EE301 AC Rotating Machines

B.Tech. / V Semester / EEE

Prem Prakash
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Ranchi-835215
 COURSE INFORMATION

Course Code : EE301

Course Title : AC Rotating Machines
Pre-requisite(s) : Basic Electrical Engineering
Co- requisite(s) :
Credits : L: 3 T: 0 P: 0
Class schedule per week : 03
Class : B.Tech.
Semester / Level : V Sem. / Level -3
Branch : EEE
Name of Teacher : Prem Prakash
 Course Outcomes

After the completion of this course, students will:

1 state and explain working, constructions as well as steady state behaviour of ac

rotating machines,
2 interpret the various rotating electric machines, its significance in daily life;

3 identify, formulate and solve problems related to electrical machines;

4 specify, interpret data, apply the techniques, skills and modern engineering tools
necessary for electrical machines and select an electrical machine while making
judgment about the best performance in all respect;
5 aspire a career with specialization in areas of electric machine drives; in addition
recognize the need to learn, engage and adapt in a world of constantly changing
electric machine technology
Syllabus

MODULE – I
Basic Concept of A.C. Rotating Machines: Introduction to Armature winding, integral slot and fractional slot winding, Distribution factor (Kd), Pitch factor (Kp) and
winding factor (Kw). Production of rotating magnetic field, EMF and torque equations. Effect of tooth harmonics and methods of reduction. (4)
MODULE – II
Synchronous Machines:
Synchronous Generator: Construction, Cylindrical rotor and salient pole rotor, Principle of operation, Excitation system, Effect of winding factor on EMF, Armature
reaction, Circuit model, Phasor diagram, O.C. and S.C. tests, Short-circuit ratio, Determination of voltage regulation by synchronous impedance, MMF and zero power
factor methods. (8)
Performance Characteristics of Synchronous Generator: Two reaction theory, Phasor diagram, Power-angle characteristic of synchronous generators, Synchronizing
power and torque, Synchronizing methods, Parallel operation of synchronous generator, Effect of change in excitation and mechanical power input on load sharing,
Operation of alternator on infinite bus bars, Slip test (7)
MODULE – III
Synchronous Motor: Construction, Principle of operation, Equivalent circuit, Phasor diagram, Circuit model, Effect of change in excitation on armature current and
power factor, Starting of synchronous motor, Synchronous condenser, Hunting, Applications. (7)
MODULE – IV
3- Induction Motor :Introduction, Construction, Principle of operation, Slip and rotor frequency, Comparison with transformer, Equivalent circuit model,
Representation of mechanical load, No load and blocked rotor tests. Torque and power output, Losses and efficiency, Separation of losses. (7)
Performance Characteristics of 3-phase Induction Motor: Circle Diagram, Torque-slip characteristics, Effect of rotor resistance, Starting torque and maximum torque,
Starting and speed control methods, Cogging and crawling, Introduction to induction generator, Applications. (7)
MODULE –V
Single-phase Induction Motor: Introduction, Double revolving field theory, Crossfield theory, Torque-speed characteristic, Equivalent circuit model, Starting methods,
Applications. (5)

Text books:
1. D.P.Kothari and I.J.Nagrath; Electric Machines, TMH New Delhi, 4th Edition, 2010

Reference books:
1. A.E. Fitzraul, Charles Kinsley, Stephen D. Umansd; Electric Machinery, McGraw Hill Education (India) Pvt. Ltd, Noida, Indian 6th Edition 2003
2. E.H. Langsdrof; Theory of Alternating Current Machinery, McGraw-Hill New York 1955.
 Module – I
Basic Concept of Rotating Machines
Introduction to Armature winding, integral slot and fractional slot winding, Distribution factor (Kd), Pitch factor
(Kp) and winding factor (Kw). Production of rotating magnetic field, EMF and torque equations. Effect of tooth
harmonics and methods of reduction.
Elementary Concept of Electrical Machines

 Operation of Machine as a Generator (Conversion of Mechanical Energy into Electric Energy)

 Operation of Machine as a Motor

Elementary Concept of Electrical Machines
 Operation of Machine as a Generator (Conversion of Mechanical Energy into Electric Energy)
Elementary Concept of Electrical Machines
 Operation of Machine as a Motor
 Synchronous Generators or Alternators

 The mechanical power or energy is converted into electrical power or energy with the help of an AC
machine called alternator or synchronous generator.

 When the same machine can be used to convert electrical power or energy into mechanical power or
energy, then it is known as a synchronous motor.

 The same machine can be operated as a generator or as a motor and in general, it is called as a
synchronous machine.

 It is a machine which rotates only at synchronous speed (N = 120 f/P) under all conditions.
 Basic Principles
 A synchronous machine is just an electro-mechanical transducer which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy or vice-versa.
 The fundamental phenomenon which make these conversions possible are :
(i) the law of electro-magnetic induction and
(ii) law of interaction.

(i) Law of electromagnetic induction: This relates to the production of emf, i.e., emf is induced in a conductor
whenever it cuts across the magnetic field (see Fig. 1). This is called Faraday’s first law of electromagnetic
induction.
(ii) Law of interaction: This law relates to the phenomenon of production of force. or torque i.e., whenever a current
carrying conductor is placed in the magnetic field, by the interaction of the magnetic fields produced by the
current carrying conductor and the main field, force is exerted on the conductor and torque is developed (Fig. 2).
Production of Sinusoidal Alternating emf
 Module – II
Synchronous Machine
1. The field winding of an alternator is placed on the rotor and is connected to d.c.
supply through two slip rings.
2. The 3-phase armature winding is placed on the stator.
Armature Winding
A.C. Armature Windings
• A.C. armature windings are always of the non-salient-pole type

• Usually symmetrically distributed in slots around the complete circumference of the armature.

• A.C. armature windings are generally open-circuit type i.e., both ends are brought out.

• An open-circuit winding is one that does not close on itself i.e., a closed circuit will not be formed
until some external connection is made to a source or load.
General features of a.c. armature windings:

1. A.C. armature windings are generally distributed windings i.e.,

1. they are symmetrically distributed in slots around the complete circumference of the armature.
2. A distributed winding has two principal advantages.
1. First, a distributed winding generates a voltage wave that is nearly a sine curve.
2. Secondly, copper is evenly distributed on the armature surface. Therefore, heating is more
uniform and this type of winding is more easily cooled.

2. A.C. armature windings may use full-pitch coils or fractional-pitch coils.

A coil with a span of 180° electrical is called a full-pitch coil. In this case, the two sides of the coil
occupy identical positions under adjacent opposite poles and the e.m.f. generated in the coil is maximum. A
coil with a span of less than 180° electrical is called a fractional-pitch coil. For example, a coil with a span of
150° electrical would be called a 5/6 pitch coil. Although e.m.f. induced in a fractional-pitch coil is less than
that of a full-pitch coil, fractional-pitch coils are frequently used in a.c. machines for two main
reasons. First, less copper is required per coil and secondly the waveform of the generated voltage is
improved.
3. Most of a.c. machines use double layer armature windings.
 In a double layer winding, one coil side lies in the upper half of one slot while the other coil side lies
in the lower half of another slot spaced about one-pole pitch from the first one.
 This arrangement permits simpler end connections, and it is economical to manufacture.

4. Since most of a.c. machines are of 3-phase type, the three windings of the three phases are identical
but spaced 120 electrical degrees apart.

5. A group of adjacent slots belonging to one phase under one pole pair is known as phase belt. The angle
subtended by a phase belt is known as phase spread. The 3-phase windings are always designed for 60°
phase spread.
Advantages of stationary armature

This arrangement has the following advantages:

1. It is easier to insulate stationary winding for high voltages for which the alternators are usually
designed. It is because they are not subjected to centrifugal forces and also extra space is available
due to the stationary arrangement of the armature.

2. The stationary 3-phase armature can be directly connected to load without going through large,
unreliable slip rings and brushes.

3. Only two slip rings are required for d.c. supply to the field winding on the rotor. Since the exciting
current is small, the slip rings and brush gear required are of light construction.

4. Due to simple and robust construction of the rotor, higher speed of rotating d.c. field is possible. This
increases the output obtainable from a machine of given dimensions.
 Advantages of Rotating Field System over Stationary Field System

 Only in small synchronous machines the field system is placed on stator and armature winding
on rotor, but in larger machines, the field winding is placed on the rotor and armature winding
is placed on the stator.

 The rotating field and stationary armature system is preferred over stationary field and rotating
armature system.
The important advantages of rotating field system over stationary field system:

 The armature winding is more complex than the field winding. Therefore, it is easy to
place armature winding on stationary structure.

 In the modern alternators (synchronous generators), high voltage is generated,

therefore, heavy insulation is provided, and it is easy to insulate the high voltage
winding when it is placed on stationary structure.

 The size of the armature conductors is much more to carry heavy current; therefore,
high centrifugal stresses are developed. Thus, it is preferred to place them on
stationary structure.
The important advantages of rotating field system over stationary field system:

 The size of slip rings depends upon the magnitude of flow of current, therefore, it is easy
to deliver small current for excitation, through slip rings of smaller size when rotating
field system is used.

 It is easier to build and properly balance high speed rotors when they carry the lighter
field system.

 The weight of rotor is small when field system is provided on rotor and as such friction
losses are produced.

 Better cooling system can be provided when the armature is kept stationary.
Constructional Features of Synchronous Machines

The important parts of a synchronous machine are:

1. Stator
2. Rotor
3. Miscellaneous
1. Stator: The outer stationary part of the machine is called stator; it has the following important parts:

(i) Stator frame: It is the outer body of the machine made of cast iron and it protects the inner parts of
the machine. It can be also made of any other strong material since it is not to carry the magnetic
field. Cast iron is used only because of its high mechanical strength.

(ii) Stator Core: The stator core is made of silicon steel material. It is made from number of stamping
which are insulated from each other. Its function is to provide an easy path for the magnetic lines
of force and accommodate the stator winding.

(iii)Stator Winding: Slots are cut on the inner periphery of the stator core in which three-phase or one-
phase winding is placed. Enamelled copper is used as winding material.
2. Rotor: The rotating part of the machine is called rotor.

From construction point of view, there are two types of rotors named as

(i) Salient pole type rotor;

(ii) Non-salient pole type rotor.

(i) Salient pole type rotor:

 In this case, projected poles are provided on the rotor.

 The cost of construction of salient pole type rotors is low, moreover sufficient space is available to accommodate
field winding but these cannot bear high mechanical stresses at high speeds.

 Therefore, salient pole type construction is suited for medium and low speeds and are usually employed at hydro-
electric and diesel power plants as synchronous generators.

 Since the speed of these machines (generators) is quite low, to obtain the required frequency, the machines have
large number of poles.

 To accommodate such a large number of poles, these machines have larger diameter and small length.

 For a speed of 200 rpm (alternators coupled with water turbines) the diameter of the machines is as large as 14
metre and length is only 1 metre.
The salient pole type rotor has the following important parts:

(a) Spider: Spider is made of cast iron to provide an easy path for the magnetic flux. It is keyed to the shaft
and at the outer surface, pole core and pole-shoe are keyed to it.

(b) Pole core and pole shoe:

(a) It is made of laminated sheet material.
(b) Pole core provides least reluctance path for the magnetic field and pole shoe distributes the field
over the whole periphery uniformly to produce sinusoidal wave form of the generated emf.

(c) Field winding or Exciting winding:

(a) Field winding is wound on the former and then placed around the pole core.
(b) DC supply is given to it through slip rings.
(c) When direct current flows through the field winding, it produces the required magnetic field.
The salient pole type rotor has the following important parts:

d) Damper winding:
a) At the outermost periphery, holes are provided in which copper bars are inserted and short-
circuited at both the sides by rings forming damper winding.
b) Generally, the segments on individual poles are joined together to form common rings resulting
in a short-circuited squirrel cage winding similar to that used in induction machines with squirrel
cage rotors.
c) Salient pole machines are frequently provided with a damper winding on the rotor to damp
rotor oscillations during transient-conditions and to facilitate smooth operation under
unbalanced load conditions.
d) At hydro-electric power plants, usually, salient pole type alternators are placed with their shafts
in vertical position
(ii) Non-salient pole type rotor:
 In this there are no projected poles but the poles are formed by the current flowing through the
rotor (exciting) winding.
 Non-salient pole type construction is suited for the high speeds.
 The steam turbines rotate at a high speed (3000 rpm).
 When these turbines are used as prime-mover for this machine working as a generator, a small
number of poles are required for given frequency.
 Hence, these machines have smaller diameter and larger length.

Non salient pole type rotors have the following parts:

(a) Rotor core:

(a) Rotor core is made of silicon steel stampings.
(b) It is keyed to the shaft.
(c) At the outer periphery slots are cut in which exciting coils are placed.
(d) It provides an easy path to the magnetic flux.

(b) Rotor winding or Exciting winding: It is placed in rotor slots and current is passed through the winding in such
a way that poles are formed according to the requirement.
3. Miscellaneous Parts:

(i) Brushes: Brushes are made of carbon and these just slip over the slip rings. DC supply is given to the
brushes. From brushes current flows to the slip rings and then to the exciting winding.

(ii) Bearings: Bearings are provided between the shaft and outer stationary body to reduce the friction. The
material used for their construction is high carbon steel.

(iii) Shaft: Shaft is made of mild steel. Mechanical power is taken or given to the machine through shaft.
Salient pole field structure special features:

(i) These are of larger diameter and shorter length.

(ii) Usually, 2/3 of the pole pitch is covered by the pole shoes
(iii)To reduce eddy current losses, the poles are laminated.
(iv) The machine having such structure are employed with hydraulic turbines or with diesel engines
which are usually operated at low speeds (100 to 375 rpm)

The non-salient field structure special features.

(i) They are of smaller diameter and of very long axial length.
(ii) Robust construction and noiseless operation.
(iii)Less windage (air-resistance) loss.
(iv) Better in dynamic balancing.
(v) High operating speed (3000 rpm).
(vi) Nearly sinusoidal flux distribution around the periphery, and therefore, gives a better emf waveform
than that obtainable with salient poles field structure.
(vii)There is no need of providing damper windings (except in special cases to assist in synchronising)
because the solid field poles themselves act as efficient dampers.
Air-gap and its Significance

 A very small air-gap increases the stray-load loss and synchronous reactance X.

 A large air-gap needs larger excitation current.

 Therefore, a compromise has to be made. Generally the ratio of airgap to the pole Pitch is between 0.008 and 0.02.
 Excitation System For Synchronous Machines
Excitation is the production of flux by passing current in the field winding.

• Direct current is required to excite the field winding.

• For small machines, dc is supplied to the field by a dc generator called exciter. This
exciter may be supplied current by a smaller dc generator called pilot exciter.
Static Excitation System
Brushless Excitation System
 Armature Winding

 In the large synchronous machines, stationary part is the armature.

 On the inner periphery of the stator core, number of slots (mostly open parallel sided slots) are provided.

 In these slots armature winding is placed.

Types of Armature Winding
1. Single-phase and poly-phase windings:
1. When only one winding is placed on the armature and only one emf is obtained at the output, winding is
called single-phase winding.
2. When more than one windings are placed on the armature and emfs induced are more than one, displaced
from each other by some angle, the winding is called poly-phase winding.
3. Mostly three-phase winding is provided on the armature.

2. Concentrated and distributed windings:

1. When one slot per pole or slots equal to the number of poles are employed, the windings thus obtained are
called concentrated windings. Such windings give maximum induced emfs for given number of conductors
but the wave form of induced emf is not exactly sinusoidal.
2. When number of slots per poles are more than one, the windings thus obtained are called distributed
windings. Such windings give slightly less than maximum induced emf for a given number of conductors but
the wave form of induced emf is more sinusoidal.

3. Single layer and double layer windings: When only one coil side is placed in a slot, the winding is called
single layer winding. However, when two coil sides are placed in one slot, one over the other, the winding is
called double layer winding.
Types of Armature Winding
4. Full pitched and short pitched windings:

i. When the two coil sides of the same coil are 180 electrical degrees apart, the winding is called full pitch
winding.
ii. When the two sides of the same coil are less than 180 electrical degrees apart, the winding is called short
pitch winding.
iii. The emf induced in each coil is maximum with full pitch winding scheme is employed whereas emf induced
in the short pitch winding is less than that.
iv. However, short pitch winding is preferred over full pitch winding because of the following reasons:
a. It decreases the length at the end-connections and thus amount of copper required is saved.
b. It reduces the slot reactance and thus improves the wave shape of the generated emf, i.e., the
generated emf can be made to approximately sinusoidal more easily by properly chording the winding.
c. It reduces or eliminates distorting harmonics in the wave form of generated emf.

The only disadvantage of short pitch winding is that a few more turns are used to obtain the same voltage
as it would be induced in full pitch winding.
5. Concentric (or spiral), Lap and Wave windings:

i. When each group of coils under a pole is arranged into a sort of concentric shape i.e., when the current flow
is traced through one such properly connected set of coils that the conductors seem to form a spiral around a
portion of the core (Fig.) the winding is called concentric or chain or spiral winding.
ii. This type of winding scheme is preferred for large diameter, low speed synchronous machines.
iii. In the alternators, the lap and wave windings give the same emf as long as the other conditions are the same.
iv. In case of lap winding, coils or coil sides overlap the other consecutively and connections are made.
v. Whereas in wave winding, the coils are always forward connected.
vi. The connections of a lap winding are simpler to that of the wave winding, therefore lap winding is
exclusively used.
Important Terms Used in Armature Winding
(i) Electrical angle: When a conductor passes through a pair of poles, one cycle of emf is induced in it. Thus a
pair of poles represents an angle of 360 electrical degrees.

Electrical angle = Mechanical angle × Pair of poles.

(ii) Pole pitch: Distance between two neutral axis (or similar points) of adjacent poles is called poles pitch. The
pole pitch can be expressed as number of slots per poles or electrical degrees (i.e., 180° elect.).
If S is the number of slots on the whole periphery of armature and P is the number of poles,Then,

Pole pitch = No. of slots per pole = S/P.

( iii) Coil: Two conductors placed in the two slots displaced by pole pitch (in full pitch winding) or less than pole
pitch (in short pitch winding), connected at one side by the end connections form a single turn coil as shown in Fig..
When number of turns are connected in series and each side (coil side) is placed in the slot, it is called a multi-turn
coil.
 (iv) Coil pitch or coil span: The distance between two active sides of a coil is called
coil span. It is expressed in terms of number of slots or electrical degrees.
 (v) Slot pitch: The distance between centre points (or similar points) of two consecutive slots or teeth is called
slot pitch. It is expressed in electrical degrees.

180
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑃𝑖𝑡𝑐ℎ =
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠/𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒

(vi) Phase Spread: The angle or space of pole face over which coil sides of the same phase are spread is called
phase spread, as shown in Fig. 6.20. In a distributed winding, the conductors of one phase under one pole are
spread in number of slots so that each phase has equal distribution.
In a 3-phase winding:

180
𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 = = 60 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
3
Or

𝑃ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 = No. of slots/pole/phase

Example 1
Draw a developed winding diagram for a 4 pole, 1-phase synchronous machine when
(i) the winding is single layer concentrated in one slot
(ii) the winding is single layer and distributed in three slots per pole.

Solution:

Single layer concentrated winding Single layer distributed winding

Example 2
Draw a single-layer, full-pitch, distributed lap-winding for a 3-phase, 4-pole, 24-slot armature.
Solution:
No. of slots per pole = 24/4=6
Slot pitch =180/6= 30 degree electrical
First phase starts with T1 in a first slot,
then second phase will start with T2 from slot No. 5,
Since second phase is to start after 120 electrical degrees i.e., 120/30 = 4 slots, i.e., after a gap of 4 slots and so on.
The winding diagram is shown in Fig.
Example 3
Draw a double-layer, full-pitch, distributed lap-winding (for one-phase only) for a 3-phase, 4-pole, 48-slot armature of an
alternator. Give the winding scheme for all the three phases:
Solution:
Pole pitch = 48/4 =12 slot

No. of slots/pole/phase = 48/ (4 x 3) =4

For full-pitch winding, the upper conductor of first slot will be connected with lower conductor of (1 + 12 = 13) thirteenth
slot and

the lower conductor of 13th slot will be connected with upper conductor of (13 – 11 = 2) 2nd slot and so on, as per the
following scheme.

The upper conductors of each slot are represented as (1, 2, 3,…, 48) and lower conductor is represented as (1’, 2’, 3’,.., 48’)

The winding scheme for the three phases is given below:

The developed winding diagram
Example 4
Draw a double-lay, short-pitch (5/6),distributed lap-winding (for one-phase only) for a 3-phase, 4-pole, 48 slot
armature of an alternator. Also give the winding scheme for all the three phases.
Solution:

Pole pitch = 48/4=12 slots

No. of slots/pole/phase = 48/ (3x 4) = 4

Winding is short pitches, coil span = (5/6) x 12 =10 slot

Upper conductor of 1st slot is to be connected with the lower conductor of (1 + 10 = 11) eleventh slot and the
lower conduct or 11th slot is to be connected with upper conductor of 2nd slot (11 – 9 =2) and so on.

The winding scheme of the three phases is given below

Coil Span Factor

In a full pitch winding the coil span or coil pitch is always equal to the pole pitch which is equal to 180 electrical
degrees. When the coil span is less than 180 electrical degrees, the winding is called short pitched or fractional pitch
or chorded winding as shown in Fig.
The ratio of induced emf in a coil when the winding is short pitched to the induced emf in the
same coil when it is full pitched is called a coil span factor or pitch factor or chorded factor
Distribution Factor
 Generation of Three-phase emf

In a three-phase system,

 there are equal voltages (or emfs) of the same frequency having a phase difference of 120°.

 These voltages can be produced by a three-phase AC generator having three identical windings (or
phases) fixed on the some spindle and displaced by 120° electrical.

 When these windings are rotated in a stationary magnetic field or when these windings are kept
stationary and the magnetic field is rotated, an emf is induced in each winding or phase.

 These emfs are of same magnetic and frequency but are displaced from one another by 120°
electrical.
Let
 the three coils mounted on the same axis be rotated (or the magnetic field system be rotated keeping coils
stationary) is anti-clockwise direction at radians/second.

 Their magnitude and direction, at this instant are given by:

(i) The emf induced in coil a1 a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction as shown by wave a1 a2 in Fig. (c).

(ii) The coil b1b2 is 120° (electrical) behind the coil a1a2. The emf induced in this coil is negative and is becoming
maximum negative as shown by the wave b1b2 in Fig. (c).
(iii) The coil c1c2 is 120° (electrical) behind b1b2 or 240° (electrical) behind a The emf induced in this coil is positive
and is decreasing as shown by wave c1c2 in Fig. (c).
(iv) The emfs induced in three coils are of the same magnitude and frequency but are displaced by 120° (electrical)
from each other as shown in phasor diagram Fig. (d).
(v) These can be represented by the equations:
 emf Equation
Let,
z-= no of conductor in series per phase;

Φ = flux per pole

P= no of rotor / field winding poles;

N = speed in rpm

Zph = No. of conductors connected in series per phase;

f = frequency in Hz;

Tph = No. of turns connected in series per phase

Kc = Coil span factor;

Kd = Distribution factor
 emf Equation
Induced voltage in one conductor = 𝑑𝜑/𝑑𝑡

Flux cut by each conductor during one revolution = P𝜑 Wb, 𝑑𝜑=𝑃𝜑

Time take to complete one revolution = 𝑑𝑡 = 60/𝑁 𝑠econd

Average Induced voltage in one/each conductor = 𝑑𝜑/𝑑𝑡

= 𝑃𝜑/ (60/𝑁) = 𝑃𝜑𝑁/60 volt

Total average induced voltage / phase = 𝑃𝜑𝑁𝑍/60

= (𝑃𝜑𝑍/60) x (120𝑓/𝑃)
= 𝜑𝑍 x 2𝑓
= 2𝑓𝜑 x 2𝑇 = 4𝑓𝜑𝑇

Rms voltage / phase = 2𝑓𝜑𝑍 x 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟

= 2𝑓𝜑𝑍 𝑥 1.11 = 2.22𝑓𝜑 x 2𝑇

Induced voltage /phase = 2.22𝑓𝜑𝑍 Kd Kp

Induced voltage /phase = 4.44𝑓𝜑𝑇 𝐾𝑤 Volt

e = E1m sin (ωt +Φ1) + E2m sin (ωt +Φ2) +E3m sin (ωt +Φ3)+........+Enm sin (ωt +Φn)
Wave Shape

The flux distribution in the air-gap of an alternator is not well distributed. moreover, if the winding is concentrated
and full-pitched, the wave shape of the induced emf is not sinusoidal.

The wave shape can be made sinusoidal by proper designing of salient pole shoes and using short pitch and
distributed winding.
Harmonics in Voltage Wave Form

The harmonics in the output voltage wave form are developed due to non-sinusoidal wave form of the field flux.
These are also developed due to variation in the reluctance of the air-gap because of slotting of stator core.

Suppression of Harmonics
Harmonics can be suppressed or eliminated by various methods as mentioned below:

(i) By well distributing the armature winding.

(ii) By using short-pitched winding.
(iii) By skewing the poles by one slot-pitch.
(iv) By using fractional slot winding.
(v) By using slightly larger air-gap length to increase the reluctance.
Production of Revolving Field

A resultant magnetic field having constant magnitude and fixed polarity changes its position continuously in
space is called a revolving field.
 At t1 instant angle is zero, therefore,

Position of resultant field at instant t1

Position of resultant field at instant t2
Position of resultant field at instant t3
Conclusion
 when a three-phase supply is given to a three-phase wound stator of an induction motor or
synchronous motor, resultant field Fm of magnitude 1.5 ϕm is produced which rotates in space at a
constant speed called synchronous speed (Ns = 120 f /P).

 The direction of rotation of the resultant field depends upon the sequence in which supply in given
to the stator winding.
Ferrari’s Principle (Vector Representation of Alternating Field)

An alternating field can be represented by two vectors revolving in opposite directions at constant speed of
radians per second. It can be well explained with the help of Ferrari’s principle.

Ferrari’s principle states that a single alternating magnetic field is the resultant of two fields, each of half
the magnitude of alternating field, rotating in opposite direction at fixed speed, called synchronous speed.

Hence, an alternating field can be represented by

two components of field having half the magnitude
rotating in opposite direction at a constant speed,
called synchronous speed.
Production of Two-phase Rotating Magnetic Field
Production of Three-phase Rotating Magnetic Field
Armature Resistance
The resistance per phase is armature resistance of an alternator.

The resistance of a winding, depending upon resistivity of winding material, length and area of cross-
section is called DC resistance of the winding.

The actual or AC resistance in nearly 1·25 to 1·75 times the DC resistance.

This is because of unequal distribution of alternating current (Skin effect) over the cross-section of the
conductor.

Voltage drop (IR) occurs in the winding because of this resistance which is in-phase with the current
phasor. However, the value of this resistance is very small as compared to synchronous reactance of the
machine, which is why, many times, its voltage drop effect is neglected.

Heavy copper losses occur in the machine because of armature resistance.

Armature Leakage Reactance
When current flows through the armature conductors, local fluxes are set at various places.
The flux which links with the armature winding but not with rotor field winding is called leakage flux.
Armature Leakage Reactance
The leakage flux may be divided into the following three components:

(i) Slot leakage flux: The flux which links or surrounds the armature conductors embedded in the
iron or placed in the slots but does not pass through the air gap is called the slots leakage flux as
shown in Fig.

(ii) Air gap leakage flux: The flux which surrounds the armature conductors and passes through
the air gap (i.e., the flux which crosses from tooth to tooth in the air gap) as shown in Fig. is
called air gap leakage flux.

(iii) End-connection leakage flux: The flux which links with only the end-connections of the
armature winding is called end-connection leakage flux. It is also called as an overhang leakage
flux.
 Armature Reaction in Alternator

The effect of armature flux on the flux produced by field ampere-turns (i. e., rotor ampere-turns) is
called armature reaction.
At No Load Condition:
• There will be no current flowing through the armature winding.
• The flux produced in the air-gap will be only due to the rotor ampere-turns.

When the alternator is loaded :

• The three-phase currents will produce a rotating magnetic field in the air-gap.
• Consequently, the air-gap flux is changed from the no-load condition.
Armature Reaction
1. The armature flux and the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns rotate at the same speed
(synchronous speed) in the same direction and, therefore, the two fluxes are fixed in space
relative to each other.

2. The modification of flux in the air-gap due to armature flux depends on the magnitude of
stator current and on the power factor of the load.

3. It is the load power factor which determines whether the armature flux distorts, opposes or
helps the flux produced by rotor ampere-turns.

To illustrate this important point, we shall consider the following three cases:
(i) When load p.f. is unity
(ii) When load p.f. is zero lagging
(iii) When load p.f. is zero leading
When load p.f. is unity

Alternator on no-load.
Fig. (i) shows an elementary alternator on no-load. Since the armature is on open-circuit,
there is no stator current and the flux due to rotor current is distributed symmetrically in the
air-gap. Since the direction of the rotor is assumed clockwise, the generated e.m.f. in phase R
is at its maximum and is towards the paper in the conductor R1 and outwards in conductor
R2. No armature flux is produced since no current flows in the armature winding.
When load p.f. is unity

when a resistive load is connected

Fig. (ii)) shows the effect when a resistive load (unity p.f.) is connected.
According to right-hand rule, the current is “in” in the conductors under N-pole and “out” in the
conductors under S-pole.

the armature flux is clockwise due to currents in the top conductors and anti-clockwise due to currents
in the bottom conductors.

Armature flux is at 90° to the main flux (due to rotor current) and is behind the main flux.
In this case, the flux in the air-gap is distorted but not weakened.
Therefore, at unity p.f., the effect of armature reaction is :

I. merely to distort the main field;

II. there is no weakening of the main field and the average flux practically remains the
same.
III. Since the magnetic flux due to stator currents (i.e., armature flux) rotate;
synchronously with the rotor, the flux distortion remains the same for all positions of
the rotor.
When load p.f. is zero lagging
When a pure inductive load (zero p.f. lagging) is connected across the terminals of the alternator, current
lags behind the voltage by 90°. This means that current will be maximum at zero e.m.f. and vice-versa.
Fig. (i)) shows the condition when the alternator is supplying resistive load. Note that e.m.f. as well as
current in phase R1 R is maximum in the position shown. When the alternator is supplying a pure
inductive load, the current in phase R1 R2 will not reach its maximum value until N-pole advanced 90°
electrical as shown in Fig. (ii)). Now the armature flux is from right to left and field flux is from left to
right All the flux produced by armature current (i.e., armature flux) opposes be field flux and, therefore,
weakens it. In other words, armature reaction is directly demagnetizing. Hence at zero p.f.
lagging, the armature reaction weakens the main flux. This causes a reduction in the
generated e.m.f.
When load p.f. is zero leading
It is clear that armature flux is now in the same direction as the field flux and, therefore,
strengthens it. This causes an increase in the generated voltage. Hence at zero p.f.
leading, the armature reaction strengthens the main flux.
For intermediate values of p.f, the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and
partly weakening for inductive loads.

For capacitive loads, the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting and partly
strengthening.

Note that in practice, loads are generally inductive.

Summary
When the alternator is loaded, the armature flux modifies the air-gap flux. Its angle (electrical) w.r.t.
main flux depends on the load p.t. This is illustrated in Fig.

(a) When the load p.f. is unity, the effect of armature reaction is wholly distorting. In other words, the
flux in the air-gap is distorted but not weakened. As shown in Fig., the armature flux is 90° electrical
behind Ac main flux. The result is that flux is strengthened at the trailing pole tips and weakened at the
leading pole tips. However, the average flux in the air-gap practically remains unaltered.

(b) When the load p.f. is zero lagging, the effect of armature reaction is wholly demagnetizing. In other
words, the flux in the air-gap is weakened. As shown in Fig., the wave representing the main flux is
moved backwards through 90° (elect) so that it is in direct opposition to the armature flux. This
considerably, reduces the air-gap flux and hence the generated e.m.f. To keep the value of the
generated e.m.f. the same, the field excitation will have to be increased to compensate for the
weakening of the air-gap flux.
(c)When the load p.f. is zero leading, the effect of armature reaction is wholly
magnetizing. In other words, the flux in the air-gap is increased. As shown in Fig., the
wave representing the main flux is now moved forward through 90° (elect.) so that it
aids the armature flux. This considerably increases the air-gap flux and hence the
generated e.m.f. To keep the value of the generated e.m.f. the same, the field excitation
will have to be reduced.

(d) For intermediate values of load p.f. the effect of armature reaction is partly distorting
and partly weakening for inductive loads. For capacitive loads, the effect is partly
distorting and partly strengthening. Fig. shows the effect of armature reaction for an
inductive load. In practice, load on the alternator is generally inductive.
Conclusion
The above explanation reveals that

1. The armature reaction flux (ϕa = 1.5 ϕarm) is constant in magnitude and rotates at synchronous
speed.

2. When generator supplies a load at unity pf, the armature reaction is cross-magnetising.

3. When generator supplies a load at zero pf lagging, the armature reaction in demagnetising.

4. When generator supplies a load at zero pf leading, the armature reaction is magnetising.

5. In all the cases, if the armature-reaction flux is assumed to act independently of the main field flux,
it induces voltage in each phase which lags the respective phase current by 90°. Hence armature
reaction causes an armature reactance drop.
Effect of Armature Reaction on emf of Alternator
Let,
E0 = emf induced per phase by the main field (flux) at no-load.
Ea = emf induced per phase by the armature field (flux).
E = Net emf induced per phase i.e., resultant of Ea and E0.
Ē = Ē0 + Ēa

When the armature is at no-load, no current flows through the armature.

 Thus the armature field is zero.
 The main field Fm (or ϕm) will induce an emf E0 which lags behind ϕm by 90°.
 net induced emf Ē = Ē0

Phasor diagram at no-load

When a Resistive load is connected to the alternator,

 current (I) flows through the armature conductors which is in phase with E0 and produces an
armature field Fa or ϕa which lags behind the main field by 90°.
 An emf Ea is induced by this field which lags behind the armature field by 90°.
 resultant emf E is obtained across the armature.
Ē = Ē0 + Ēa

Phasor diagram for unity p.f.

When a pure inductive load is connected to the alternator, When a pure capacitive load is connected to the alternator,

 a current (I) flows through the armature conductors  a current (I) flows through the armature conductors
which lags behind E0 by 90°. which leads the emf E0 by 90°.
 This current produces armature field which induces an  This current produces armature field which further
emf Ea in the armature lagging behind ϕa by 90°. induces emf Ea in the armature lagging behind ϕa by
 resultant emf (Ē=Ē0 -- Ēa ) is obtained across the 90° but in phase with E0.
armature.  Thus, a resultant emf (Ē = Ē0 + Ēa ) is obtained across
the armature.

Phasor diagram for zero leading

Phasor diagram for zero lagging pf
Conclusion
 E0 is always in phase quadrature with the load current I and proportional to it.

 It, resembles with the emf induced in an inductive reactance so that the effect of armature reaction
is exactly as if the stator winding has a reactance Xa=Ea/I.

Whereas Xa is termed as armature reaction reactance.

Thus, an armature reaction produces a reactance effect in the armature winding called armature
reaction reactance.
Synchronous Reactance and Synchronous Impedance

Synchronous reactance:
It is fictitious reactance which has the effect equivalent to the combined effects of both the leakage
reactance and armature reaction reactance.
It is represented by Xs.
Xs = XL + Xa

Synchronous impedance:
The vector sum of armature resistance and synchronous reactance is known as Synchronous impedance.
It is generally represented by Zs.
Equivalent Circuit of an Alternator and Phasor Diagram
Expression for No-load Terminal Voltage

 The no-load terminal voltage E0 is the actual induced emf in the armature produced by the main magnetic
field ϕm.

 It is the vector sum of terminal voltage at load, drop in resistance and drop in synchronous reactance.

 From phasor diagram of alternator at different load conditions, we can deduce the expression for no-load
terminal voltage
(i) For resistive load (unit p.f.):

From the right-angle triangle OBC, we get,

𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶

𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵) +𝐵𝐶

𝐸 = (𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅) +𝐼𝑋

𝐸 = (𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅) +𝐼𝑋
(ii) For inductive load (lagging p.f.):

From the right-angle triangle ODC

𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐷 + 𝐷𝐶

𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝐷) +(D𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶)

𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐸 + 𝐴𝐵) +(EA +𝐵𝐶)

Also, in right angle triangle OFC
𝐸 = (𝑉 cos ∅ + 𝐼𝑅) +(V sin ∅ + 𝐼𝑋 )
𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐹 + 𝐹𝐶

𝐸 = (𝑉 cos ∅ + 𝐼𝑅) +(V sin ∅ + 𝐼𝑋 ) 𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐻 + 𝐻𝐹) +(GC − 𝐺𝐹)

𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐻 + 𝐵𝐺) +(GC − 𝐵𝐻)

𝐸 = (𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅 cos ∅ + 𝐼𝑋 sin ∅) +(𝐼𝑋 cos ∅ − 𝐼𝑅sin ∅)

𝐸 = (𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅 cos ∅ + 𝐼𝑋 sin ∅) +(𝐼𝑋 cos ∅ − 𝐼𝑅sin ∅)

(ii) For capcitve load (leading p.f.):

From the right-angle triangle ODC

𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐷 + 𝐷𝐶

𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐸 + 𝐸𝐷) +(D𝐵 − 𝐵𝐶)

𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐸 + 𝐴𝐵) +(EA −𝐵𝐶)

Also, in right angle triangle OFC
𝐸 = (𝑉 cos ∅ + 𝐼𝑅) +(V sin ∅ − 𝐼𝑋 )
𝑂𝐶 = 𝑂𝐹 + 𝐹𝐶

𝐸 = (𝑉 cos ∅ + 𝐼𝑅) +(V sin ∅ − 𝐼𝑋 ) 𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐻 + 𝐻𝐹) +(GC + 𝐺𝐹)

𝑂𝐶 = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐻 − 𝐵𝐺) +(GC + 𝐵𝐻)

𝐸 = (𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅 cos ∅ − 𝐼𝑋 sin ∅) +(𝐼𝑋 cos ∅ + 𝐼𝑅sin ∅)

𝐸 = (𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅 cos ∅ − 𝐼𝑋 sin ∅) +(𝐼𝑋 cos ∅ + 𝐼𝑅sin ∅)

 Approximate expression for no-load terminal voltage
(considering δ to be very small)

(i) For non-inductive load (unity pf)

𝑂𝐶 ≅ 𝑂𝐵 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵
𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅

(i) For inductive load (lagging pf )

𝑂𝐶 ≅ 𝑂𝐹 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐻 + 𝐻𝐹
𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅 cos ∅+ 𝐼𝑋 sin ∅

(i) For capacitive load (leading pf)

𝑂𝐶 ≅ 𝑂𝐹 = 𝑂𝐴 + 𝐴𝐻 − 𝐻𝐹
𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐼𝑅 cos ∅ - 𝐼𝑋 sin ∅
 Voltage Regulation
Because of the voltage drop in the armature resistance and synchronous reactance, the terminal
voltage of synchronous generator depends upon the load and its p.f.

The rise in terminal voltage when the given load is thrown off, the excitation and speed remaining
constant, is called the voltage regulation of a synchronous generator (alternator).

If ,
E0 = No-load terminal voltage and
V = Terminal voltage at a given load

Then voltage regulation

Percentage regulation, % Reg

 The voltage regulation is positive both at unity and lagging p.f. because this causes rise in terminal
voltage when the load is thrown off (removed).

 In case of leading p.f. the terminal voltage may fall when the load is thrown off. Therefore, at
leading p.f. voltage regulation may be negative.

 The voltage regulation may be zero, when load and its pf may be such that IRa cosϕ = IXs sinϕ

 The voltage regulation of a synchronous generator is usually much high than that of powers
transformer because of large amount of voltage drop in synchronous reactance.
 Determination of Voltage Regulation

To determine the voltage regulation of smooth cylindrical rotor type alternators, the following methods
may be used:

1. Direct load test

2. Indirect Method

1. Direct load test:

 Direct load test is performed only on small alternators (upto 5 kVA).

 In this case,

 the alternator is run at synchronous speed with the help of a prime-moves

 its terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated value V and the load is varied until the ammeter and
wattmeter indicate the rated values at given power factor.
 Then the load is removed keeping the speed and field excitation constant.
 At open circuit i.e., at no-load, the terminal voltage E0 is recorded.
 Then voltage regulation is determined as under:
Percentage voltage regulation
1. Direct load test:

 Direct load test is performed only on small alternators (upto 5 kVA).

 In this case,

 the alternator is run at synchronous speed with the help of a prime-moves

 its terminal voltage is adjusted to its rated value V and the load is varied until the ammeter and
wattmeter indicate the rated values at given power factor.

 Then the load is removed keeping the speed and field excitation constant.

 At open circuit i.e., at no-load, the terminal voltage E0 is recorded.

 Then voltage regulation is determined as under:

Percentage voltage regulation

2. Indirect method:

For large size alternator, indirect methods are used to determine voltage regulation.

These methods are:

(i) Synchronous impedance method or EMF method
(ii) Ampere-turn method or MMF method
(iii) Zero power factor method or Potier method.
 Synchronous impedance method or EMF method
This method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature reaction by a fictitious reactance.

For a synchronous generator

𝑉 =𝐸 −𝐼𝑍
 Assumptions Made in Synchronous Impedance Method

1. The synchronous impedance is considered to be constant.

 t is constant only when OCC an SCC are straight line.
 But above the Knee-point of OCC, when the saturation starts, the value of synchronous impedance starts
decreasing.
 Hence, the synchronous impedance obtained under test conditions is usually larger than actual value.
 This is the major source of error of determining voltage regulation of an alternator by synchronous
impedance method.

2. The flux under test conditions is considered to be the same as that under load conditions.
 The same value of field current is not producing the same flux always.
 When the armature is short circuited, the armature current lags behind the generated voltage by almost
90°, hence armature reaction produces demagnetising effect. This reduces the degree of saturation further.
 The actual resultant flux is reduced which reduces the generated emf. These conditions are different from
those when the machine is actually loaded.
 Hence, the synchronous impedance obtained under test condition is usually larger than actual value.
 This causes a source of error while determining voltage regulation of an alternator by this method.
3. The effect of armature reaction flux is usually replaced by a voltage drop proportional to the
armature current.
This assumption also causes errors because the shift of armature flux varies with the
power factor and the load current.

4. The magnetic reluctance to the armature flux is considered to be constant regardless of the
power factor.
 this assumption is substantially true for non-salient pole type alternators because air-gap in
these machines is uniform.
 in case of salient pole type alternators, the position of armature flux relative to field poles
varies with the power factor. This assumption also introduces considerable error. Hence, it is
found that the regulation determined by using synchronous impedance method is higher than
the actual value.
 Short-Circuit Ratio (SCR)

The ratio of field current to produce rated voltage on open-circuit to the field current required to circulate
rated current on short-circuit while the machine is driven at synchronous speed is called short-circuit
ratio (SCR) of a synchronous machine.
Thus, SCR is just reciprocal of per unit synchronous reactance X of the machine. The value of synchronous
reactance depends upon saturated conditions of the machine whereas, SCR is specific and defined at rated voltage.
S
Significance of SCR
Smaller is the value of SCR, larger is the value of synchronous reactance which limits the short circuit
current to smaller value. But it causes difficulty during parallel operation of the machines owing to
smaller value of synchronising power.

Larger value of SCR increases the stability of the machine and improves its voltage regulation.

Usually, the SCR of a high speed non-salient pole alternators lies between 0.5 and 0.75 whereas it lies
between 1.0 and 1.5 for low speed salient pole type alternators.

Therefore, the salient pole type alternators are more stable than non-salient pole type alternators.
Ampere-turn (or mmf) Method

The synchronous impedance method is based on the concept of replacing the effect of armature reaction
by a fictitious reactance. Accordingly, some assumptions were made. But due to those assumptions, the
voltage regulation obtained by that method was higher than the actual value.
In ampere-turn or mmf method, the effect of armature leakage reactance is to be replaced by an
equivalent additional armature reaction mmf. This additional mmf is combined with the armature
reaction mmf.

To determine the regulation of an alternator by mmf method, the following information is required.
(i) The resistance of the stator winding per phase.
(ii) Open-circuit characteristics at synchronous speed.
( iii) Short-circuit characteristics.

All these informations can be obtained by performing the same tests as preformed in emf method i.e.,
open circuit test, short circuit test and ammeter–voltmeter method for finding armature resistance.
A 1-phase 60 kVA, 220 V, 50 Hz, alternator has an effective armature leakage
reactance of 0·07 ohm and negligible armature resistance. Calculate the voltage
induced in the armature when the alternator is delivering rated current at a load
power factor of 0·7 lagging.
A single-phase 100 kVA, 600V, 50 Hz alternator has effective armature resistance and
leakage reactance of 0·072 and 0·18 ohm respectively. At rated terminal voltage and
kVA load, determine internal induced emf at
(i) unit p.f.
(ii) 0·75 p.f. lagging;
(iii) 0·75 p.f. leading.
The open-circuit test data of a 500 kVA, 4000 volt, 8 pole, 3-phase, 50 Hz alternator is:
ATs, per pole 2000 3000 3560 5000 6200 7000 8000
Terminal voltage 1990 2900 3 400 4000 4400 4590 4800
The equivalent armature reaction expressed in ampere-turn per pole is 1.1 × ampere
conductors per pole per phase. There are 240 conductors per phase in series. If the
inductive voltage drop 8% on full load and the resistance drop is negligible. Then
determine (i) Short circuit characteristic (ii) field excitation and regulation for full load
at 0-8 p. f. lagging.
 Voltage Regulation ……

Zero Power Factor or Potier Method

The regulation obtained by synchronous impedance (or emf) method and ampere-turn (or mmf)
method is based on the total synchronous reactance i.e., (the sum of reactance due to armature leakage
flux and due to armature reaction effect). This introduces error due to vectorial addition of magnetic
fluxes.

Whereas, the zero power factor method is based on the separation of reactances due to leakage flux
and that due to armature reaction flux, therefore, it gives more accurate results.
Voltage Regulation …

Potier Method

For determining voltage regulation by this method, the following data is required:

(i) effective resistance of armature winding

(ii) open-circuit characteristic

(iii) field current to circulate full-load current in the stator and

(iv) zero-power factor full-load voltage characteristic—a curve plotted between terminal voltage and
field current while the machine is being running on synchronous speed and delivering full-load
current at zero power factor.
The first three requirements can be fulfilled by performing open circuit test, short circuit test and
resistance measurement test.

The curve of zero power factor characteristic can be obtained by taking various steps as explained below:

1. The machine is rotated at rated synchronous speed by a prime-mover.

2. A pure inductive load (variable load reactors or an under-excited synchronous motor) is connected
across the armature terminals and the excitation or field current of the alternator is raised so as to
cause flow of full-load armature current.
Usually, the alternator is loaded by an under-excited synchronous motor while plotting zero pf full-load
curve.
3. The value of the reactance is then increased step by step in such a way that the excitation current is
adjusted to a value that causes full-load rated armature current to flow. In the process, the armature
terminal-voltages are varied from 125 % to 25 % of the rated voltage in steps, maintaining the speed
and rated armature current constant throughout the test.
4. Note down the armature terminal voltages and excitation currents at each step.
5. Draw a curve between terminal voltage and excitation current, as shown in Fig. It gives the zero-
power factor (lagging) characteristic.
OCC of the alternator with zero pf full-load curve
From OCC and zero power factor curve, it reveals that there is a definite relationship between the
zero-power factor (lagging) characteristic and an open-circuit characteristic of an alternator. The zero-
power factor characteristic curve is of exactly the same shape, as that of OCC but it is shifted vertically
downward by leakage reactance drop I X L and horizontally, by the armature reaction mmf.

Zero power factor full-load voltage-excitation characteristic can be drawn by knowing two points A and B. Point
A is obtained from a short-circuit test with full-load armature current. Hence OA represents excitation (field
current) required to overcome demagnetising effect of armature reaction and to balance leakage reactance drop at
full load. Point B is obtained when full load current flows through the armature, but wattmeter reads zero.
Potier Regulation Diagram
Power Developed by Cylindrical Synchronous Generators

V = Terminal voltage (phase value)

E = Excitation voltage (phase value)
I = armature or load current/phase
Φ = pf angle (lagging)
δ = load angle between V and E
Power Output of an AC Generator (in Complex Form)
Real Power Output of an AC Generator Reactive Power Output of an AC Generator

For Three Phase

Power Input to an AC Generator (in Complex Form)
Real Power Input to an AC Generator Reactive Power Input to an AC Generator
Condition for Maximum Power Output