Measurements of Pressure, Flow and Temperature

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Dr. Anshul Sharma

Pressure Measurement
 Pressure Measurement
Bourdon Tube

 Bourdon tube pressure gauge was invented by French watchmaker and engineer Eugene Bourdon.

 When an elastic transducer is subjected to a pressure, it deflects. This deflection is proportional to the
applied pressure when calibrated.

 The strain of the material of the tube is magnified by forming the tube into a C shape or even a helix, such
that the entire tube tends to straighten out or uncoil elastically as it is pressurized.

 Bourdon tubes measure gauge pressure.

 An elastic transducer, that is bourdon tube which is fixed and open at one end to receive the pressure which
is to be measured. The other end of the bourdon tube is free and closed
Operation of Bourdon tube:

 The pressure to be measured is connected to the fixed open end of the bourdon tube.

 Due to the applied pressure, the bourdon tube tends to change in cross – section from elliptical to circular.

 This tends to straighten the bourdon tube causing a displacement of the free end of the bourdon tube.

 As the free end of the bourdon tube is connected to a link – section – pinion arrangement, the displacement is

amplified and converted to a rotary motion of the pinion.

 As the pinion rotates, it makes the pointer to assume a new position on a pressure calibrated scale to indicate the

applied pressure directly.

Advantages
Application
 It give accurate results
 Machine and plant engineering
 Cost of Bourdon tube is low
 Gas distribution
 Simple in construction
 Aerospace industry
 It can be modified to give electrical outputs
 Automobile industry
 Safe even for high pressure measurement

 Accuracy is high especially at high pressures

Limitations :

 Slow respond to change in pressure.

 Sensitive to shocks and vibrations.

 Amplification is must as the displacement of the free end of the bourdon tube is low.
Diaphragm Pressure Gauge

 A diaphragm pressure transducer is used for low pressure measurement.

 They are commercially available in two types – metallic and non-metallic.

 Metallic diaphragms are known to have good spring characteristics and non-metallic types have no elastic
characteristics.

 Non-metallic types are used rarely, and are usually opposed by a calibrated coil spring or any other elastic type
gauge. The non-metallic types are also called slack diaphragm.

 When a force acts against a thin stretched diaphragm, it causes a deflection of the diaphragm with its centre.
Since the elastic limit has to be maintained, the deflection of the diaphragm must be kept in a restricted manner.
Advantages of Diaphragm gauges:
 Low cost

 They have a linear scale for a wide range

 They can withstand over pressure and hence they are safe to be used.

 They can measure both absolute and gauge pressure

Disadvantages of Diaphragm gauges:

 Shocks and vibrations affects their performance and hence they are to be protected.

 When used for high pressure measurement, the diaphragm gets damaged.

 These gauges are difficult to be repaired.

Bellows Pressure Gauge
It is a elastic element, longitudinally expansible and collapsible member.

Bellows can also be used to measure differential pressure.

Constriction
 A casing is there witch enclose the bellow and spring.

 Bellow has link attached to it which is further connected to the sector.

 Sector mashes with the pinion which also has a pointer attached to it.

 Pointer gives the reading on graduated scale.

Working

 The pressure to be measured is applied to the outside or inside of the bellows.

 As the inlet pressure varies, the bellows will expand or contract.

 This will move the linkage assembly and pointer will shows the applied pressure on the scale

 applied differential pressure will try to imbalance the force bar and accordingly this movement is transferred to scale via gauge
movement and pointer.
Advantages
 Bellow joints do not require access; i.e. They can be direct buried, however a telltale is recommended

 No maintenance is required.

 Low cost

 Can be used to measured differential pressure

Disadvantages
 Bellows joints can fail catastrophically.

 No in place maintenance or repair can be performed - they must be replaced if damaged

 Require that the system to be shut down when a failure occurs.

 Smaller pressure range of application.

 Temperature compensation needed.

Vacuum Measurement
 Vacuum Measurement
McLeod Gauge
 A McLeod gauge is a scientific instrument used to measure very low pressures,
down to 10−6 Torr.

 The design of a McLeod gauge is somewhat similar to that of a mercury-column

manometer.

 McLeod gauges were once commonly found attached to equipment that operates
under vacuum.

Working principle
The working of McLeod Gauge is based on Boyles
P1V1=P2V2
McLeod gauges operate by taking in a sample volume of gas from a vacuum
chamber, then compressing it by tilting and infilling with mercury. The pressure
in this smaller volume is then measured by a mercury manometer.
 Working

 The pressure to be measured is connected to the upper end of the

glass part. When the mercury level in the gauge is below the cut off
„F‟, the unknown pressure fills the gauge including the bulb B and
capillary C.

 When the mercury sump is moved up, the level in the gauge rises
and when it reaches the cut off F a known volume of gas at
pressure to be measured is trapped in bulb B and capillary C.

 Mercury is then forced up into the bulb and capillary. Assume the
sump is raised to such a level that the gas at the pressure to be
measured which filled the volume above the cut off is now
compressed to the volume represented by the column h. This is at a
pressure being measured p1.
Advantages of the McLeod Gauge:
 It is independent of the gas composition.

 It serves as a reference standard to calibrate other low pressure gauges.

 A linear relationship exists between the applied pressure and h

 There is no need to apply corrections to the McLeod Gauge readings.

Limitations of McLeod Gauge:

 The gas whose pressure is to be measured should obey the Boyle’s law

 Moisture traps must be provided to avoid any considerable vapor into the gauge.

 It measure only on a sampling basis.

 It cannot give a continuous output.

 Ionization Gauge
 Ionization gauges are the most sensitive gauges for very low pressures

 They sense pressure indirectly by measuring the electrical ions produced when
the gas is bombarded with electrons.

 The calibration of an ion gauge is unstable and dependent on the nature of the
gases being measured.

 It can measured pressure roughly 10−8 - 10−1 Pa.

Working Principle
 An electron is passing through a potential difference will acquire kinetic energy
that is proportional to potential difference.

 If electron strikes a gas molecules, electron may knock out from the gas
molecule leaving it positively charge.

 Number of positive ions dependent on number of gas molecule per unit volume
Hot Cathode Ionization Gauge:-

 In this gauge a hot wire is used to produce electrons by thermionic emission.

 The electrons thus produced are attracted to anode which is in the form a grid.

 The Ion current obviously will depend on the vacuum level.

 Measurement of the current therefore indicates level of vacuum.

Cold cathode ionization gauge measures vacuum pressure by

first ionizing gas molecules inside the vacuum gauge and then
measuring the resulting ion current. The amount of ion current
generated from the ionized gas is proportional to the pressure
in the vacuum system and is dependent on the type of gas
used.
Thermal Conductivity Gauge
 Thermal Conductivity Gauge
• Thermal conductivity gauges measure pressure by measuring the change in the ability of a gas to conduct heat.
• It is used for absolute pressure measurement.
• The relationship between changes in conductivity and changes in pressure work over a pressure range from about 10-4 torr upto
about 10-2 torr.
• It is of two types:
 Pirani Gauge
 Thermocouple Gauge

• Basic Operating Principle: A pressure gauge based on changes in thermal conductivity is made by enclosing a wire filament in a
chamber connected to the pressure source.

When voltage is applied to the filament, electricity flows, making it hot.

The rising temperature increases the resistance of the filament.

The rising temperature increases the resistance of the filament.

The filament then reaches an ‘equilibrium temperature’, the temperature at which heat is produced in the filament as
fast as it is removed.
Pirani Gauge:

 It consists of two wire filaments. One filament serves as

a reference and is sealed in an evacuated glass, while the
other filament is kept in a container connected to the
source of pressure.

 Main parts of Pirani gauge

 A Pirani gauge chamber, which encloses a platinum

filament.

 A compensating cell to minimise variation.

Operation of Pirani gauge

1. A constant current is passed through the filament in the Pirani gauge chamber. Due to this current, the filament
gets heated and assumes a resistance which is measured using the bridge.

2. Now the pressure to be measured (applied pressure) is connected to the Pirani gauge chamber. Due to the applied
pressure the density of the surrounding of the Pirani gauge filament changes. Due to this change in density of the
surrounding of the filament its conductivity changes causing the temperature of the filament to change.

3. When the temperature of the filament changes, the resistance of the filament also changes.

4. Now the change in resistance of the filament is determined using the bridge.

5. This change in resistance of the Pirani gauge filament becomes a measure of the applied pressure when
calibrated.
Thermocouple Gauge

It works on the same basic principle as the Pirani gauge.

The only difference is that the filament temperature is measured

by a thermocouple.

Working

Two sets of thermocouples are used to measure temperatures of heater

wires in the two chambers and oppose each other. When there is a
difference in pressures, there occurs an unbalance which is measured by a
potentiometer circuit. Instead of a single thermocouple per wire,
a thermopile is often chosen to increase sensitivity. The thermocouple
gauge is also composition dependent and needs empirical calibration for
the high vacuum range.
Advantages

 The thermal conduction vacuum gauge reflects the full pressure, that is, the true pressure of the tested container.

 The thermal conduction vacuum gauge can measure continuously and support remote-reading.

 The thermal conduction vacuum gauge has simple structure and it is easy to manufacture.

 Even if suddenly encounter the atmosphere, the heat transfer vacuum gauge will not be burned.

Disadvantages

 The calibration curve varies with the type of gas, so the calibration curve for air can not be directly used for
other gases.

 The thermal conduction vacuum gauge has the thermal inertia for measuring.

 The thermal conduction vacuum gauge is affected seriously by of the outside temperature.

 Because of serious aging, it must be calibrated regularly.

 Dead Weight Tester

 A dead weight tester is an instrument that

calibrates pressure by determining the weight of
force divided by the area the force is applied.

 Dead weights are usually used for pressure gauge

calibration

 Dead weight testers are the basic primary

standard for accurate measurement of pressure.

 Dead weight testers are used to measure the

pressure exerted by gas or liquid

 It can generate a test pressure for the calibration

of numerous pressure instruments
 Deadweight tester-Types

• Pneumatic Deadweight tester

• Hydraulic Deadweight tester

Oil type

Water /Alcohol Mixture type

A Pneumatic Deadweight tester

 Working principle

The basic principle is that

P= F/A

where the pressure (P) acts on a

known area of a sealed piston (A), generating
a force (F). The force of this piston is then
compared with the force applied by calibrated
weights
1 - Hand pump 5 - Weight Support
2 - Testing Pump 6 - Piston
3 - Pressure Gauge 7 - Cylinder
4 - Calibration Weight 8 - Filling Connection

 The testing pump (2) is connected to the instrument to be tested (3),

to the actual measuring component and to the filling socket.
 A special hydraulic oil is used as the pressure transfer medium.
 The measuring piston is then loaded with calibrated weights (4).
 The pressure is applied via an integrated pump (1).
 This pressure is applied until the loaded measuring piston (6) rises and 'floats' on the fluid.
 This is the point where there is a balance between pressure and the mass load.
 The piston is rotated to reduce friction as far as possible.
 Since the piston is spinning, it exerts a pressure that can be calculated by application of a derivative of the
formula P = F/A.
Working
A known weight is placed on the platform.
Now by operating the plunger, fluid pressure is applied to the other side of
the piston until enough force is developed to lift the piston-weight
combination. Advantages:
When this happens, the piston weight combination floats freely within the  it is simple in construction and easy to use.
cylinder between limit stops.
 It can be used to calibrated a wide range of pressure
In this condition of equilibrium, the pressure force of fluid is balanced measuring devices.
against the gravitational force of the weights Puls the friction drag.
 Fluid pressure can be easily varied by adding weights or
Therefore, PA = Mg + F by changing the piston cylinder combination.

Hence : P = Mg + F / A
Limitations:
where, P = pressure, M = Mass; Kg
 The accuracy of the dead weight tester is affected due to
g = Acceleration due to gravity ; m/s² , F = Friction drag; N
the friction.
A = Equivalent area of piston – cylinder combination; m²

Thus the pressure P which is caused due to the weights placed on the
platform is calculated.
 Ultrasonic flow meter

 It measure fluid velocity by passing high-frequency sound

waves along the fluid flow path.

 Two major sub-types of ultrasonic flow meters exist: Doppler

and transit-time.

 Both types of ultrasonic flowmeter work by transmitting a

high-frequency sound wave into the fluid stream (the
incident pulse) and analyzing the received pulse.
Ultrasonic Flow Meter Working

 An ultrasonic flow meter construction can be done by using upstream and downstream transducers, sensor pipe and reflector.

 The working principle of ultrasonic flow meter is, it uses sound waves to resolve the velocity of a liquid within a pipe.

 There are two conditions in the pipe like no flow and flowing. In the first condition, the frequencies of ultrasonic waves are
transmitted into a pipe & its indications from the fluid are similar.

 In the second condition, the reflected wave’s frequency is dissimilar because of the Doppler Effect.

 The transmitter processes the signals from the wave & its reflections determine the flow rate.
Advantages of Ultrasonic Flow Meter Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Flow Meter
 It does not block the path of liquid flow.  It is expensive as compared with other mechanical flow
 The flow of liquid is bidirectional meters.

 The dynamic response of this meter is good.  Design of this meter is complex.

 The output of this meter is in analog form  These meters are complicated as compared with other
meters, thus it requires specialists for maintaining and
 It is appropriate for huge quality flow measurement
repairing these meters
 Versatility is good
 It cannot measure cement or concrete pipes one they rusted.
 There is no leakage risk
 It doesn’t work once the pipe contains holes or bubbles in it
 There are no moving parts, pressure loss

 High accuracy
 Hot Wire Anemometer

 The Hot Wire Anemometer is a device used for

measuring the velocity and direction of the fluid.

 The hot wire anemometer is used as a research tool in

fluid mechanics.

 It works on the principle of transfer of heat from high

temperature to low temperature.

 There are two methods of measuring flow rate using

a anemometer bridge combination namely:
a) Constant current method
b) Constant temperature method
Constant current method Hot wire Anemometer

 A constant current is passed through the sensing wire.

 Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the

sensing wire to the flowing gas and hence the temperature of

the sensing wire reduces causing a change in the resistance

of the sensing wire.

 Due to this, the galvanometer which was initially at zero

position deflects and this deflection of the galvanometer

becomes a measure of flow rate of the gas when calibrated.

Constant temperature method Hot wire Anemometer
 A current is initially passed through the wire.

 Due to the gas flow, heat transfer takes place from the sensing
wire to the flowing gas and this tends to change the
temperature and hence the resistance of the wire.

 The principle in this method is to maintain the temperature and

resistance of the sensing wire at a constant level.

 Therefore, the current through the sensing wire is increased to

bring the sensing wire to have its initial resistance and
temperature.

 The electrical current required in bringing back the resistance

and hence the temperature of the wire to its initial condition
becomes a measure of flow rate of the gas when calibrated.
Temperature Measurement
 Thermometer

 A thermometer is a device that measures temperature or a temperature gradient

 A thermometer has two important elements:

(1) temperature sensor

(2) some means of converting this change into a numerical value

 Thermometers are widely used in technology and industry to monitor processes, in meteorology, in medicine, and in
scientific research.

Principle of Operation

A change in temperature causes some kind of mechanical motion, typically due to the fact that most materials expand with
a rise in temperature. The mechanical motion is read on a physical scale to infer the temperature.
 Types of thermometers

• Liquid-in-glass Thermometers,

• Bimetallic Strips

• Bulb & Capillary

• Pressure Type

1) Liquid-in-glass thermometer

The most common and well-known thermometer is the liquid-in-glass thermometer. As the temperature rises, the

liquid expands, moving up the tube. The scale is calibrated to read temperature directly. Usually, mercury or some

kind of alcohol is used for the liquid.

Bulb and Capillary Sensor type
 Bulb and capillary elements are used where temperatures are to be measured in ducts, pipes, tanks or similar
locations remote from the controller.

 The bulb is filled with liquid, gas or refrigerant depending on the temperature range required.

 Expansion of the fluid in the heated bulb exerts a pressure which is transmitted by the capillary to the diaphragm
and there translated into movement.
Pressure Thermometer

 A pressure thermometer therefore measures temperature indirectly by measuring pressure. The gage is
a pressure gage, but is typically calibrated in units of temperature instead.

 The bulb is placed outside, with the tube running through the wall into the inside. The gage is on the
inside. As T increases outside, the bulb temperature causes a corresponding increase in pressure,
which is read as a temperature increase on the gage.
Bimetallic Thermometers
 Bimetallic thermometers are made up of bimetallic strips formed by joining two different metals having different
thermal expansion coefficients.

 The working principle of a bimetallic thermometer is that, Once the temperature changes, then there will be a change
in the physical dimension of the metals.

 Whenever the temperature rises, the metal strip turns in the direction of the less temperature coefficient metal.

 Similarly, when the temperature reduces, then the strip turns in the direction of a high-temperature coefficient metal.
 Thermocouple

 Thermocouples are temperature sensors device.

 They have been used as industrial temperature

sensors in a wide range of fields.

 It can measure temperature from -200℃ to 2500℃.

 They operate under the principle that the junction of

two dissimilar metals produces a measurable voltage
when the two ends of the thermocouple are at
different temperatures.
Working Principle

1) Seebeck effect: The Seebeck effect states that when two different or unlike metals are joined together at two

junctions, an electromotive force (emf) is generated at the two junctions. The amount of emf generated is different for

different combinations of the metals.

2) Peltier effect: As per the Peltier effect, when two dissimilar metals are joined together to form two junctions, emf is

generated within the circuit due to the different temperatures of the two junctions of the circuit.

3) Thomson effect: As per the Thomson effect, when two unlike metals are joined together forming two junctions, the

potential exists within the circuit due to temperature gradient along the entire length of the conductors within the circuit.
 Working

 It comprises of two dissimilar metals, A and B. These are joined together to

form two junctions, p and q, which are maintained at the temperatures T1 and
T2 respectively.

 If the temperature of both the junctions is same, equal and opposite emf will
be generated at both junctions and the net current flowing through the
junction is zero.

 If the junctions are maintained at different temperatures, the emf’s will not
become zero and there will be a net current flowing through the circuit.

 The device for measuring the current or emf is connected within the circuit of
the thermocouple.

 The output obtained from the thermocouple circuit is calibrated directly

against the unknown temperature. Thus the voltage or current output obtained
from thermocouple circuit gives the value of unknown temperature directly.
Advantages:
 The thermocouple is less expensive than RTD.
 It has wide temperature ranges.
 It has good reproducibility.
 The temperature range is -200 to 2500 degree Celsius.
 It has rugged construction.
 It does not required bridge circuit.
 It has good accuracy.
 It has high speed of response.
Disadvantages:
 The stray voltage pick up is possible.
 As output voltage is very small, it needs amplification.
 The cold junction and lead compensation is essential.
 It shows non linearity.
 Thermistor

 Thermistor is a resistance thermometer, similar to a Resistance

Temperature Detector (RTD) and is used for temperature
measurement.

 It consists of a non-metallic resistor that is used as the temperature

sensing element.

 Thermistor is the short form for ‘Thermal Resistor’.

 The device consists of a bulk semiconductor device that acts as a

resistor with a high and negative temperature co-efficient of
resistance,

 It can measure temperature range of -100 degree Celsius to +300

degree Celsius.
Thermistor Working and its Principle

 The principle obeyed by the thermistor is its dependency on-resistance values on the change in temperature.

 The value of resistance can be measured by using an ohmmeter. These are connected in series with the battery and
the meter.

 The change in the resistance is depending upon the material chosen in the construction of the thermistor.

 Thermistors are considered to be a special variety of resistors. Generally, the resistor is known for limiting the
amount of current in the circuit.

 But in this thermal resistors, the change in the resistance is dependent upon the change in temperature.

 If the temperature tends to increase the resistance in the circuit decreases in these special variants of resistors. It is
decided based on the coefficient of temperature.
Advantages of Thermistor
 It is small in size.
 Contact and lead resistance problem not occurred due to large resistance.
 It has good sensitivity in NTC region.
 Cost is low.
Disadvantages of Thermistor
 The thermistor need of shielding power lines.
 The excitation current should be low to avoid self heating.
 It is not suitable for large temperature range.
 The resistance temperature characteristics are non linear.
 Pyrometer

 A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer.

 It used to measure the temperature of distant objects.

 In the modern usage, it is a device that from a distance determines the temperature
of a surface from the amount of the thermal radiation it emits, a process known as
pyrometry and sometimes radiometry.

 The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, and meter, meaning to
measure.

 The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of

measuring the temperature of an object by its incandescence, visible light emitted
by a body which is at least red-hot.

 Modern pyrometers or infrared thermometers also measure the temperature of

cooler objects, down to room temperature, by detecting their infrared radiation
flux.
Working Principle
It is based on the principle that the intensity of light received by the observer depends upon distance of observer from
source and temperature of distant source. It works on Stefan–Boltzmann law of radiation.

Advantages of Pyrometer

 It can measure the temperature of the object without any contact with the object.

 It has a fast response time

 Good stability while measuring the temperature of the object.

 It can measure different types of object’s temperature at variable distances.

Disadvantages of Pyrometer

 Pyrometers are generally rugged and expensive

 Accuracy of the device can be affected due to the different conditions like dust,
smoke, and thermal radiation.
Applications

 To measure the temperature of moving objects or constant objects from a greater

distance.

 In metallurgy industries

 In smelting industries

 Hot air balloons to measure the heat at the top of the balloon

 Steam boilers to measure steam temperature

 To measure the temperature of liquid metals and highly heated materials.

 To measure furnace temperature.