RELATIONS

AND FUNCTIONS

Relations
The term ‘relation’ in mathematics has been drawn from the meaning of relation in
English language, according to which two objects or quantities are related if there is

a recognisable connection or link between the two objects or quantities.

Types of Relations
Empty relation:
A relation R in a set A is called empty relation, if no element of A is related to
any element of A, i.e., R = φ ⊂ A × A.

Universal relation:
A relation R in a set A is called universal relation, if each element of A is related

to every element of A, i.e., R = A × A.

Both the empty relation and the universal relation are some times called trivial

relations.
Reflexive, symmetric and transitive.
(i) reflexive, if (a, a) ∈ R, for every a ∈ A,

(ii) symmetric, if (a1 , a2 ) ∈ R implies that (a2 , a1 ) ∈ R, for all a1 , a2 ∈ A.

(iii) transitive, if (a1 , a2 ) ∈ R and (a2 , a3 ) ∈ R implies that (a1 , a3 ) ∈ R,

for all a1 , a2 , a3 ∈ A.
 Equivalence relation

A relation R in a set A is said to be an equivalence relation if R is reflexive,

symmetric and transitive.

Example:
Let A be the set of all students of a boys school. Show that the relation R in A

given by R = {(a, b) : a is sister of b} is the empty relation and R′ = {(a, b) : the

difference between heights of a and b is less than 3 meters} is the universal

relation.
Solution:
Since the school is boys school, no student of the school can be sister of any
student of the school. Hence, R = φ, showing that R is the empty relation. It is

also obvious that the difference between heights of any two students of the

school has to be less than 3 meters. This shows that R′ = A × A is the universal
relation.
Example:
Show that the relation R in the set {1, 2, 3} given by R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1,

2), (2, 3)} is reflexive but neither symmetric nor transitive.

Solution:
R is reflexive, since (1, 1), (2, 2) and (3, 3) lie in R. Also, R is not symmetric, as (1,

2) ∈ R but (2, 1) ∉ R. Similarly, R is not transitive, as (1, 2) ∈ R and (2, 3) ∈ R

but (1, 3) ∉ R.
Example:
Show that the relation R in the set Z of integers given by

R = {(a, b) : 2 divides a – b}
is an equivalence relation.

Solution:
R is reflexive, as 2 divides (a – a) for all a ∈ Z. Further, if (a, b) ∈ R, then 2
divides a – b. Therefore, 2 divides b – a. Hence, (b, a) ∈ R, which shows that R is

symmetric. Similarly, if (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then a – b and b – c are

divisible by 2. Now, a – c = (a – b) + (b – c) is even. So, (a – c) is divisible by 2.

This shows that R is transitive. Thus, R is an equivalence relation in Z.

Example:
Let R be the relation defined in the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} by R = {(a, b) :
both a and b are either odd or even}. Show that R is an equivalence relation.

Further, show that all the elements of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each
other and all the elements of the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to each other, but

no element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} is related to any element of the subset {2, 4,

6}.
Solution:
Given any element a in A, both a and a must be either odd or even, so that (a,

a) ∈ R. Further, (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ both a and b must be either odd or even ⇒ (b,

a) ∈ R. Similarly, (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ all elements a, b, c, must be

either even or odd simultaneously ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R. Hence, R is an equivalence

relation. Further, all the elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are related to each other, as all
the elements of this subset are odd. Similarly, all the elements of the
the subset {2, 4, 6} are related to each other, as all of them are even. Also, no
element of the subset {1, 3, 5, 7} can be related to any element of {2, 4, 6}, as
elements of {1, 3, 5, 7} are odd, while elements of {2, 4, 6} are even.

Functions

A function f is a relation from a set A to set B such that the domain of f is A

and no two distinct ordered pairs in f have the same first element. Also, A and
B are two non-empty sets.

Types of Relations
one-one (or injective):
A function f : X → Y is defined to be one-one (or injective), if the images of
distinct elements of X under f are distinct, i.e., for every x1 , x2 ∈ X, f(x1 ) = f(x2

) implies x1 = x2 . Otherwise, f is called many-one.

onto (or surjective):

A function f : X → Y is said to be onto (or surjective), if every element of Y is

the image of some element of X under f, i.e., for every y ∈ Y, there exists an

element x in X such that f(x) = y.

one-one and onto (or bijective):

A function f : X → Y is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is both

one-one and onto.

Example:
Let A be the set of all 50 students of Class X in a school. Let f : A → N be

function defined by f(x) = roll number of the student x. Show that f is one-one
but not onto.

Solution:
No two different students of the class can have same roll number. Therefore, f
must be one-one. We can assume without any loss of generality that roll

numbers of students are from 1 to 50. This implies that 51 in N is not roll

number of any student of the class, so that 51 can not be image of any element
of X under f. Hence, f is not onto.

Example:
Show that the function f : N → N, given by f(x) = 2x, is one-one but not onto.
Solution:
The function f is one-one, for f(x1 ) = f(x2 ) ⇒ 2x1 = 2x2 ⇒ x1 = x2 . Further, f is

not onto, as for 1 ∈ N, there does not exist any x in N such that f(x) = 2x = 1.

Example:
Show that the function f : N → N, given by f(1) = f(2) = 1 and f(x) = x – 1, for

every x > 2, is onto but not one-one.

Solution:
f is not one-one, as f(1) = f(2) = 1. But f is onto, as given any y ∈ N, y ≠ 1, we can

choose x as y + 1 such that f(y + 1) = y + 1 – 1 = y. Also for 1 ∈ N, we have f(1) = 1.

Example:

Show that an onto function f : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} is always one-one.

Solution:

Suppose f is not one-one. Then there exists two elements, say 1 and 2 in the
domain whose image in the co-domain is same. Also, the image of 3 under f can
be only one element. Therefore, the range set can have at the most two elements

of the co-domain {1, 2, 3}, showing that f is not onto, a contradiction. Hence, f
must be one-one.

Example:
Show that a one-one function f : {1, 2, 3} → {1, 2, 3} must be onto
Solution:
Since f is one-one, three elements of {1, 2, 3} must be taken to 3 different
elements of the co-domain {1, 2, 3} under f. Hence, f has to be onto.

Composition of Functions and Invertible Function

Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. Then the composition of f and g,

denoted by gof, is defined as the function gof : A → C given by

gof(x) = g(f(x)), ∀ x ∈ A.
Invertible Function
A function f : X → Y is defined to be invertible, if there exists a function
g : Y → X such that gof = Ix and fog = Iy . The function g is called the inverse of
-1
f and is denoted by f . Thus, if f is invertible, then f must be one-one and onto
and conversely, if f is one-one and onto, then f must be invertible. This fact
significantly helps for proving a function f to be invertible by showing that f is

one-one and onto, specially when the actual inverse of f is not to be

determined.

Example:

Let f : X → Y be a function. Define a relation R in X given by R = {(a, b): f(a) =

f(b)}. Examine whether R is an equivalence relation or not.

Solution:
For every a ∈ X, (a, a) ∈ R, since f(a) = f(a), showing that R is reflexive.
Similarly, (a, b) ∈ R ⇒ f(a) = f(b) ⇒ f(b) = f(a) ⇒ (b, a) ∈ R. Therefore, R is

symmetric. Further, (a, b) ∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R ⇒ f(a) = f(b) and f(b) = f(c) ⇒
f(a) = f(c) ⇒ (a, c) ∈ R, which implies that R is transitive. Hence, R is an

equivalence relation.

Example:
Find the number of all one-one functions from set A = {1, 2, 3} to itself.
Solution:
One-one function from {1, 2, 3} to itself is simply a permutation on three

symbols 1, 2, 3. Therefore, total number of one-one maps from {1, 2, 3} to itself is

same as total number of permutations on three symbols 1, 2, 3 which is 3! = 6.