The Sense of Hearing

Apparatus of Hearing- Ear

A. External ear- 1. Auricle or pinna (fibrocartilaginous plate covered by

connective tissue and skin), 2. External auditory meatus (starts from the concha and
extends inside as a slightly curved canal).

-The external ear funnels sound waves to the external auditory meatus. From here
sound waves pass inward to the tympanic membrane (eardrum).

B. Middle ear-1. Auditory ossicles (Malleus, Incus, Stapes), 2. Auditory muscles

(Tensor tympani, Stapedius) , 3. Eustachian tube.

-The middle ear is an air-filled cavity in the temporal bone that opens via the auditory
(Eustachian) tube into the nasopharynx and through the nasopharynx to the exterior.
C. Inner ear is a membranous structure, enclosed by a bony labyrinth in
petrous part of temporal bone. It consists the sense organs of hearing(cochlea)
and equilibrium (vestibular apparatus).

• Receptor of Hearing- Hair cells in organ of Corti

 Tympanic membrane
The structure of ear and auditory ossicles
 Functional Anatomy of the Cochlea

• The cochlea is made up of a bony canal, arranged spirally like the shell of a
snail. It is a system of coiled tubes. It consists of three tubes coiled side by side:
(1) the scala vestibuli, (2) the scala media, and (3) the scala tympani.

• The scala vestibuli and scala media are separated from each other by
Reissner’s membrane (also called the vestibular membrane) & the scala
tympani and scala media are separated from each other by the basilar
membrane.

• All the three compartments are filled with fluid. Scala vestibuli and scala
tympani contain perilymph. Scala media is filled with endolymph.
• On the surface of the basilar membrane lies the organ of Corti, which contains
a series of electromechanically sensitive cells, the hair cells. They are the
receptive end organs that generate nerve impulses in response to sound
vibrations.

• Scala vestibuli- lies above scala media. It arises from oval window, which is
closed by the faceplate of stapes

• Scala media- It is a triangular compartment enclosed by basilar and vestibular

membranes.
• Scala tympani- lies below scala media. It is parallel to scala vestibuli and ends
at the round window. Round window is closed by a strong thin membrane
known as secondary tympanic membrane.

• Sound vibrations enter the scala vestibuli from the faceplate of the stapes at
the oval window. The faceplate covers this window and is connected with the
window’s edges by a loose annular ligament so that it can move inward and
outward with the sound vibrations.

• Inward movement causes the fluid to move forward in the scala vestibuli and
scala media, and outward movement causes the fluid to move backward.
 The organ of Corti

• The receptor organ of hearing. It is the neuroepithelial structure in cochlea that

generates nerve impulses in response to vibration of the basilar membrane.

• The organ of Corti lies on the surface of the basilar membrane.

• The actual sensory receptors in the organ of Corti are two specialized types of
nerve cells called hair cells—a single row of internal (or “inner”) hair cells, 3500 in
number & about 12 micrometers in diameter, responsible for fine auditory
discrimination.

• Three or four rows of external (or “outer”) hair cells, about 12,000 in number and
about 8 micrometers diameters. They detect presence of sound.
 The organ of Corti

• The bases and sides of the hair cells synapse with a network of cochlea nerve endings.
Between 90 and 95% of these endings terminate on the inner hair cells, which emphasizes
their special importance for the detection of sound.

• The nerve fibers stimulated by the hair cells lead to the spiral ganglion of Corti, which lies
in the modiolus (center) of the cochlea.

• The spiral ganglion neuronal cells send axons—a total of about 30,000—into the cochlear
nerve and then into the central nervous system at the level of the upper medulla.

• The top of the hair cell contain a hair bundle – steriocillia, which protrude into the
overlying tectorial membrane.
Organ of Corti, Stimulation of the hair cells by to-and-
fro movement of the hairs
 Sound

• Sound has properties of loudness & pitch. The loudness is correlated with the
amplitude of a sound wave. It is expressed in decibels(db). The greater the
amplitude, the louder the sound.

• And its pitch is correlated with the frequency (number of waves per unit of time).
Frequency is measured by number of waves per second/ Hertz(Hz). The greater the
frequency, the higher the pitch.

• The speed of sound is 1450 m/s at 20 °C in fresh water and is even greater in salt
water.

• The sound frequencies audible to humans range from about 20 to a maximum of

20,000 cycles per second (cps, Hz) & much higher in bats and dogs.
 Transmission of Sound Through Bone

• The inner ear, the cochlea, is embedded in a bony cavity in the temporal bone,
called the bony labyrinth, vibrations of the entire skull can cause fluid vibrations in
the cochlea itself.

• Therefore, under appropriate conditions, a tuning fork or an electronic vibrator

placed on any bony protuberance of the skull, especially on the mastoid process
near the ear, causes the person to hear the sound.

• However, the energy available even in loud sound in the air is not sufficient
to cause hearing via bone conduction unless a special electromechanical sound-
amplifying device is applied to the bone
 Endocochlear Potential

• Endocochlear potential is a positive electrical potential in endolymph.

• Endolymph contains a high K concentration and a low concentration of Na

which is exactly opposite to the contents of perilymph.

• An electrical potential of about +80mvs exists all the time between endolymph
and perilymph, with positivity inside the scala media and negativity outside. This
is called the endocochlear potential, and it is generated by continual secretion of
positive potassium ions into the scala media by the stria vascularis.
 Endocochlear Potential

The importance of the endocochlear potential -

-the top of the hair cells are bathed by the endolymph of the scala media and
the lower bodies of the hair cells are bathed by the perilymph.
-In addition, the hair cells have a negative intracellular potential of −70mv
with respect to the perilymph, but −150 mv with respect to the endolymph at
their upper surfaces where the hairs project into the endolymph.
-So this high electrical potential at the tips of the stereocilia sensitizes the
cell an extra amount, thereby increasing its ability to respond to the slightest
sound.

This potential increases by inward movement of stapes(movement of basilar

membrane towards the scala tympani and decreases in outward movement of
stapes.
 Mechanism of hearing
• The ear converts sound waves in the external environment into action potentials in the
auditory nerves. The waves are transformed by the eardrum and auditory ossicles into
movements of the foot plate of the stapes. These movements set up waves in the fluid of the
inner ear.

• The action of the waves on the organ of corti generates action potentials in the auditory
nerve fibers. Due to the pressure changes produced by sound waves, tympanic membrane
vibrates.

• Vibrations of tympanic membrane are transmitted through the malleus and incus and reach
the stapes, causing to and fro movement of stapes against oval window (membrane covered
opening of the scala vestibule).
 Mechanism of hearing
• When sound waves reach internal ear pressure wave is produced. Then sound pressure
wave impinges on the oval window → the round window bulges outward( the membrane
covered opening of scala tympani)→vibration of basilar membrane→ stimulation of
organ of corti→ bending of steriocilia away from the modiolus →opening of K+ channel
& influx of K+ from endolymph→ depolarization of hair cell →depolarization hair cells
release a neurotransmitter (glutamate), which generates action potential in the auditory
(cochlear) nerve fibers.

• Movement of stereocilia away from modiolus causes depolarization in hair cells.

Movement of stereocilia in the opposite direction causes hyperpolarization.
Hyperpolarization in hair cells stops generation of action potential in auditory nerve fiber
 Auditory pathway

Sound waves from out →External ear→ Into fluid of inner ear by movements of foot plate
of stapes→ Vibration on basilar membrane and stimulation of Organ of corti →cell of
Spiral ganglion form the 1st order neuron→ Dorsal & ventral cochlear nuclei in upper part
of medulla form the second order neurons→ Maximum fibers of second order neurons pass
mainly to the opposite side of the brain stem to terminate in the superior olivary nucleus
and a few second-order fibers pass to the superior olivary nucleus on the same side→From
the superior olivary nucleus, the auditory pathway passes upward through the lateral
lemniscus and all or almost all the auditory fibers synapse in the inferior colliculus to form
third order neuron →Fibers of the third order neurons synapse in medial geniculate body
→From medial geniculate body go to the auditory cortex via auditory radiation.
 Hearing Abnormalities

• Deafness- impairment of hearing.

• Two types -1. Conduction deafness
2. Nerve deafness.
Conduction deafness –
is the type of deafness that occurs due to impairment in transmission of sound
waves in the external ear or middle ear.

Causes for Conduction Deafness-

i. Obstruction of external auditory meatus with dry wax or foreign bodies
ii. Thickening of tympanic membrane due to repeated middle ear infection
iii. Perforation of tympanic membrane due to inequality of pressure on either
side
iv. Otitis media (inflammation of middle ear)
v. Otosclerosis (fixation of footplate of stapes against oval window)
Nerve deafness –
is the deafness caused by damage of any structure in cochlea, such as hair cell,
organ of Corti, basilar membrane or cochlear duct or the lesion in the auditory
pathway.

Causes for Nerve Deafness-

i. Degeneration of hair cells due to some antibiotics like streptomycin and
gentamicin
ii. Damage of cochlea by prolonged exposure to loud noise
iii. Tumor affecting VIII cranial nerve.
 Masking
• The presence of one sound decreases an individual's ability to hear
another sounds is known as masking.
• For example, in a train journey unless the voice is louder one cannot
hear it. The loudness of voice can be revealed when train stops.
 Tests for Hearing

• Routine tests for hearing are of three types:

1. Rinne test- done by placing a vibrating tuning fork with high frequency(mostly, a tuning
fork with 512 cycles per sec.)on mastoid process. In normal conditions, air conduction is
better than bone conduction (person hears vibration in air even after the bone conduction
ceases). But in conduction deafness, the vibrations in air are not heard after cessation of
bone conduction.

2. Weber test-Base of a vibrating tuning fork is placed on the vertex of skull or the middle
of forehead. Normal person hears the sound equally on both sides. In unilateral conduction
deafness (deafness in one ear), the sound is heard louder in diseased ear. In unaffected ear,
there is a masking effect of environmental noise.

3. Audiometry- technique used to determine the nature and the severity of auditory defect.
An instrument called audiometer is used.