Plate Tectonics

4.1
1

Objectives, EKs & Skill

2

Core: Dense mass of nickel, iron, and radioactive elements that release massive
amounts of heat
Mantle: bulk of Earth’s interior; three layers
Magma (molten rock) layer that slowly circulates due to heat from core
Asthenosphere: semi-molten, flexible outer layer of mantle, beneath the lithosphere
Lithosphere: thin, brittle layer of rock floating on top of mantle (broken up into
tectonic plates)
Crust: very outer layer of the lithosphere, Earth’s surface
Earth’s Structure

Divergent Plate Boundary

Plates move away from each other
Rising magma plume from mantle forces plates apart
Forms: mid-oceanic ridges, volcanoes, seafloor spreading, and rift valleys (on
land)
Convergent Plate Boundary
Plates move towards each other
Leads to subduction (one plate being forced beneath another)
Forms: mountains, island arcs, and volcanoes
Transform Fault Plate Boundary
Plates slide sideways past each other (earthquakes)
Forms: faults (fracture in rock)
Plate Boundaries

Magma heated by earth’s core rises towards lithosphere

Rising magma forces oceanic plates apart
Creates, mid ocean ridges, volcanoes, spreading zones or “seafloor spreading”
Magma cools and solidifies into new lithosphere at spreading zone
Mantle Convection Currents
Spreading magma forces oceanic plate under continental plate
Sinking oceanic plate melts back into magma
New magma is forced up, creating narrow, coastal mountains (e.g. Andes) & volcanoes
on land

Convergent Boundaries
Continental-Continental surface crust from both plates “buckles” upward (mountains)
Ex: Himalayas

Oceanic-Continental : dense oceanic plate subducts beneath cont. Plate & melts back
into magma
Forces magma up to lithosphere surface
Coastal Mountains (Andes), Volcanoes on land, trenches, tsunamis

Oceanic-Oceanic : one plate subducts underneath other

Forces magma up to lithosphere surface, forming mid ocean volcanoes
Island arcs
Off-shore trench

Transform Fault Boundary

Plates sliding sideways past each other; can create a fault (fracture in rock
surface)
Earthquakes occur when rough edges of plates get stuck on each other
Pressure builds as plates keep sliding, but edges stay stuck
When stress overcomes the locked fault, plates suddenly release, slide past each
other and release energy that shakes the lithosphere

Tectonic Map Can Predict...

Ring of Fire: pattern of volcanoes & earthquake zones all around pacific plate
Offshore island arcs (Japan)
Transform faults: likely location of earthquakes
Hotspots: areas of especially hot magma rising up to lithosphere
Mid-ocean Islands (Iceland, Hawaii)

Practice FRQ 4.1

Explain how subduction leads to volcanic activity.

4.2
Soil Formation & Erosion

Objectives, EKs, and Skills

What is Soil?
Mix of geologic (rock) and organic (living) components
Sand, silt, clay
Humus: main organic part of soil (broken down biomass like leaves, dead animals,
waste, etc.)
Nutrients: ammonium, phosphates, nitrates
Water and Air
Living Organisms

Plants: anchors roots of plants and provides water, shelter, nutrients (N, P, K,
Mg) for growth

Water: filters rainwater + runoff by trapping pollutants in pore spaces + plant

roots. Clean water enters groundwater + aquifers

Nutrient Recycling: home to decomposers that break down dead organic matter +
return nutrients to the soil

Habitat: provides habitat for organisms like earthworms, fungi, bacteria, moles,
slugs

Weathering
Breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces
Physical (wind, rain, freezing/thawing of ice)
Biological (roots of trees crack rocks)
Chemical (acid rain, acids from moss/lichen)
Weathering of rocks = soil formation
Broken into smaller and smaller pieces
Carried away and deposited by erosion
Erosion
Transport of weathered rock fragments by wind and rain
Carried to new location and deposited (deposition)

Soil Formation
From below
Weathering of parent material produces smaller, and smaller fragments that make up
geological/inorganic part of soil
Sand, silt, clay
Minerals
From above
Breakdown of organic matter adds humus to soil
Erosion deposits soil particles from other areas, adding to soil
Effects on Soil Formation

Parent material: soil pH, nutrient content

Topography: steep slope = too much erosion;

more level ground = deposition

Climate: warmer = faster breakdown of org. matter;

more precip. = more weathering, erosion + deposition

Organisms: Soil organisms like bacteria, fungi, worms breakdown organic matter

O-Horizon: layer of organic matter (plant roots, dead leaves, animal waste, etc) on
top of soil
Provides nutrients and limits H2O loss to evaporation
A-Horizon: aka topsoil; layer of humus (decomposed organic matter) and minerals
from parent material
A-Horizon has most biological activity (earthworms, soil microbes) breaking down
organic matter to release nutrients
B-Horizon: aka subsoil; lighter layer below topsoil, mostly made of minerals
w/little to no org. matter
Contains some nutrients
C-Horizon: least weathered soil that is closest to the parent material, sometimes
called bedrock

Soil Horizons

Soil Degradation:
The loss of the ability of soil to support plant growth
Loss of Topsoil: tilling (turning soil for agriculture) + loss of
vegetation disturb soil and make it more easily eroded by wind and rain
Loss of top soil dries out soil, removes nutrients + soil organisms that recycle
nutrients

Compaction: compression of soil by machines (tractors, bulldozers, etc.), grazing

livestock, and humans reduces ability to hold moisture
Dry soil erodes more easily
Dry soil supports less plant growth, less root structure, leading to more erosion

Nutrient Depletion: repeatedly growing crops on the same soil removes key nutrients
(N, P, K, Na, Mg) over time
Reduces ability to grow future crops
4.2 Practice FRQ

Design an investigation to measure the effect that climate has on soil formation.

Identify the independent variable and dependent variable in your experiment.

4.3
Soil Composition
& Properties

Objectives, EKs, and Skills

Soil Particle Size, Texture, and Porosity

Geologic (rock) portion of soil is made up of 3 particles:
(biggest to smallest) Sand > silt > clay
Soil Texture: is the % of sand, silt, and clay in a soil
Always adds up to 100% ex: 40-40-20
Soil Pores: empty spaces between particles
Because sand is bigger, it has bigger pores that are connected to each other
This allows air + water to enter sandy soil easily
Clay has smaller, unconnected pores, so it’s harder for air + water to enter clay-
heavy soils

Soil Texture Chart

Soil texture is determined by clay, sand, silt %
Ex: Loam = 40-40-20, sand, silt, clay
45% sand 35% silt, 20% clay

Tips for using Soil Texture Chart

Always start on bottom with sand %
Move out to point where sand + silt meet
Then go straight over to clay
Make sure it adds up to 100%

Practice: Find % sand, silt, clay of the blue circle

Answer: 30% sand, 20% silt, 50% clay

Pore space, Permeability, and H2O Holding Capacity

Permeability: how easily water drains through a soil

Pore space: larger, connected pore spaces = greater permeability
H2O Holding Capacity: how well water is retained, or held by a soil
More permeable = lower H2O holding capacity
Inverse relationship between permeability and H2O holding capacity
Effect on Soil Fertility

Soil that is too sandy (too permeable) drains water too quickly for roots + dries
out

Clay-heavy soil doesn’t let H2O drain to roots, or waterlogs (suffocating them)

Ideal soil for most plant growth is loam, which balances porosity or drainage, with
H2O holding cap.

Soil Fertility: ability of soil to support plant growth

Nutrients
N, P, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+
Factors that increase soil nutrients
Organic matter (releases nutrients)
Humus (holds and releases nutrients)
Decomposer activity (recycles nutrients)
Clay (neg. charge binds pos. nutrients)
Bases (Calcium carbonate - limestone)
Factors that decrease soil nutrients
Acids leach positively charged nutrients
Excessive irrigation leaches nutrients
Excessive farming depletes nutrients
Topsoil erosion
Water
Needs to hold water, but not too much
Factors that increase H2O holding cap.
Aerated soil (biological activity)
Compost/humus/organic matter
Clay content
Root structure, especially natives
Factors that decrease H2O holding cap.
Compacted soil (machines, cows)
Topsoil erosion
Sand
Root loss

Characteristics and Tests of Soil Quality

Characteristic
How to Test
What it tells you
Texture
Let soil settle in jar of water. Measure 3 layers that form (sand, silt, clay)
% of sand, silt, and clay - how porous or permeable soil is
Permeability
Time for H2O to drain through column of soil
How easily water drains through soil. Too high, soil dries out. Too low, roots
don’t get water or drown. Medium = optimal (loam)
pH
pH strip - H+ ion concentration
How acidic (low pH) or basic/alkaline (high pH) soil is. More acidic soil = less
nutrient availability
Color
Compare w/soil book color chart
The darker, the more humus.
the more nutrients and moisture
Nutrient Level
Measure ammonium, nitrate, or phosphate level
Higher nutrient levels = more plant growth.
Low level could indicate acidic soil, deple

4.3 Practice FRQ

Identify and describe one test that can be conducted on a soil sample.

Explain how the results of the test could allow you to give advice to a farmer
trying to grow crops in the soil.
4.4
Atmosphere

Objectives, EKs, and Skill

Gasses of Earth’s Atmosphere

Mostly in the form of N2 (unuseable to plants without being fixed)
Nitrogen ~ 78%
Produced by photosynthesis in plants & needed for human/animal respiration
Oxygen ~ 21%
Inert, noble gas
Argon ~ 0.93%
Most important GHG; leads to global warming
Removed from atm. by photosynthesis
CO2 ~ 0.04%
Varies by region & conditions; acts as a temporary GHG, but less concerning than
CO2
Quickly cycles through atmosphere
Water Vapor ~ 0-4%

Characteristics of Layers
Exosphere: Outermost layer where atmosphere merges with space
Thermosphere: Therm = hottest temp;
absorbs harmful X-rays & UV radiation
charged gas molecules glow under intense solar radiation producing northern lights
(aurora borealis)
Mesosphere: Meso = for middle; 60-80 km, even less dense

Stratosphere: “S” for second - 16-60 km; less dense due to less pressure from
layers above
Thickest O3 layer is found here; absorbs UV-B & UV-C rays which can mutate DNA of
animals (cancer)

Troposphere: Tropo = change (weather occurs here) - 0-16 km, most dense due to
pressure of other layers above it
Most of atmosphere’s gas molecules and water vapor are found here
Ozone (O3) in the troposphere is harmful to humans (respiratory irritant) & damages
plant stomata, and forms smog

Temperature Gradient
Layers of earth’s atm. are based on where temp. gradients change with distance from
earth’s surface
Thermosphere: temp. Increases due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation
Hottest place on earth (3,100oF)
Mesosphere: temp. decreases because density decreases, leaving fewer molecules to
absorb sun
Coldest place on earth (-150oF)

Stratosphere: temp. increases because top layer of stratosphere is warmed by UV

rays (like pool surface)

Troposphere: temp. decreases as air gets

further from warmth of earth’s surface

FRQ 4.4 Practice

Identify a layer of earth from the diagram that has an inverse relationship between
temperature and altitude. Describe why this occurs.
4.5
Global Wind Patterns

Objectives, EKs & Skill

Atmospheric Circulation =
Energy from Sunlight
Density properties of air
Rotation of earth (coriolis effect)

Air Properties

Warm air rises (less dense)

Warm air holds more moisture than cold
Rising air experiences less pressure, expands in volume
Expansion causes it to cool (adiabatic cooling)
Cool air can’t hold as much H2O vapor (condenses → rain)
Sinking air experiences more pressure, decreases in volume
Contraction causes it to warm (adiabatic warming)
(5) cool, dry air sinks back down to earth @ 30o N & S

Deserts form here due to lack of moisture in sinking air

(4) Air hits tropopause & spreads N & S toward the poles
(1) More direct sunlight @ equator, warms air
(2) Warm air rises, expands, causing it to cool

H2O vapor condenses into rain

(3) Condensation causes latent heat release, causing air to continue to rise,
expand, and cool

30o = H Pressure
0o = L Pressure

Coriolis Effect
Appearance of deflection of objects traveling through atm. due to spin of earth
Air @ 30o moves back to L pressure of equator
Wind between 0-30o moves from W ← E
b/c earth is spinning W→ E
Wind between 30o-60o moves W→ E
b/c earth spins faster @ 30o (~870 mph) than at 60o (~500 mph)

W
E

Coriolis Effect
Appearance of deflection of objects traveling through atm. due to spin of earth
Air @ 30o moves back to L pressure of equator
Wind between 0-30o moves from W ← E
b/c earth is spinning W→ E
Wind between 30o-60o moves W→ E
b/c earth spins faster @ 30o than 60o
(Blue train = 30o, red train = 60o)

W
E
Global Wind Patterns

Air moves out from 30o to 0o and 60o due to H pressure @ 300 & L pressure @ O & 60
Air rising @ equator = low pressure, air sinking down @ 300 = high pressure
0o - 30 winds blow W ← E (Eastern trade winds)
Drives ocean current clockwise in N hemisphere, counterclockwise in S hem.
30o - 60o (Ferrel cell) W→ E (Westerlies)
Drives weather patterns of most of continental US
60o - 90o (polar cell) wind blows W ← E (Polar easterlies)

Rotation of Earth
WEST EAST

Practice FRQ 4.5

Explain how the sun is responsible for the pattern of air circulation seen in cycle
C.

4.6
Watersheds

Objective/EKs/Skill

All of the land that drains into a specific body of water

(river, lake, bay, etc.)
Watersheds
Determined by slope; ridges of land divide watersheds (diff. runoff directions)
Vegetation, soil composition, slope play a large role in how watersheds drain
More vegetation = more infiltration & groundwater recharge
Greater slope = faster velocity of runoff &
more soil erosion
Soil permeability determines runoff vs. infiltration
rates
Human activities of a watershed impact H2O quality
Ex: ag, clearcutting, urbanization, dams, mining

6 state region that drains into a series of streams/rivers & eventually into
Chesapeake Bay
Chesapeake Bay Watershed
Mix of fresh & salt water + nutrients in sediment make estuary habitats like the
salt marshes in the bay highly productive
💰 Estuaries & wetlands provide ecosystem services:
Tourism revenue - hotels, restaurants, permits
Water filtration (grass roots trap pollutants)
Habitats for food sources (fish & crabs)
Storm protection (absorbing & buffering floods)

Nutrient pollution (N & P) leads to eutrophication in the Bay

Human Impacts on Chesapeake Bay
Algae bloom due to increase of N/P → decreased sunlight → plants below surface die
→ bacteria use up O2 for decomp. → hypoxia (low O2) & dead zones
Major N/P sources:
Discharge from sewage treatment plants (N/P levels from human waste)
Animal waste from CAFOs
Synthetic fertilizer from ag. fields & lawns

Other major pollutants:

Endocrine disruptors (from sewage treatment)
Sediment pollution (deforestation, urbanization, tilling ag. fields)
Increases turbidity (reduced photosynth) & covers over rocky streambed habitats

Effects of Clearcutting on Watersheds

Soil Erosion
Caused by loss of stabilizing root structure
Removes soil organic matter & nutrients from forest
Deposits sediments in local streams
Warms water & makes it more turbid (cloudy)
Increased soil & stream temp.
Loss of tree shade increases soil temperature
Soil has lower albedo than leaves of trees
Loss of tree shade along rivers & streams warms them
Erosion of sediments into rivers also warms them
First we’ll take a look at the direct or short term effects of clear cutting.
The first one is soil erosion. Because roots hold soil in place, clearcutting an
area removes the stabilizing effect those roots have on the soil.
This leads to the loss of soil organic matter and nutrients found in the topsoil,
which is easily blown away by the wind and washed away by the rain, without the
roots of trees to hold it in place.
We can see this in the picture here, where the wind and rain are carving these
channels in to the side of this slope here and washing away the topsoil, which has
no roots to hold it in place.
This also results in sediments being deposited into nearby streams, which increases
the turbidity of the water, which is a measure of the total suspended particles in
a water source. This makes it cloudier & harder for animals to get oxygen from the
water and plants to get sunlight underwater
We can see in this diagram, when trees are present along the banks of the stream,
they catch a lot of the sediment being eroded from the hillside above, but without
them in the clearcut diagram to the right, the runoff carries sediments right into
the stream.
The loss of the shade provided by the trees also allows more sunlight to reach the
soil and the stream, which increases the temperature of both the soil and water.
The effect of increased insolation is intensified by the fact that soil has a lower
albedo than the leaves of trees, and darker, muddy stream water absorbs more
sunlight than clear stream water. The sediments themselves also bring heat into the
water, raising its temperature, which can be harmful to species like fish that need
high oxygen levels in the water, as increased temperature decreases the amount of
dissolved oxygen in the water.
And finally, we have an increase in the occurrence of flooding and landslides or
mudslides.
Logging machinery compacts the soil, and increased sunlight dries it out, and these
facts combined with the loss of root structure, and organic matter in the topsoil
decreases the soil’s ability to hold water.
So when it rains, the soil holds less water, and produces more runoff, which can
flood nearby areas.
It can even cause landslides which destroy animal habitats and human structures as
we can see in the picture here

Solutions to Watershed Pollutants

Practice FRQ 4.6

Deforestation can affect water quality. Identify one change that can occur in the
water quality of streams within a watershed that has been deforested. Explain how
deforestation can lead to this change.
4.7
Solar Radiation & Earth’s Seasons
Insolation - the amount of solar radiation (energy from sun’s rays) reaching an
area
Measured in Watts/m2

Objectives, EKs & Skill

Solar Intensity & Latitude

Solar intensity of insolation (W/m2) depends on:
Angle: how directly rays strike earth’s surface
The amount of atmosphere sun’s rays pass through
Equator = higher insolation than higher latitudes

400 W/m2
200 W/m2

Solar Intensity & Season

Orbit of earth around sun & tilt on axis changes angle of sun’s rays
This causes varying insolation, varying length of day, and seasons
Tilt of earth’s axis stays fixed during orbit
June & December Solstices: N or S hemisphere is maximally tilted toward sun
(summer/winter)
March & Sept. Equinox: N & S hemispheres equally facing sun

June
Solstice
Dec.
Solstice
March.
Equinox
Sep..
Equinox

Equator receives most direct insolation

N & S hemisphere get 12 hours of sunlight
Spring in N/Fall in S hemispheres
S hem. tilted max. toward sun
Longest day in S (start of summer)
Shortest day in N (start of winter)
Equator receives most direct insolation
N & S hemisphere get 12 hours of sunlight
Fall in N/Spring in S hemispheres
Tilt of Earth’s Axis Causes Variation in:
Angle of Insolation (which changes intensity)
Length of day
Season
N tilted max. toward sun
Longest day in N (start of summer)
Shortest day in S (winter)

Albedo
Albedo: the proportion of light that is reflected by a surface
Surfaces with higher albedo reflect more light, and absorb less (ice/snow)
Absorb less heat
Surfaces with low albedo reflect less light, and absorb more (water, pavement,
vegetation)
Absorb more heat
Albedo & Surface Temperature
Surface temperature is affected by albedo
When sunlight is absorbed by a surface, it gives off infrared radiation (heat)
Areas w/lower albedo, absorb more sunlight light (heat)
Urban Heat Island: urban areas are hotter than surrounding rural area due to low
albedo of blacktop
Polar regions are colder due to higher albedo

Practice FRQ 4.7

Identify which season is taking place in the Northern hemisphere in this diagram.
Describe how the tilt of the earth’s axis is responsible for earth’s seasons.

Earth’s Geography & Climate

4.8

Objectives, EKs & Skill

Climate is largely determined by insolation (latitude → angle of insolation &

atmosphere)
Higher latitudes receive less insolation: cooler, less precipitation (especially
30o)
Equator receives most intense insolation: higher temp, air rises, high
precipitation

Climate & Geography

Geography also plays a role
Mountains: disrupt wind & produce rain shadow effect
Oceans: moderate temperature & add moisture to the air

Warm, moist air from ocean hits the “windward” side of the mtn, rises, cools
(condensing H2O vapor & causing rain) → lush, green vegetation
Rain Shadows
Dry air descends down “leeward” side of mtn, warming as it sinks
Leads to arid (dry) desert conditions

Rain Shadow Ex.

Eastern trade winds blow moist air from Atlantic across SA
Windward (E) side of Andes receives heavy rainfall
Leeward (W) side of Andes receives arid (dry) air
N
S
E
W
~30o latitude also contributes to lack of rain
high pressure, dry, descending air from Hadley cell

30o

Global Wind Patterns (4.5) & Solar Radiation (4.7)

Tectonic Plate Boundaries (4.1)

Practice FRQ 4.8

Describe the regional precipitation pattern you would expect for the portion of
Mexico & central America indicated on the map. Justify your answer
Practice FRQ 4.8

Impact of Geography on Microclimate

4.9
El Nino & La Nina
Hey everybody, it’s Mr. Smedes, and today we’ll be covering topic 4.9, which is a
really interesting environmental phenomenon called the El Nino Southern
Oscillation. This is a periodic shift in atmospheric pressure, wind patterns, and
ocean temperature in the southern pacific that builds on a lot of other topics from
this unit.

Objectives, EKs, and Skills

Our objective for today is to be able to describe the env. Changes and effects of
El nino, and La nina events, which are the two extremes of the southern oscillation
pattern
In order to do that, we need to know that these events involve changes in the
pacific ocean surface temp, global wind patterns, and ocean currents
We also need to understand that they’re influenced by geological and geographical
factors and have different env. Impacts on different areas
Our suggested science skill for today is to describe env. Problems.

Global Ocean Surface Currents

Gyres: large ocean circ. patterns due to global wind
(clockwise in N hem, counterclockwise in S hem.)

Eastern trade winds between 0-30o push eq. current W ← E

Westerlies between 30-60o push mid lat. currents W→ E
Upwelling Zones: areas of ocean where winds blow warm surface water away from a
land mass, drawing up colder, deeper water to replace it
Brings O2 & nutrients to surface → productive fishing
0o
30o
W E
Before we get into El nino and La nina, we need to cover the basics of global ocean
surface currents.
The world’s ocean surface currents are determined by the global wind patterns we
learned about in 4.5. I have the equator added in here in black, and 30o N and S in
orange, to help us see how wind patterns influence ocean circulation.
Between 0 and 30 degrees, we have eastern trade winds that move the surface waters
in these latitudes from east to west, and we can see that here on the map.
What happens is these east to west equatorial surface currents run into land
masses, get diverted north or south by them, and then actually reverse direction
when they get to 300 N or south, due to the change in wind direction. Since they
get pushed from west to east at 30o N and S, what happens is the formation of these
large, circular patterns of ocean currents that move clockwise in the northern hem.
And counterclockwise in the S hemisphere. We call these Gyres.
Then there’s one more important topic to cover here, and that’s upwelling. When
prevailing winds move warm water away from a landmass, like we can see along the
west coast of the americas, the west coast of Africa, and Australia, colder, deeper
water from below moves up to replace it. This brings up more O2 since cold water
holds more dissolved oxygen than warm water, and it brings up sediments from deeper
in the ocean which contain nutrients. This creates especially productive fisheries,
or populations of fish that people catch in these upwelling zones.
I want you to pay especially close attention to the ocean currents in the southern
pacific, since that’s what we’ll be focusing on today. Notice the prevailing, or
normal condition winds in this region move the warm, equatorial water from East to
west. This moves warm water away from the West coast of the Americas and causes
upwelling here. This will be important when we start talking about El Nino and La
Nina in a bit.

Thermohaline Circulation
Connects all of the world’s oceans, mixing salt, nutrients, and temperature
throughout

Warm water from Gulf of Mexico moves toward North Pole

Cools & evaporates as it moves toward poles
Saltier & colder water @ poles, is more dense, making it sink
Spreads along ocean floor
Rises back up into shallow warm ocean current @ upwelling zones

Now we’ll talk in a little more depth about the global mixing of the oceans. The
Thermohaline haline circulation is this movement of ocean currents that connects
all of the world’s oceans, and mixes salt, nutrients, and temperature throughout
all of them.
As we discussed on the last slide, warm water moves east to west along the equator,
and then up into the gulf of Mexico, where it warms further. Then as it gets to
30o, it’s blown back from west to east, by the westerlies. As it moves back towards
Europe, it’s channeled up toward the north pole.
As this warm, gulf stream flows north, some of the water evaporates, making it more
salty since the salt can’t evaporate with the water. It also cools and becomes more
dense, so that by the time it reaches the N pole, it’s much more dense due to both
temperature and increased salt concentration.
This causes it to sink, where it spreads across the ocean floor, mixing the salt
and sediments of the ocean and preventing them from just settling on the ocean
floor
Eventually, cold water from deep in the ocean moves up to the surface, especially
at upwelling zones, bringing cooler temperature, nutrients, and oxygen with it.
So this global ocean circulation also helps mix the oceans water though, preventing
all the salt
nutrients from settling on the colder denser bottom of the ocean, and keeping the
warm surface waters from just sitting still & preventing the mixing of deeper
waters.
It also has important impacts on the climates of different regions.
For instance, the warm gulf stream provides a warming effect for Europe, keeping it
much warmer than similar latitudes of North America

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

ENSO: pattern of shifting atmospheric pressure & ocean currents in the pacific
ocean between South America and Australia/Southeast Asia
Oscillates, or shifts regularly from El Niño (warmer, rainier) to La Niña (cooler,
drier) conditions along coast of South America
So now with the basics of global ocean circulation down, we can move on to ENSO, or
El Nino Southern Oscillation. So there’s the tendency to simplify this concept into
just an El nino or La nina event, or normal conditions, but it’s called the
Southern Oscillation for a reason.
As we can see in the graph here, what we really have is a constant fluctuation or
oscillation back and forth between El nino conditions, which bring warmer, rainier
conditions to south america, and La nina conditions which bring cooler, drier
conditions to south america
I also want to point out that El nino and La nina events usually don’t just happen
in one year. We call them events because they may peak in a given year, but they
usually grow and then weaken over the course of a few years.

Trade winds blow eq. water

W ← E
Cool H2O upwelled off coast of SA (cool temp + good fi$herie$)
Warm eq. current brings heat & precip. to Australia & SE Asia
High pressure in east pacific (SA)
Low pressure in west pacific (Australia & SE Asia)
Normal Year
Trade winds weaken, then reverse (W → E)
Warm eq. current brings heat & precip. to Americas (N & S)
Suppressed upwelling off SA coast (damaging fi$herie$)
Cooler, drier conditions in Australia & SE Asia
H pressure in west pacific (Australia & SE Asia)
L pressure in east pacific (SA)
Stronger than normal trade winds (W ← ← ← E)
Increased upwelling off SA coast brings cooler than normal conditions, extra good
fi$herie$
Warmer & rainier than normal in Australia & SE Asia

E
W
E
W
E
W
So let’s take a closer look at the conditions of an el nino and la nina event.
Before we do that though, we’ll review the normal, or neutral conditions of the
southern pacific.
Normally, the eastern trade winds along the equator blow ocean surface water from
east to west
That leads to upwelling on the west coast of SA, which brings cooler weather, and
nutrients and oxygen needed for productive fisheries that many peruvian fisherman
rely on.
The movement of warm equatorial waters toward Australia and SE asia gives them
warmer, rainier weather than the west coast of the americas.
The warmer conditions of the west pacific creates a low pressure system, which
allows air to rise, expand, and then descend back in the americas, causing a low
pressure system there, which is what drives the eastern trade winds from east to
west across the southern pacific, moving from High to low pressure.
In an El Nino event, these trade winds weaken and actually reverse direction. That
is the key characteristic that drives the El nino event.
This shifts the warm waters of the equator away from Australia and SE asia, and
toward the west coast of the americas, bringing them warmer than normal weather,
and higher precipitation than usual as well. El nino events are characterized by
warmer winters in NA and heavy rainfall, including flooding, in SA and the Western
US.
It also suppresses the upwelling along the coast of SA that is so important for the
fishemen that depend on it to bring nutrients and oxygen for fish populations.
Because the trade winds have reverse directions, there is a cooler, low pressure
system in the west pacific or Australia and SE Asia. This can create drought like
conditions here as they receive less rainfall than normal.
And finally, we have a La Nina event, which restores theeastern trade winds to
their normal direction, and actually intensifies them.
This leads to even stronger than normal upwelling along the coast of SA and cooler,
drier conditions across both N & S America
It also leads to even warmer and rainier than normal conditions in Australia and SE
Asia
So the big takeaway here from El Nino and La Nina, is that El Nino basically
reverses the normal wind and ocean circulation directions, which brings warmer,
wetter weather to the Americas, instead of to Australia and SE asia. La nina
meanwhile, restores the original wind and ocean current direction of East to west,
and intensifies it.

Suppressed upwelling & less productive fisheries in SA

Warmer winter in much of N America
Increased precip & flooding in Americas (W coast especially)
Drought in SE Asia & Australia
Decreased hurricane activity in Atlantic ocean
Weakened monsoon activity in India & SE Asia
Stronger upwelling & better fisheries in SA than normal
Worse tornado activity in US & Hurricane activity in Atlantic
Cooler, drier weather in Americas
Rainier, warmer, increased monsoons in SE Asia

Effects of El Niño
La Niña
Here we have a summary of the effects that El Nino and La Nina have
A really important take away from El Nino, is that it brings warmer surface water
to the west coast of the Americas, which suppresses the upwelling of cold, deeper
ocean water, especially in SA. This can be devastating for fishermen who depend on
the productive fisheries, and for farmers, who can often lose crops to flooding
brought by El Nino events.
Farmers in SE Asia and Australia, meanwhile, may experience droughts due to the
decrease in rainfall that they see as the warmer pacific waters are blown away from
them.
Two positive impacts of El nino events however, are that they typically weaken
hurricane activity in the Atlantic, and monsoon activity in India & SE Asia
It also typically leads to warmer, more mild winters in North America
La Nina on the other hand, brings especially cool weather to the west coast of the
Americas. This can lead to less precipitation in the Americas, and can also
increase Tornado severity in the US, and hurricane activity in the Atlantic.
SE Asia sees a return to the rainy conditions they’re used to which can be
beneficial to agriculture, but this can also bring extreme flooding, and in
increase in monsoon severity.

Practice FRQ 4.9

Describe TWO environmental problems related to the conditions of an El nino event.