  y  
1

Putting x  1  3 
8   1
Replacing y by x
f 1  1  1
2  x  7 3
f  x  
1

9  3 
f 1  1 
2 (b) f 1  1
Verification: Solution:
8 x 
f  f 1  x    f 
1

  x  7 3
 2  f  x  
1

 3 
8 x
Replace x by in f  x  By putting x  1
2 1
 1  7  3
8 x  f 1  1   
 2  8  3 
 2  1
 8  x  8  8  3
 
x  3 
17
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

Verification: 1

 1

f 1
 y  9  y 3

  
f  f  x   f 
1  x 7 3

  3  
Replacing y by x
  1
1
f 1  x   9  x 3
 x7
 in f  x 
3
Replace x by 
 3  (b) f 1  1
3
 1

 x  7  Solution:
 3   7
3

 3   1
  f 1
 x  9  x 3

 x7
 3 7 Putting x  1
 3  1
 x77 f 1  1  9   1 3
x
Now f 1  f  x    f 1  3x3  7  Verification:
 1

Replace x by 3x3  7 in f 1  x  f  f 1  x    f  9  x 3 
1  
 3x  7  7 
3 3
 
1

 3  Replace x by 9  x in f  x  3

1
 3x3 
3
3
  1
 
     9  x3   9 
 3   
   
1
 x 
3 3
 1

3

x   9  x 3  9 
 
f  f 1  x    f 1  f  x    x 3
 1
  x3 
f  x     x  9
3
(iii)
 
(a) f 1  x  x
Solution: Now f 1  f  x    f 1   x  9   3

y  f  x     x  9
3

Replace x by   x  9  in f  x 
3
y    x  9
3

 
1
By taking cube root on both sides.
 9    x  9
3 3
1 1

y    x  9   3
3 3
   9    x  9
1
y  x  9
3  9 x 9
1 x
x 9 y 3

y  f  x   f 1  y   x f  f 1  x    f 1  f  x    x

18
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

2x 1 2  x  1  x  2
(iv) f  x  , x 1
x 1  x2
(a) f 1  x   x  1   x  2 
x2
Solution:
2x  2  x  2
2x 1 
y  f  x  x 1 x  2
x 1 3x
2x 1 
y 3
x 1 x
y  x  1  2 x  1 2x 1 
Now f 1  f  x    f 1  
xy  y  2 x  1  x 1 
xy  2 x  y  1 2x 1
Replace x by in f 1  x 
x 1
x  y  2  y  1
2x 1
y 1 1
x f  f  x  
1 x  1
y2 2x 1
2
y  f  x   f 1  y   x x 1
2x 1  x 1
y 1 
f 1  y    2 x  1  2  x  1
y2
3x
Replacing y by x 
2x 1  2x  2
x 1
f 1  x  
3x

x2 3
(b) f 1  1 x

Solution: f  f 1  x    f 1  f  x    x
x 1 Q.3 Without finding the inverse, state
f 1  x  
x2 the domain and range of f 1 .
Putting x  1 (i) f  x  x  2
1  1
f 1  1  Solution:
1  2 As f  x   x  2
f  1  0
1
f  x  is defined on real numbers if
Verification: x20
 x 1  x  2
f  f 1  x    f 
 x2
 Domain f   2,  
x 1 Range f  0,  
Replace x by in f  x 
x2 By the definition of inverse function
 x 1  f 1 , we have
2  1 Domain f 1  Range f  0,  
 x2

x 1 Range f 1 = Domain f   2,  
1
x2
19
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

(ii) f  x 
x 1
,x  4 Range f  R  0
x4 By the definition of inverse function
Solution: f 1 , we have
x 1
f  x  ,x  4 Domain f 1  Range f  R  0
x4
Domain f  R  4 Range f 1  Domain f  R  3

Range f  R  1 f  x    x  5 , x  5
2
(iv)
By the definition of inverse function Solution:
f 1 , we have f  x    x  5 , x  5
2

Domain f 1  Range f  R  1 Domain f  5,  

Range f 1
= Domain f  R  4 Range f  0,  
1
f  x 
By the definition of inverse function
(iii) , x  3
x3 f 1 , we have
Solution: Domain f 1 =Range f   0,  
1
f  x  Range f 1  Domain f  5,  
x3
Domain f  R  3

Limit of a Function:
Let a function f  x  be defined in an open interval near the number a (need not at a).
If, as x approaches a from both left and right side of a, f  x  approaches a specific
number L, then L is called the limit of f  x  as x approaches a. Symbolically it is written
as: Lim f  x   L (read as “limit of f  x  , as x  a , is L”)
xa

Example: If P  x   an xn  an1x n1  ...  a1x  a0 is a polynomial function of degree n, then

show that: Lim P  x   P  c 
xc
Solution:
Using the theorems on limits, we have
Lim P  x   Lim  an x n  an1x n1  ...  a1x  a0 
xc xc

 an Lim x n  an1 Lim x n1  ...  a1 Lim x  Lima0

xc xc xc xc
n1
 anc  an1c
n
 ...  a1c  a0
 Lim P  x   P  c 
xc
Limits Of Important Functions:
xn  an
Theorem: Prove that Lim  na n1 , where n is an integer and a > 0.
xa x  a
Proof: Case-I: Suppose n is a positive integer.
0
By substituting x  a, we get   form, so we make factors as follows:
0
x  a  ( x  a)( x  ax  a 2 x n3  .........  a n1 )
n n n1 n 2

20
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

xn  an ( x  a)( x n1  ax n2  a 2 x n3  .........  a n1 )

Lim  Lim
xa x  a xa ( x  a)
 Lim( x  ax  a x  .........  a n1 )
n1 n 2 2 n3
xa

 an1  aan2  a2an3  .................  an1

 an1  an1  an1  .............  an1 (n terms)
 n a n1
Case-II: Suppose n is a negative integer (say n  m), where m is a positive integer
xn  an xm  am
Now 
xa xa
1 1
m
 m
= x a
xa
am  xm
m m
= x a
xa
1  x  a m 
m
= m m  ,  a  0
x a  xa 
xn  an 1  x m  a m 
Now, Lim  Lim m m  
xa xa xa x a
 xa 
 1   xm  am 
  Lim m m    Lim 
 xa x a   xa x  a 
1
= m m ma m1 (By Case-I)
a a
= m a m1mm
= (m)a  m1
= n a n1 (n  m)
4 x 4  5 x3
Example 1: Evaluate Lim
x 3 x 5  2 x 2  1

Solution:
Since x  0, so dividing up and down by   x    x5 , we get
5

4 5
  2
4 x  5x
4 3
x x
Lim 5  Lim
x 3 x  2 x 2  1 x 2 1
3  3  5
x x
00
 0
3  0  0
2  3x
Example 2: Evaluate Lim
x
3  4 x2
Solution:
Here x 2  x   x as x  0

21
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

 Dividing up and down by  x, we get

2
 3
2  3x
Lim  Lim x
x
3  4x 2 x 3
4
x2
03 3
 
04 2
2  3x
Example 3: Evaluate Lim
x
3  4 x2
Solution:
Here x 2  x  x as x  0
 Dividing up and down by x, we get
2
3
2  3x
Lim  Lim x
x
3  4 x 2 x 3  4
x2
03 3
 
04 2
n
 1
Theorem: Prove that Lim 1    e
n
 n
Proof:
By the binomial theorem, we have
 1  n(n  1)  1  n(n  1)(n  2)  1 
n 2 3
 1
1    1  n          ...
 n n 2!  n  3! n
1 1 1 1
 1  1  n  n  1  2  n  n  1 n  2   3  ...
2! n 3! n
1 2  1  1 1 3  1  2  1
= 2  n 1   . 2  n 1  1   3  ...
2!  n  n 3!  n  n  n
1  1  1  1  2 
= 2  1    1  1    ...
2!  n  3!  n  n 
 
n
 1 1  1  1  1  2 
Lim 1    Lim  2  1    1  1    ...
n
 n n
 2!  n  3!  n  n  
1 2 3
As n  , , , ,... all tend to zero.
n n n
1 1
= 2  1  0   1  0 1  0   ...
2! 3!
1 1 1
= 2     ...
2! 3! 4!
= 2  0.5  0.166667  0.0416667  ...
= 2.718281...
22
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

As approximate value of e is 2.718281, so

 1
Lim 1    e
n
 n
1
Deduction: Lim 1  x  x  e
x0

Proof:
n
 1
We know that Lim 1    e
n
 n
1 1
Put n  , then  x
x n
When n  , x  0
n
 1
As Lim 1    e
x
 n
1
Lim 1  x  x  e
x0

a x 1
Theorem: Prove that Lim  log e a
x0 x
Proof:
Put a x  1  y (i)
Then a x  1  y
Taking logarithm on both sides with base a.
log a a x  log a 1  y 
x.log a a  log a 1  y 
So x  log a (1  y)
From (i) when x  0, y  0
a x 1 y
Lim  Lim
x0 x y 0 log a (1  y)
1
 Lim
y 0 1
log a (1  y )
y
1
 Lim 1
y 0
log a (1  y ) y
1

 1

log a  Lim 1  y  y 
 y 0

1  1

=  y0
Lim 1  y  y e

log a e  

23
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

a x 1
Lim  log e a
x0 x
 ex 1 
Deduction: Lim 
x0
  log e e  1
 x 
 a x 1 
We know that Lim 
x0
  log e a (i)
 x 
Put a  e in (i)
ex 1
Lim  log e e  1
x0 x
The Sandwitch Theorem:
Let f, g and h be functions such that f  x   g  x   h  x  for all numbers x in some open
interval containing c, except possibly at c itself.
If Lim f  x   L and Limh  x   L, then Lim g  x   L
xc xc xc

sin 
Theorem: If  is measured in radian, then Lim 1
 0 
Proof: Take  a positive acute central angle of a circle with radius r = 1.
Produce OB to D , so that AD  OA .
Draw BC  OA . Join A and B. As show in figure, OAB represent a sector of the
circle.
Given OA  OB  1 (radii of unit circle)

 OB  1
BC
In right OCB , sin    BC
OB

 OA  1
AD
In right OAD , tan    AD
OA
In terms of  , the areas are expressed as:
1 1 1
(i) Area of OAB  OA BC  (1) sin   sin 
2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1
(ii) Area of sector OAB  r   (1)     r  1
2 2 2
1 1
(iii) Area of OAD  OA AD  (1) tan 
2 2
From the figure, we see that
Area of OAB  Area of sector OAB  Area of OAD
1  1
sin    tan 
2 2 2
1  1 sin 
sin   
2 2 2 cos
24
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

1
As sin  is positive, so on division by sin  , we get
2
1  1 sin 
sin 
2  2  2 cos
1 1 1
sin  sin  sin 
2 2 2
 1  
1   0   
sin  cos  2
sin  sin 
i.e., 1  cos or cos  1
 
when   0, cos  1
sin 
since is sandwitched between 1 and a quantity approaching 1 itself.

So, by the sandwitch theorem, it must also approach 1.
sin 
i.e., Lim 1
 0 
Limits of Important Functions:

xn  an
Lim  na n1, n is an integer, a > 0
xa x  a

x n  a n n nm
Lim  a
xa xm  am m

1
Lim  0, x  0
x x

a
Lim p
 0 where p  Q , a  R
x x

Lim  e x   
n
 1
Lim 1    e x
n
 n

 1 
Lim  e x   Lim   x   0
1
Lim 1  x  x  e
x0 x

x e


a x 1 a
Lim  log e a Lim    0, a  R
x0 x  
x x

 ex 1  sin 
Lim    log e e  1 Lim  1, where  is in radians.
x0
 x   0 

25
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

EXERCISE 1.3
Q.1 Evaluate each limit by using
theorems of limits: Lim  f  x   g  x   Lim  f  x   Lim  g  x 
xa xa xa
(i) Lim  2 x  4 
x3  Lim x 2  Lim x  Lim 4
x3 x3 x3
Solution:
Lim  2 x  4   32  3  4
x3
 9 3 4
Lim  f  x   g  x   Lim f  x   Lim g  x 
xa xa xa
 16
 Lim  2 x   Lim  4  4
x3 x3

Lim  kf  x   k  Lim f  x  Lim x 2  x  4  4

xa  xa  x3

 2 Lim  x   4 (iv) Lim x x 2  4

x3 x2

 2  3  4 Solution:
 64 Lim x x 2  4
x2
 10
Lim  f  x  g  x    Lim f  x  .  Lim g  x 
Lim  2 x  4   10 xa  xa   xa 
x3
  Lim x  .  Lim x 2  4 
(ii) Lim  3x  2 x  4 
2
 x2   x2 
x1 n
Lim  f  x     Lim f  x 
n
Solution: xa  xa 
Lim  3x 2  2 x  4 
x1  2. Lim  x 2  4 
x2
Lim  f  x   g  x   Lim  f  x   Lim  g  x 
xa xa xa Lim  f  x   g  x   Lim f  x   Lim g  x 
 Lim  3x   Lim  2 x   Lim  4 
2 xa xa xa

x1 x1 x1

 2 Lim x 2  Lim 4
x2 x2
Lim  kf  x   k  Lim f  x 
 xa 
xa
 2 2 4 2

 3 Lim  x 2   2 Lim  x   4  2 44

x1 x1
2 0
 31  2 1  4
2

 2  0
 3 2  4
5 0

Lim  3x 2  2 x  4   5 Lim x x 2  4  0
x2
x1

(iii) Lim x 2  x  4
x3
(v) Lim
x2
 x3  1  x 2  5 
Solution: Solution:
Lim x 2  x  4
x3
Lim
x2
 x3  1  x 2  5 
n
Lim  f  x   g  x   Lim f  x   Lim g  x 
Lim  f  x     Lim f  x 
n
xa xa xa
xa  xa 

 Lim  x 2  x  4 
x3
 Lim
x2
 
x3  1  Lim
x2
 x2  5 
26
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits
n
Q.2 Evaluate each limit by using
Lim  f  x     Lim f  x 
n
xa  xa 
algebraic techniques.
 Lim  x3  1  Lim  x 2  5 x3  x
x2 x2
(i) Lim
Lim  f  x   g  x   Lim f  x   Lim g  x  x1 x  1
xa xa xa
Solution:
 Lim x  Lim1  Lim x  Lim 5
3 2
x2 x2 x2 x2
x3  x
 23  1  22  5 Lim
x1 x  1

 9 9
x  x 2  1
Lim
x2
 x 1  x  5  0
3 2
  Lim
x1 x 1
2 x  5x 3
x  x  1 x  1
(vi) Lim
x2 3 x  2
 Lim
x1 x 1
Solution:
 Lim x  x  1
2 x3  5 x x1
Lim
x2 3 x  2
 1 1  1
 f  x   xa Lim f  x 
Lim 
x a g  x 

g  x
 1 2 
  Lim
xa

Lim  2 x3  5 x  2
 x2
x3  x
Lim  3x  2  Lim 2
x2
x1 x  1
Lim  f  x   g  x   Lim  f  x   Lim  g  x 
xa xa xa

Lim  2 x   Lim  5 x 
3  3x3  4 x 
Lim  2
 x2 x2
(ii) 
Lim  3x   Lim  2 
x0
 x x 
x2 x2
Solution:
Lim  kf  x   k  Lim f  x 
 xa 
xa
 3x3  4 x 
2 Lim  x3   5 Lim  x  Lim  2 
 x2 x2
x0
 x x 
3 Lim  x   Lim  2 
x2 x2 x  3x 2  4 
2  2   5  2 
3  Lim
 x0 x  x  1
3 2   2
3x 2  4
2  8   5  2   Lim
 x0 x 1
3 2   2
3 0   4
2
16  10 

6  2 0 1
26 04
 
8 0 1
13
 4
4
2 x3  5 x 13 3x3  4 x
Hence Lim  Lim 4
x2 3 x  2 4 x0 x2  x

27
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

x3  8 1  1
2
(iii) Lim 2 
x2 x  x  6
11  1
Solution: 0
x3  8 
Lim 2 2
x2 x  x  6
0
x3  23 x3  3x 2  3x  1
 Lim 2 Lim 0
x2 x  3x  2 x  6
x1 x3  x

a3  b3   a  b  a 2  ab  b2  x3  x 2
 x  2   x 2  2 x  22 
(v) Lim
x1 x 2  1
 Lim
x2 x  x  3  2  x  3 Solution:
x3  x 2
 x  2  x2  2x  4 Lim 2
x1 x  1
 Lim
x2  x  3 x  2  x 2  x  1
 Lim
x2  2 x  4 x1  x  1 x  1
 Lim
x2 x3 x2
2  2  2  4
2  Lim
x1 x  1

23  1
2

444 
 1  1
5 1
12 
 2
5
 x3  x 2  1
x3  8 12 Lim  2  

Lim 2
x2 x  x  6 5
x1
 x 1  2
x3  3x 2  3x  1 2 x 2  32
(iv) Lim (vi) Lim
x1 x3  x x4 x3  4 x 2
Solution: Solution:
x  3x  3x  1
3 2 2 x 2  32
Lim Lim 3
x4 x  4 x 2
x1 x3  x
2  x 2  16 
 Lim
 x   3 x  1  3 x 1  1
3 2 2 3
 Lim 2
x 4 x  x  4 
x1 x  x  1 2

2  x 2  42 
 a  b 3  a3  3a2b  3ab2  b3  Lim
x 4 x2  x  4
 x  1
3

 Lim 2  x  4  x  4 
x1 x  x 2  1  Lim
x4 x2  x  4
 x  1
3

 Lim
x1 x  x  1 x  1
2  x  4
 Lim
x4 x2
 x  1
2

 Lim 2  4  4
x1 x  x  1 
42
28
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

28 xhx
  Lim
16 h0
h  x  h  x 
1
h
 2 x 2  32   Lim
Lim  3 2 
1 h0
h  x  h  x 
x4
 x  4x 
1
x 2  Lim
(vii) Lim h0 xh  x
x 2 x2 1
Solution: 
x0  x
x 2
Lim 1
x 2 x2 
x x
By Rationalizing the numerator
1
x 2 x 2 
 Lim  2 x
x2 x2 x 2
xh  x
 x  2
2 2 1
Lim 
h0 h
 Lim 2 x
 x  2  x  2 
x 2
xn  an
(ix) Lim
x2 xa xm  am
 Lim
x 2
 x  2  x 2  Solution:
xn  an
1 Lim
 Lim xa x m  a m
x 2
 x  a   x n1  x n2a  x n3a 2  ......  a n1 
x2

1  Lim

2 2
xa
 x  a   x m1  x m2a  x m3a 2  ......  a m1 
1 x n1  x n2a  x n3.a 2  ......  a n1
  Lim m1 m2
2 2 xa x  x .a  x m3a 2  ......  a m1
x 2 a n1  a n2a  a n3.a 2  ......  a n1

1  m1 m2
Lim
x 2 x2 a  a .a  a m3a 2  .....  a m1
2 2
a n1  a n1  a n1  ......  a n1
xh  x  m1 m1 m1
(viii) Lim a  a  a  ......  a m1
h0 h na n1

Solution: ma m1
n1 m1
xh  x na
Lim 
h0 h m
n 1m1
By rationalizing the numerator na

xh  x xh  x m
 Lim  n
h0 h xh  x  a nm
m
   x
2 2
xh x n  a n n nm
 Lim Lim m  a
h0
h  x  h  x  xa x  a m m

29
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

Q.3 Evaluate the following limits:   

sin  x
sin 7 x   180 
(i) Lim  Lim
x0 x 180  x0   
Solution: 180  x
 180 
sin  7 x 
Lim 
x0 x  1
180
Multiply and divide by 7
sin x 
 Lim 7 
sin 7 x Lim 
x0 x 180
x0 7x
sin 7 x 1  cos
 7 Lim (iii) Lim
x0 7x  0 sin 
As x  0, then 7 x  0 Solution:
sin 7 x 1  cos
 7 Lim Lim
7 x0 7 x
 0 sin 
By rationalizing the numerator
 7 1
1  cos 1  cos
 Lim 
Lim
sin 7 x
7
 0 sin  1  cos
x0 x 1  cos 
2 2
 Lim
sin x  0 sin  1  cos  
(ii) Lim
x0 x 1  cos 2 
Solution:  Lim
 0 sin  1  cos  
sin x
Lim
x0 x sin 2 
 Lim
  0 sin  1  cos 
As 1  radian
180 sin 
x  Lim
x  radian  0 1  cos
180 sin 0 0 0
   0
 x  1  cos0 1  1 2
sin  
sin x
 Lim 
180  1  cos
Lim Lim 0
x0 x0
x x  0 sin 

Multiply and divide by sin x
180 (iv) Lim
x   x
 x  Solution:
sin  

 
180 
 Lim sin x
x0 180  Lim
x   x
x
180
Let    x
 x  x   
sin  

lim 
180 
 When x   ,we have   0 then
180 x0  x
sin x sin    
180 Lim  Lim

x  x  0 
When x  0 , then x0
180 sin      sin 

30
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

sin  Lim cos x

 Lim  x0
 0   sin x 
1 Lim  
x0  x 
sin x
Lim 1 
cos 0
x   x
1
(v) Lim
sin ax 1
x0 sin bx
x
Solution: Lim 1
x0 tan x
sin ax
Lim 1  cos 2 x
x0 sin bx (vii) Lim
x0 x2
 sin ax 
   ax Solution:
 Lim  ax  1  cos 2 x
x0  sin bx  Lim
  bx x2
x0

 bx  cos2 x  1  2sin 2x
 sin ax  2sin 2x
   Lim
 Lim 
a ax  x0 x2
b x0  sin bx  sin 2 x
   2 Lim 2
 bx  x0 x
 sin ax   sin x 
2

a x0  ax 
Lim   2 Lim  
 x0
 x 
b  sin bx 
Lim    sin x 
2
x0  bx 
 2  Lim 
a 1  x0 x 
  
 2 1
2
b 1
a 2

b 1  cos 2 x
Lim 2
sin ax a x0 x2
Lim 
x0 sin bx b 1  cos x
(viii) Lim
x x0 sin 2 x
(vi) Lim Solution:
x0 tan x
1  cos x
Solution: Lim
x0 sin 2 x

x 1  cos x
Lim  Lim
x0 tan x x0 1  cos 2 x

1  cos x
x  Lim
 Lim x0 1  cos x 1  cos x 
x0  sin x 
 
 cos x  1
 Lim
x0 1  cos x
cos x
 Lim
x0  sin x  1
  
 x  1  cos0
31
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

1 1  cos p
 (xi) Lim
11  0 1  cos q

1 Solution:

2 1  cos p
Lim
1  cos x 1  0 1  cos q
Lim 
x0 sin 2 x 2  
1  cos  2sin 2  
sin 
2
2
(ix) Lim
 0   p 
Solution: 2sin 2  
 Lim  2 
sin 2   0  q 
Lim 2sin 2  
 0   2 
sin 
 Lim .sin  2
 0    p  
 sin  2  

  Lim
sin  

 Lim sin 
  0    0
  Lim  
 0

 sin  q  
 1 sin 0   2  
 1  0 
2
0   p  p 
 sin  2   2 
sin 2     
Lim 0 p
 0   
sec x  cos x  Lim  2 
(x) Lim  0    q
q 
x0 x  sin    
Solution:   2  2 
sec x  cos x  q 
 
Lim
x0 x 2
1 2
 cos x   p  
 Lim cos x  sin   
x0 x   2  p
 p 
1  cos 2 x
  Lim 2 
 Lim cos x   0  q  
x0 x  sin   
2
sin x   2 q 
 Lim  q 
x0 x cos x
 2 
sin x sin x
 Lim . 2
x0 x cos x   p  
 
 sin x   sin  
  Lim  Lim tan x  Lim  2 
 x0 x  x0 p
2  
 0
 1 tan  0 
 2 
p 2
 1 0 q   q  
0  sin   
 Lim  2 
sec x  cos x   0 q 
Lim 0
x0 x  2 

32
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

p2  1 
2 Q.4 Express each limit in terms of e:
 2  2n
q 1  1
(i) Lim 1  
n
 n
p2
 Solution:
q2 2n
 1
Lim 1  
1  cos p p 2 n
 n
Lim  2
 0 1  cos q 2
q  1  n 
 Lim 1   
tan   sin  n 
 n  
(xii) Lim
 0 sin 3  
2
 1 
n

Solution:   Lim 1   
 n  n  
tan   sin 
Lim  e2
 0 sin 3  2n
 1
sin  Lim 1    e2
 sin  n
 n
 Lim cos 
 0 sin 3  n
 1 2
(ii) Lim 1  
 1  n  n
sin    1
 cos   Solution:
 Lim
 0 sin 3  n
 1 2
1  cos Lim 1  
n  n
 Lim cos2 1
 0 sin   1  n  2
 Lim 1   
1  cos n
 n  
 Lim
 0 cos 1  cos 2   1
  1 
n 2

1  cos   Lim 1   
 Lim 
n
 n  
 0 cos 1  cos 1  cos  1

1  e2
 Lim
cos 1  cos 
2n
 0  1
Lim 1    e
n
 n
1

cos0 1  cos0 
n
 1
(iii) Lim 1  
n
 n
1

11  1 Solution:
n
 1
=
1 Lim 1  
2
n
 n
1
tan   sin  1  1   n 
Lim   Lim 1   
 0 sin 3  2 n 
 n  

33
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

1 2
   1   Lim 1  3x  x
n
(vi)
  Lim 1       x0
 n   n    Solution:
 e 1 2
Lim 1  3x  x
1 x0

e 3
  2
 Lim 1  3x  
3
n x
 1 1 x0
 
Lim 1   
n
 n e 6
 1

  Lim 1  3x  3 x 
 
n x0
 1 
(iv) Lim 1  
n
 3n  2
Lim 1  3x  x  e6
Solution: x0

n
 1 
1
Lim 1   (vii) Lim 1  2 x 2  x2
n
 3n  x0

3 Solution:
 1 
n
 3
1
 Lim 1    Lim 1  2 x 2  x2
n
 3n   x0

1 2

 1  3  1 2

 lim 1  2 x 2  x2 
3n

  Lim 1    x0

n
 3n    
1
Lim 1  2 x 2  x2  e2
n
 1  1
Lim 1    e 3 x0
n
 3n 
1
n (viii) Lim 1  2h  h
 4 h0
(v) Lim 1  
n
 n Solution:
1
Solution:
Lim 1  2h  h
n h0
 4
Lim 1   2
n
 n  
1 2
 Lim 1  2h  h 
4 h0
 
 4  n  4
 Lim 1      
1 2
n
 n    Lim 1  2h  2 h 
h0
 
4
 n
 2
    
1
  Lim 1  2h  2 h 
4
 Lim 1   

4

 n  n    h0 
 
 e2
n
 4
Lim 1    e4
1
1
n
 n Lim 1  2h  h 
h0 e2
34
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

x
 x  1
Lim  1
(ix)
x 1  x
 e 
  
1
Solution: 1
x e
 x 
Lim  
x 1  x
  1
1

x
 1 x 
 Lim   1
x
 x  1

x
1 
 Lim   1 0 1
x
x  
1 0 1
 1  x 
 Lim 1    1
x  x  
 e 1x
1 Lim , x  0  1
  1
x
 x0
1

  Lim 1    e 1x

 x  x  
1
 e1 e 1
x
1 (xi) Lim ,x0
 x0
1

e e 1
x

x
 x  1 Solution:
Lim 
x 1  x
 
  e 1
1 e x 1
e 1 x Lim 1
(x) Lim 1
,x0 x0
e 1
x
x0
e 1 x

Solution: As x  0 , so x  x
1
e 1 x
 1 
1
Lim 1
,x0 
e 1 1 x
x0
e 1 x  x 
Replace x by  y where y  0  Lim  e 
1 
1
x0
1

e

y
1 e x 1  1 
 Lim  
y 0 
1  ex 
e 1 y

1
1 1
1 1
1
x
y  Lim e
 Lim e x 0 1
y 0 1 1
1 1 1
x

y e
e
1 1
1 1 1 1
0
e  e0
1 1
1 1 1 1
e0 e 0

35
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

1
1
 e
1
1 
e
1
1
 
1
1

1 0

1 0
1
e x 1
Lim 1
, x  0 1
x0
e 1
x

Left Hand Limit:

Lim f  x   L is read as the limit of f  x  is equal to L as x approaches c from the left
xc
i.e., For all x sufficiently close to c, but less than c, the value of f  x  can be made as
close as we please to L.
Right Hand Limit:
Lim f  x   M is read as the limit of f  x  is equal to M as x approaches from the right
xc
i.e., for all x sufficiently close to c, but greater than c, the value of f  x  can be made as
close as we please to M.
Criterion for Existence of Limit of a Function:
Lim f  x   L iff Lim f  x   Lim f  x   L
xc xc xc
Continuous Function:
A function f is said to be continuous at a number “c” iff the following three conditions
are satisfied:
(i) f  c  is defined.
(ii) Lim f  x  exists.
xc

(iii) Lim f  x   f  c 
xc
Discontinuous Function:
If one or more of these three conditions fail to hold at c then the function f is said to be
discontinuous at c.
Example: Discuss the continuity of the function f  x  and g  x  at x  3 .
 x2  9
 if x3 x2  9
(a) f  x   x  3 (b) g  x   if x  3.
 6 x 3
 if x3
Solution:
(a) Given f  3  6

36
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

 The function f is defined at x  3.

x2  9
Now Lim f  x   Lim
x3 x3 x  3

 Lim
 x  3 x  3
x3 x 3
= Lim  x  3  6
x3

As Lim f  x   6  f  3
x3

 f  x  is continuous at x  3
It is noted that there is no break in the graph.
(See figure (i))
x2  9
(b) g  x  if x  3
x 3
As g  x  is not defined at x  3
g  x  is discontinuous at x  3
It is noted that there is a break in the graph at x  3 . (See figure (ii))

EXERCISE 1.4

Q.1 Determine the left hand limit and Hence Lim f ( x) exists and
x1
the right hand limit and then, find
Lim f ( x)  Lim(2 x 2  x  5)  2
the limit of the following functions x1 x1

when x  c . x 9
2
(ii) f ( x)  , c  3
(i) f ( x)  2 x2  x  5, c  1 x 3
Solution:
Solution:
x2  9
f  x   2x  x  5
2 f ( x)  , c  3
x 3
Left hand limit: Left hand limit:
Lim f ( x)  Lim (2 x 2  x  5) x2  9
x1 x1
Lim f ( x)  Lim
x3 x3 x  3

 2(1)2  1  5  3  9
2


 2 1 5 3  3
 2 99

Right hand limit: 6
Lim f ( x)  Lim (2 x 2  x  5) 
0
x1 x1
6
 2(1)2  1  5 0
 2 1 5 Right hand limit:
 2 x2  9
As Lim f ( x)  Lim f ( x) Lim f ( x)  Lim
x1 x1
x3 x3 x 3
37
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

 39
2  2(2)  5
 9
3  3
99 Lim f ( x)  Lim (4 x  1)
 x2 x2
6  4(2)  1
0 9

6 As Lim f  x   Lim f  x  , so
x2 x2
0
Lim f  x  exists.
As Lim f ( x)  Lim f ( x) x2
x3 x3
As f  2   Lim f  x 
Hence Lim f ( x) exists x2
xc
Hence, f ( x) is continuous at x  2 .
x2  9
and Lim f ( x)  Lim 0 3x  1 if x 1
x3 x3 x  3 
(ii) f ( x)   4 if x  1, c  1
(iii) f ( x)  x  5 , c  5  2 x if x 1

Solution: Solution:
f ( x)  x  5 , c  5 At x  1
Left hand limit: f  x  4
Lim f ( x)  Lim x  5 f 1  4
x5 x5

 Lim  ( x  5) Lim f ( x)  Lim (3x  1)

x5 x1 x1
 (5  5)  3(1)  1  2
0 Lim f  x   Lim  2 x 
x1 x1
Right hand limit:
Lim f ( x)  Lim x  5  2 Lim  x   2
x1
x5 x5

 Lim ( x  5) As Lim f  x   Lim f  x  ,

x5 x2 x2

 55 so Lim f  x  exists.

x2
0
As, f 1  Lim f  x 
As Lim f ( x)  Lim f ( x) x1
x5 x5
42
Hence Lim f ( x) exists and Hence function f  x  is discontinuous at x  1
x5

Lim f ( x)  Lim x  5  0  3x if x  2
x5 x5
 2
Q.2 Discuss the continuity of f ( x) at Q.3 If f ( x)   x  1 if 2  x  2 .
x c:  3 x2
 if
2 x  5 if x2 Discuss continuity at x  2 and
(i) f ( x)   , c2
 4 x  1 if x2 x  2 .
Solution: Solution:
At x  2 Continuity at x  2
f  x   2x  5 At x  2
f  2  2  2  5  9 f  2  3
f  2  9 Lim f ( x)  Lim ( x 2  1)
x2 x2
Lim f ( x)  Lim (2 x  5)
x2 x2  22  1  4  1
38
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

3 Q.5 Find the values m and n , so that

Lim f ( x)  Lim (3) given function f is continuous at
x2 x2
x  3.
3 if x  3
 mx
As Lim f  x   Lim f  x  , so (i)

f  x   n if x  3
x2 x2
2 x  9 if x  3
Lim f  x  exists. 
x2
Solution:
As f  2   Lim f  x  As f  x  is continuous at x  3
x2

Hence, f ( x) is continuous at x  2 . So f  3  Lim f  x   Lim f  x 

x3 x3
continuity at x  2 At x  3
at x  2 f  3  n
f  x   3x Lim f  x   Lim  mx 
x3 x3
f  2  3 2   6  m  3
Lim f ( x)  Lim (3x)  3m
x2 x2
Lim f  x   Lim  2 x  9 
 3(2) x3 x3

 6  2  3  9
Lim f ( x)  Lim ( x 2  1)  6  9
x2 x2 3
 (2)2  1 As f  3  Lim f  x   Lim f  x 
x3 x3
 4 1 n  3m  3
3
n  3 , 3m  3
As Lim f  x   Lim f  x  ,
x2 x2 m 1
so Lim f  x  does not exists. x3
mx if
f  x   2
x2
(ii)
Hence, f ( x) is discontinuous at
x if x3
x  2 . Solution:
 x  2 , x  1 As f  x  is continuous at x  3
Q.4 If f ( x)  
 c  2 , x  1 So f  3  Lim f  x   Lim f  x 
Find “c” so that Lim f ( x) exists. x3 x3
x1 At x  3
Solution: f  x   x2
As Lim f ( x) exists.
x1 f  3  32  9
So Lim f ( x)  Lim f ( x) Lim f  x   Lim  mx 
x1 x1
x3 x3

Lim ( x  2)  Lim (c  2)  3m
x1 x1

1  2  c  2 x3 x3
 
Lim f  x   Lim x 2
3 2

1  c 9
c  1 As f  3  Lim f  x   Lim f  x 
x3 x3

39
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

9  3m  9 x  5   x  7
 Lim
 x  2  
3m  3 x2
2x  5  x  7
m 1
2x  5  x  7
Q.6 If  Lim
 2x  5  x  7
x2
 x  2  2x  5  x  7 
 , x2
f  x   x2 x2
  Lim
 k , x2 x2
 x  2  2x  5  x  7 
find the value of k so that f is
1
continuous at x  2 .  Lim
Solution:
x2 2x  5  x  7
As f  x  is continuous at x  2 
1
2  2  5  2  7
So f  2   Lim f  x 
x2
1
At x  2 
9 9
f  2  k
1
Now, 
33
Lim f  x  1
x 2
Lim f  x  
2x  5  x  7 x2 6
 Lim As f  2   Lim f  x 
x 2 x2 x2
By rationalization of numerator
1
2x  5  x  7 2x  5  x  7 k
 Lim  6
x2 x2 2x  5  x  7
   
2 2
x  5 x7
 Lim
x 2
 x  2  2x  5  x  7 
Graph of the Exponential Function f (x) = ax:
Let us draw the graph of y  2 x , here a  2.
We prepare the following table for different values of x and f  x  near the origin:
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y 0.0625 0.125 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 16

40
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

Plotting the points  x, y  and joining them with smooth curve as shown in the figure, we
get the graph of y  2 x
From the graph of 2 x , the characteristics of the graph of y  a x are observed as follows:
If a  1,
(i) a x is always positive for all real values of x.
(ii) a x increases as x increases.
(iii) a x  1 when x  0
(iv) a x  0 as x  
Graph of Common Logarithmic Function f (x) = log x:
If x  10 y , then y  log x
Now for all real values of y,10 y  0  x  0
This means log x exists only when x  0
 Domain of the log x is positive real numbers. It is undefined at x  0 .
For graph of f  x   log x, we find the values of lg x from the common logarithmic table
for various values of x  0.
Table of some of the corresponding values of x and f  x  is as under.
x 0 0.1 1 2 4 6 8 10  
y  f  x   log x   –1 0 0.30 0.60 0.77 0.90 1  

Plotting the points  x, y  and joining them with a smooth curve we get the graph as
shown in the figure.
Note:
(i) If we replace  x, y  with  x,  y  and there is no change in the equation then the
graph is symmetric with respect to x-axis.
(ii) If we replace  x, y  with   x, y  and there is no change in the equation then the
graph is symmetric with respect to y-axis.
(iii) If we replace  x, y  with   x,  y  and there is no change in the equation then the
graph is symmetric with respect to origin.
41
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

EXERCISE 1.5
Q.1 Draw the graphs of the following equations
x2 y 2
(i) x 2  y 2  9 (ii)  1 (iii) y  e2 x (iv) y  3x
16 4
(i) x2  y 2  9
Solution:
x2  y 2  9
y 2  9  x2
y   9  x2
Here domain   3,3
X –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
Y 0 2.2 2.8 3 2.8 2.2 0

x2 y 2
(ii)  1
16 4
Solution:
x2 y 2
Given  1
16 4
y2 x2
 1
4 16
y 16  x 2
2

4 16
 16  x 2  16  x 2
y2  4 
 16  4
16  x 2
y
2
Here domain   4,4
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y 0 1.3 1.7 1.9 2 1.9 1.7 1.3 0
42
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

(iii) y  e2 x
Solution:
Given y  e2 x
x –1 0 1
y 0.1 1 7.4

(iv) y  3x
Solution:
y  3x
x –2 –1 0 1 2
y 0.1 0.3 1 3 9

43
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

Q.2 Graph the curves that has the parametric equations given below
(i) x  t , y  t 2 , 3  t  3 where “ t ” is a parameter
Solution:
x  t , y  t 2 , 3  t  3
t –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
xt –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y t 2 9 4 1 0 1 4 9

(i) x  t  1, y  2t  1, 1  t  5 where “ t ’ is a parameter

Solution:
x  t  1, y  2t  1, 1  t  5
t –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x  t  1 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
y  2t  1 –3 –1 1 3 5 7 9

(ii) x  sec , y  tan  where “  ” is a parameter

Solution:
x  sec , y  tan 
 x2  y 2  sec2   tan 2 
44
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

x2  y 2  1
x2  1  y 2
y   x2  1
Here domain   , 1  1,  
x –3 –2 –1 1 2 3
y ±2.8 ±1.7 0 0 ±1.7 ±2.8

Q.3 Draw the graphs of the functions defined below and find whether they are
continuous.
 x  1 if x3
(i) y
2 x  1 if x3
Solution:
 x  1 if x3
y
2 x  1 if x3
Table for y  x  1 , x  3
x –1 0 1 2 3
y –2 –1 0 1 2

Table for y  2 x  1 , x  3
x 3 4 5
y 7 9 11

45
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

x2  4
(ii) y , x2
x2
Solution:
x2  4
y , x2
x2
y
 x  2  x  2 
 x  2
y  x  2, x  2
x –2 –1 0 1 2 3
y 0 1 2 3 Undefined 5

x  3 if x3
(iii) y
2 if x3
Solution:
x  3 if x3
y
2 if x3
x –1 0 1 2 3 4
y 2 3 4 5 2 7

46
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

x 2  16
(iv) y , x4
x4
Solution:
x 2  16
y , x4
x4

y
 x  4  x  4  , x  4
 x  4
y  x  4, x  4
x –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
y 3 4 5 6 7 Undefined 9

Q.4 Find the graphical solution of the following equations:

(i) x  sin 2 x
Solution:
Let y  x  sin 2 x
So yx
x 0° 90°
y  x  radian  0 1.6

Also y  sin 2 x

X –90° –75° –60° –45° –30° –15° 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°
y  sin 2 x
0 –0.5 –0.6 –1 –0.9 –0.5 0 0.5 0.9 1 0.9 0.5 0

47
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

From two graphs, solutions are

x  55,0,55
Solution set  55,0,55

x
(ii)  cos x
2
Solution:
x
Let y  cos x
2
x
So y
2
x 0° 60°
x
y (radian) 0 0.5
2
Also y  cos x
x –90° –60° –30° 0° 30° 60° 90°
y  cos x 0 0.5 0.9 1 0.9 0.5 0
From two graphs, solution is
x  60
Solution set = 60

48
Unit– 1 Functions and Limits

(iii) 2 x  tan x
Solution:
Lets y  2 x  tan x
So y  2x
x 0° 60°
y  2 x (radian) 0 2.1
Also y  tan x
x –90° –60° –30° 0° 30° 60° 90°
y  tan x Undefined –1.7 –0.6 0 0.6 1.7 Undefined

From two graphs, solution is

x  0
Solution set = 0

49