TONE & POSTURE

Specific learning objectives

■ By the end of this lecture, the learners should be
able to
1. Define tone and posture.
2. Discuss various postural reflexes.
3. Understand the level of integration of these
reflexes.
 Voluntary movements

The motor system “learns by doing” and performance improves

with repetition. This involves synaptic plasticity.
Circuitry of 1 2

descending
Initiation of vol. 3
5 4
movements
↑es tone of ↓es tone &↑es flexor Stabilizes posture

pathways ext. mus. of extenx.

muscles
tone in distal (VS reflexes) & ↑es
muscles tone of extensors.
 CONTROL OF AXIAL & DISTAL MUSCLES
Control of distal muscles Control of axial & proximal muscles
■ Lateral pathways ■ Medial (& ventral) pathways

■ Lateral corticospinal and ■ Anterior CS tract and medial brainstem

pathways – tectospinal, PRS, VS and
rubrospinal tracts MRS.
• Lateral corticospinal tract – • Anterior CS - Controls course muscles
controls distal muscles and (neck & trunk muscles)
skilled voluntary movements.
• Tectospinal – neck movements (reflex)
• Rubrospinal- tone of flexors of
distal limb. • PRS & VS – adjust proximal muscles
and posture, mainly extensors
• MRS – tone of proximal flexors &
inhibits extensors.
 Posture
■ The attitude taken by the body in any
particular situation (standing, sitting and
even during movement).
■ Basis - the ability to keep certain group of
muscles in sustained contraction.
■ Variation in the degree of contraction and
tone in different groups of muscle decides
the posture of the individual.
Mechanisms for maintenance of
posture
1.Muscle Tone
2.Postural Reflexes
 Muscle Tone
■ State of continuous and passive-partial
contraction of the muscle at rest.
■ Necessary as a background to actual
movement in order to maintain the
basic attitude of the body, particularly
against the force of gravity”.
 Maintenance of muscle tone
■ Stretch reflex –spinal reflex with supraspinal
control
■ Centre lies in alpha motor neurons,
stimulated through constant gamma motor
neuron discharge.
■ Mainly influenced by extra pyramidal fibres.
 Postural Reflexes
Why are they required?
■ Help to maintain the body in upright and
balanced position.
■ Provide adjustments necessary to maintain a
stable posture during voluntary activity.
Reflex Arc of Postural Reflexes –
Afferent Pathway- from the eyes, the vestibular
apparatus, mechanoreceptors and the
proprioceptors
Integrating Centers - neuronal network in the
cerebral cortex, brain stem and spinal cord
Efferent Pathway- α-motor neurons supplying the
various skeletal muscles
TYPES OF POSTURAL REFLEXES
A. Static Reflexes –
- Elicited by gravitational pull
- Maintain sustained contraction of the muscles

B. Statokinetic Reflexes -
- Elicited by acceleratory displacement of the body
- Provides stable postural background for voluntary
activity
 Classification of Reflexes
Static reflexes Example Centre of integration
Local static Stretch Reflex, Positive supporting reaction,
Negative supporting reaction Spinal cord
Segmental static Crossed extensor reflex Spinal cord
General Static -
Attitudinal reflexes Tonic neck reflex Medulla
Tonic Labyrinthine reflex
Righting reflexes Head or Labyrinthine righting reflex Midbrain
Body righting reflex
Neck righting reflex
Limb righting reflex Cerebral Cortex
Optical righting reflex
Statokinetic Reflexes- Vestibular Placing reaction
Visual Placing reaction Cerebral Cortex
Hopping reaction
 Local static – Stretch reflex
Reflex (Charac. ) Stimuli Receptors Centre Response
Stretch reflex (tone in Muscle Muscle spindles Spinal cord Muscle
antigravity mus.) stretch contraction
 Local static - Positive supporting reaction
Reflex (Charac. ) Stimuli Receptors Centre Response
Positive supporting Contact with Proprioceptors in Spinal cord Extension of the
reaction (steadies ankle sole distal flexors and legs to support
joint) pressure receptors the body
 Local static - Negative supporting reaction
Reflex (Charac. ) Stimuli Receptors Centre Response
Negative supporting Stretch Proprioceptors of Spinal cord Release of positive
reaction (disappear. of extensors supporting reaction
+ve supp reac.)
 Crossed extensor reflex
Reflex (Charac. ) Stimuli Receptors Centre Response
Crossed extensor reflex Noxious Nociceptors Spinal cord Flexion of the limb with
(bilat reflex response) stimuli extension of the opposite limb
General static (attitudinal) reflexes – tonic neck reflex
Reflex Stimuli Receptors Centre Response

Tonic neck Turning neck to one Muscle spindles and Medulla Extension of arm and leg on
reflex (prim) side – stretch of neck neck proprioceptors the face side and flexion of
muscles opposite limbs.
Tonic neck reflexes in animals
Tonic neck reflex in day to day activities
General static (attitudinal) reflexes – tonic labyrinthine reflex
Reflex Stimuli Receptors Centre Response
Tonic Labyrinthine reflex (primitive Gravity Otolith Medulla (Vest. Arms extend when head
- produced in response to change organs & reticular moves backwards & flex
in position of head relative to nuclei) when head moves
horizontal plane) forwards)
Righting reflexes
■ Correct the body when it goes off balance – maintain erect
position.
■ If an infant or animal is laid on it’s side or back, head rights
itself followed by body and finally normal posture is
resumed.
 Righting reflexes
Reflex Stimuli Receptors Centre Response
Labyrinthine Gravity Otolith organs Midbrain Righting of head
righting reflex
Body righting
reflex Pressure on Exteroceptors Righting of head
- Body on body side of the
RR body Exteroceptors Midbrain Head lifts in response to stomach
Pressure on or back touching a support
- Body on head the body surface.
RR
Neck righting Stretch of neck Muscle Midbrain Righting of thorax, shoulders and
reflex muscles spindles pelvis
Optical righting Visual cues Retina Cerebral Righting of head
reflex cortex
 Labyrinthine Righting Reflex
Reflex Stimuli Receptors Centre Response
Labyrinthine Gravity Otolith organs Midbrain Righting of head
righting reflex

Head is in lateral position. Impulses arising from the saccule

stimulate appropriate muscles to bring head back to upright position.
 Body righting reflexes
Reflex Stimuli Receptors Centre Response
Body on Pressure on side Exteroceptors Righting of head & body
body RR of the body Midbrain

Body on Pressure on the Exteroceptors Head lifts in response to stomach or back

head RR body touching a support surface.
Head lifts in response to stomach or back
Rolling of hips results in segmental roll of the
touching a support surface - prone or supine
upper body and head
 Neck Righting reflexe
Neck righting Stimulus- Receptors - Centre- Response- Righting of thorax,
reflex Stretch of neck Muscle Midbrain shoulders and pelvis
muscles spindles

When head turns, whole body follows.

 Optical righting reflex
Stimuli -Visual cues Receptors -Retina Centre-Cerebral cortex Response - Righting of head
Cat righting reflex
Head righting due to visual or vestibular
inputs
↓
Neck reflexes acting on the body
↓
Body turning acting on body
↓
Limb extension
Statokinetic reflexes
■ Elicited by angular (rotatory) or linear acceleration
■ Varying Receptors
■ Integrated in the cerebral cortex
■ Mediated by Vestibulospinal tract
 Statokinetic reflexes - Reflexes integrated in the cerebral
cortex
Reflex Stimuli Receptors Response
Vestibular Placing Linear acceleration Utricle and As soon as the foot comes in contact
reaction saccule of any firm surface, it is reflexly
placed on the surface to support the
body
Visual Placing Visual cues Eyes As soon as the foot comes in contact
reaction of any firm surface, it is reflexly
placed on the surface to support the
body
Hopping reaction Lateral Muscle spindles Hops to support the body when
displacement while standing animal is pushed laterally
standing
Placing reaction
 Experimental evidences – in cats

■ Spinal animal
■ Decerebrate animal
■ Midbrain animal
■ Decorticate animal
 Decorticate animal-cortex is removed
Experimental animals
Midbrain animal-above midbrain
Righting reflex
Animal Level of Segmental Tonic neck Laby, neck, Limb &
section reflex & laby. body RR optical RR Decerebrate animal – mid collicular
reflexes
Spinal Below ++ -- -- --
medulla
Decerebrate Mid- ++ ++ -- (severe --
collicular rigidity)
Midbrain Above ++ ++ ++ --
midbrain
Spinal animal- Below Medulla
Decorticate Removal ++ ++ ++ --
of cortex
Why to study ?
 Decerebrate animal

■ Brain stem is transected at intercollicular level i.e. between

superior and inferior
■ Decerebrate rigidity - marked increase in tone of extensors i.e.
antigravity muscles that occurs immediately after decerebration
■ Decerebrate animal - hyperextension of all four limbs -
dorsiflexion (hyperextension) of tail and head - extreme
hyperextension of the spine (opisthotonos)
■ The animal can be made to stand on four limbs but is easily
toppled by slight push.
Decerebrate posturing
 Mechanism of decerebrate rigidity
■ Release phenomenon – rubrospinal
tracts that enhance flexor tone is
gone leading to enhanced extensor
tone.
■ Rigidity occurs due to increased
activity of motor neurons that
facilitate stretch reflex
■ Facilitation of stretch reflexes occur
due to increased rate of γ motor
neuron discharge
Decorticate animal
■ Whole cerebral cortex is removed but the basal ganglia
and brain stem are left intact.
■ Characterized by moderate rigidity.
■ Seen only when the animal is at rest.
Decorticate posturing
 Mechanism of decorticate rigidity

• Cortex stimulates inhibitory

medullary reticulospinal tract,
therefore, removal of cortex
results in facilitation of γ motor
neuron discharge – moderate
rigidity in extensors
• Intact Rubrospinal tract –
enhanced flexor tone in UL.
Thank you!