COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE FUNDAMENTALS

Unit 1
Sharanya A R
COURSE : Introduction to Computer Architecture
Course code: D22BC003
Course Credits: 4

Course Outcomes

CO1: Comprehend the principles and architectural concepts of computer system.

CO2: Determine the functionality of different architectural components and their role in data processing.

CO3: Infer and analyze the stages of the instruction processing cycle.

CO4: Comprehend the concepts of parallel computing and advanced processor technologies.

CO5: Interpret and analyze the diverse types of addressing modes & memory organization.
Unit 1: Computer Architecture Fundamentals
Unit 2: Functional Units of a Computer
Unit 3: Instruction Set
Unit 4: Machine Instructions
Unit 5: Memory Addressing and Operations
Unit 6: Assembly Language, Subroutines and Control Flow
Unit 7: Input/Output (I/O) Organization
Unit 8: Memory System
Unit 9: Cache Memory and Virtual Memory
Unit 10: Microprogrammed Controls
Unit 11: Central Processing Unit
Unit 12: Instruction Formats
Unit 13: Pipelining
Unit 14: Parallel Computer Models
Unit 15: Advanced Processor Technology
Importance of learning the course
• "Introduction to Computer Architecture" is a foundational course in the field of computer science and
engineering.

• This course provides an overview of the fundamental principles and concepts related to the design and
organization of computer systems.

• Introduction to Computer Architecture" course equips students with the knowledge and
understanding of how computers are designed and organized at the hardware level.

• This knowledge is essential for various careers in computer science, engineering, and related fields, as
it forms the basis for optimizing software, troubleshooting hardware issues, and contributing to the
development of advanced computing technologies.
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
• The evolution of computer architecture is a complex and fascinating journey that spans several decades.

• Computer architecture refers to the design and organization of a computer system, including its central
processing unit (CPU), memory hierarchy, input/output systems, and more.

• A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or data. It can store, retrieve, and
process data.

• Nowadays, a computer can be used to type documents, send an email, play games, and browse the Web.
It can also be used to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.

• But the evolution of this complex system started around 1940 with the First Generation of computers
and evolving ever since.
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
• Computers have evolved significantly over the years, and the history of computers is often divided into
generations based on the technology used. Here are the five generations of computers:

1. First-Generation Computers (1940s-1950s): The earliest computers, such as the ENIAC and
UNIVAC, were massive machines that used vacuum tubes for processing and magnetic drums for
memory. These computers were primarily used for scientific and military applications. They were
large, expensive, and unreliable.

2. Second Generation (1950s-1960s): The second generation of computers replaced vacuum tubes
with transistors, making them smaller, faster, and more reliable. Magnetic core memory was also
introduced, which was faster and more reliable than magnetic drums.
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
3. Third Generation (1960s-1970s): The third generation of computers used integrated circuits, which
allowed for even smaller and faster computers. They also introduced magnetic disk storage and
operating systems. The IBM System/360 series is a notable example from this era, introducing the
concept of a family of compatible computers.

4. Fourth Generation (1970s-1980s): The fourth generation of computers saw the introduction of
microprocessors such as the Intel 4004 and 8008, were developed, which allowed for the integration
of CPU functions on a single chip, which made personal computers possible. They also introduced
graphical user interfaces and networking.

This led to the rise of personal computers and the birth of the microcomputer era.
EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
5. Fifth Generation (1980s-Present): The fifth generation of computers is still ongoing, and is focused
on artificial intelligence and parallel processing. This generation also saw the development of mobile
computing and the internet. This era is characterized by advances in VLSI (Very Large Scale
Integration) technology, leading to more powerful and efficient microprocessors. It also saw the
emergence of RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architecture, which simplified CPU design and
improved performance.

Each generation of computers has built upon the advancements of the previous generation, leading to the
computers we use today.
❑ Parallel and Vector Processing (1980s-Present): To address the need for even greater computational
power, parallel and vector processing architectures became more prominent. Supercomputers like the
Cray-1 and modern HPC (High-Performance Computing) clusters use these architectures to perform
complex simulations and calculations.

❑ Pipelining and Superscalar Architectures (1980s-Present): To improve instruction throughput,

processors began using pipelining and superscalar architectures, allowing multiple instructions to be
executed in parallel stages. This approach significantly increased CPU performance.

❑ CISC vs. RISC Debate (1980s-Present): Computer architects debated the merits of Complex
Instruction Set Computer (CISC) and RISC architectures. RISC processors, with their simplified
instruction sets, gained popularity due to their improved performance and power efficiency.
❑ Multi-Core and Multi-Processor Systems (2000s-Present): With the limitations of clock speed
scaling, the industry shifted towards multi-core and multi-processor systems to continue improving
performance. This trend continues today, with CPUs commonly featuring multiple cores.

❑ Heterogeneous Computing (2010s-Present): Modern computer architectures often combine

different types of processing units, such as CPUs and GPUs, to optimize performance for various
workloads, including gaming, machine learning, and scientific computing.

❑ Quantum Computing (Emerging): Quantum computers represent a new paradigm in computer

architecture, using quantum bits (qubits) to perform calculations with the potential to solve complex
problems much faster than classical computers. While still in the experimental stage, quantum
computing holds promise for various applications.
Basic Terms Related to Computers

The basic terms related to generations of computers are listed below.

1. Vacuum Tube: Vacuum tubes have the functionality of controlling the flow of electronics in a vacuum.
Generally, it is used in switches, amplifiers, radios, televisions, etc.

2. Transistor: A transistor helps in controlling the flow of electricity in devices, it works as an amplifier or a
switch.

3. Integrated Circuit (IC): Integrated circuits are silicon chips that contain their circuit elements like transistors,
resistors, etc.

4. Microprocessors: Microprocessors are the components that contain the CPU and its circuits and are present in
the Integrated Circuit.

5. Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is called the brain of the computer. CPU performs processing and
operations work.
 6. Magnetic Drum: Magnetic Drum is like a cylinder that stores data and cylinder.

7. Magnetic Core: Magnetic cores are used to store information. These are arrays of small rings.

8. Machine Language: Machine Language is the language that a computer accepts (in the form of binary digits). It
is also called low-level programming language.

9. Memory: Memory is used to store data, information, and program in a computer.

10. Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence deals with creating intelligent machines and behaviors.
Below are the 8 Mechanical Calculators before modern computers were invented.

1. Abacus (ca. 2700 BC)

2. Pascal’s Calculator (1652)

3. Stepped Reckoner (1694)

4. Arithmometer (1820)

5. Comptometer (1887) and Comptograph (1889)

6. The Difference Engine (1822)

7. Analytical Engine (1834)

8. The Millionaire (1893)

 FIRST GENERATION OF COMPUTER

• 1946-1959 is the period of first generation computer.

• J.P.Eckert and J.W.Mauchy invented the first successful electronic computer called ENIAC, ENIAC stands
for “Electronic Numeric Integrated And Calculator”.

Few Examples are:

• ENIAC

• EDVAC

• UNIVAC

• IBM-701

• IBM-650
Advantages:
1. It made use of vacuum tubes which are the only electronic component available during those days.
2. These computers could calculate in milliseconds.
Disadvantages:
1. These were very big in size, weight was about 30 tones.
2. These computers were based on vacuum tubes.
3. These computers were very costly.
4. It could store only a small amount of information due to the presence of magnetic drums.
5. As the invention of first generation computers involves vacuum tubes, so another disadvantage of these computers
was, vacuum tubes require a large cooling system.
6. Very less work efficiency.
7. Limited programming capabilities and punch cards were used to take inputs.
8. Large amount of energy consumption.
9. Not reliable and constant maintenance is required.
 SECOND GENERATION OF COMPUTER

• 1959-1965 is the period of second-generation computer.

• Second generation computers were based on Transistor instead of vacuum tubes.

Few Examples are:

• Honeywell 400

• IBM 7094

• CDC 1604

• CDC 3600

• UNIVAC 1108
Advantages:

1. Due to the presence of transistors instead of vacuum tubes, the size of electron component decreased. This resulted
in reducing the size of a computer as compared to first generation computers.

2. Less energy and not produce as much heat as the first generation.

3. Assembly language and punch cards were used for input.

4. Low cost than first generation computers.

5. Better speed, calculate data in microseconds.

6. Better portability as compared to first generation

Disadvantages:

1. A cooling system was required.

2. Constant maintenance was required.

3. Only used for specific purposes.

 THIRD GENERATION OF COMPUTER

• 1965-1971 is the period of third generation computer.

• These computers were based on Integrated circuits.

• IC was invented by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby In 1958-1959.

• IC was a single component containing number of transistors.

• Few Examples are:

• PDP-8

• PDP-11

• ICL 2900

• IBM 360

• IBM 370
Advantages:
1. These computers were cheaper as compared to second-generation computers.
2. They were fast and reliable.
3. Use of IC in the computer provides the small size of the computer.
4. IC not only reduce the size of the computer but it also improves the performance of the computer as compared to
previous computers.
5. This generation of computers has big storage capacity.
6. Instead of punch cards, mouse and keyboard are used for input.
7. They used an operating system for better resource management and used the concept of time-sharing and multiple
programming.
8. These computers reduce the computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.
Disadvantages:
1. IC chips are difficult to maintain.
2. The highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.
3. Air conditioning is required.
 FOURTH GENERATION OF COMPUTER

• 1971-1980 is the period of fourth generation computer.

• This technology is based on Microprocessor.

• A microprocessor is used in a computer for any logical and arithmetic function to be performed in any
program.

• Graphics User Interface (GUI) technology was exploited to offer more comfort to users.

• Few Examples are:

• IBM 4341

• DEC 10

• STAR 1000

• PUP 11
Advantages:

1. Fastest in computation and size get reduced as compared to the previous generation of computer.

2. Heat generated is negligible.

3. Small in size as compared to previous generation computers.

4. Less maintenance is required.

5. All types of high-level language can be used in this type of computers.

Disadvantages:

1. The Microprocessor design and fabrication are very complex.

2. Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the presence of ICs.

3. Advance technology is required to make the ICs.

 FIFTH GENERATION OF COMPUTER

• The period of the fifth generation in 1980-onwards.

• This generation is based on artificial intelligence.

• The aim of the fifth generation is to make a device which could respond to natural language input and
are capable of learning and self-organization.

• This generation is based on ULSI(Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology resulting in the production
of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic component.

• Few Examples are:

• Desktop
• Laptop
• NoteBook
• UltraBook
• Chromebook
Advantages:

1. It is more reliable and works faster.

2. It is available in different sizes and unique features.

3. It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features.

Disadvantages:

1. They need very low-level languages.

2. They may make the human brains dull and doomed.

 SUMMARY

Generations of Computer Time-Period Evolving Hardware

First Generation 1940s – 1950s Vacuum Tube Based
Second Generation 1950s – 1960s Transistor Based
Third Generation 1960s – 1970s Integrated Circuit Based
Fourth Generation 1970s – Present Microprocessor Based
Fifth Generation Present – Future Artificial Intelligence Based