Edited by

Bert Breuer
Karlheinz H. Bill

Brake Technology
Handbook
First English Edition

'International
Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA
Contents

Symbols, Indices, and Acronyms \ xxi

1 The History of Automobile Brakes 1

1.1 Mechanically Operated Vehicle Brakes 1
1.2 The Hydraulically Operated Four-Wheel Brake 2
1.3 Brakes with Internal Amplification 4
1.4 Multi-Circuit Braking Systems 4
1.5 From Muscle Power to Full Power Brakes 5
1.6 The Hydraulically Operated Disc Brake 7
1.7 Electronic Brake Control Systems 8
2 Basic Elements of the Braking Process 10
2.1 Braking as Driving Task 10
2.2 Characteristics of the Braking Process 11
2.3 Stopping Distance 12
2.4 Braking Stability and Braking Force Distribution 14
2.5 Reliability 16
3 Automotive Engineering Requirements 18
3.1 Performance 18
3.1.1 Braking Distance 18
3.1.2 Stability 19
3.1.3 Road Irregularities 20
3.1.4 Dependence on Friction Value 21
3.2 Vehicle Performance 22
3.2.1 Stability 22
3.2.2 Body Pitch > 25
3.3 Actuation/Control 27
3.3.1 Responsiveness and Controllability 27
3.3.2 Forces, Travels, Characteristics 28
3.4 Package/Installation Situation 29
3.4.1 Installation Sizes and Relations 29
3.4.2 Masses 30
3.5 Brake Boost Energy Supply 30
3.6 Thermal Marginal Conditions 32
3.7 Environmental Conditions 33
3.8 Noises and Vibrations 33
3.8.1 Vibrations 34
3.8.2 Noises 35
3.9 Crash Requirements 36
3.10 Environmental Protection 37
3.10.1 Brake Linings 37
3.10.2 Corrosion Protection 37
3.10.3 Brake Fluid 37
3.11 Energy Recuperation 37
4 User-Related Requirements 39
4.1 Introduction 39
4.2 Braking Situation 39
4.2.1 Information Reception 41
4.2.2 Cognition (Information Processing in the Narrower Sense) 41
4.2.3 Reaction 42
4.2.4 Time Sequence of Information Processing in Braking Situations 42
4.3 Braking Action 43
4.3.1 Foot Movement 43
4.3.2 Actuation of Brake Pedal 44
Contents

4.4 Ergonomic Brake Design 44

4.4.1 Geometry 44
4.4.2 Key Features of Brake Pedal 46
4.4.3 Alternative Concepts 46
4.4.4 Braking Assistants 47

Interaction Among the Road Surface, Tire, and Brake 49

5.1 Introduction 49
5.2 Transmission of Forces Between the Tire and the Road Surface 49
5.2.1 The Friction of Rubber 49
5.2.2 Interaction Between the Tire and the Road Surface 50
5.2.3 Buildup of Tire Forces 52
5.2.3.1 Braking Forces/Tangential Forces 52
5.2.3.2 Side Slip: Forces and Moments , 53
5.3 Interaction Between Tire and Brake 54
5.3.1 Tire Models 55
5.3.2 Dynamic Tangential Force/Slip Characteristics of a Tire During Braking 55
5.3.3 Tangential Forces During Braking with ABS 57
5.3.4 Combined Tangential and Lateral Forces, Braking When Lateral Force
Is Required 57
5.4 Integration of the Tire into the Overall Vehicle System 59
5.4.1 Product Optimization of the Tire and the ABS Controller Using the
Example of Winter Tires 60
5.4.2 The Role of Skid Marks in Accident Reconstruction 61
5.5 Outlook 63

Design and Simulation of Automobile Brake Systems 65

6.1 Principles of the Brake Dynamics 65
6.1.1 Lines of Equal Deceleration 67
6.1.2 Lines of Constant Coefficient of Friction Between the Tire and the
Road Surface .' 67
6.2 Principles of the Brake Calculation 67
6.2.1 Pedal Unit 68
6.2.2 Vacuum Booster with Master Cylinder 68
6.2.3 Brake 68
6.2.3.1 Disc Brake 69
6.2.3.2 Drum Brake 69
6.3 Brake System Design 70
6.3.1 Brake-Split Configuration 70
6.3.1.1 Front Axle/Rear Axle Configuration (II-Configuration) 70
6.3.1.2 Diagonal Configuration (X-Configuration) 70
6.3.1.3 Other Brake-Circuit Configurations (HI-, LL-, HH-Configuration) . . . . 71
6.3.2 Sizing Criteria for Brake Systems 71
6.3.2.1 Requirements of the Brake Dynamics 71
6.3.2.2 Requirements of the Actuation Unit and the Transmission
Mechanism 71
6.3.2.3 Thermal Sizing Criteria 72
6.3.3 Design of Wheel Brakes 72
6.3.3.1 Brake Power 73
6.3.3.2 Thermal Design .', 73
6.3.3.3 Component Life/Wear 74
6.3.3.4 Comfort 75
6.3.3.5 Costs : 76
6.3.3.6 Weight 76
6.3.4 Design of Brake Control Systems 76
6.3.4.1 Design Criteria for ABS Systems 78
6.3.4.2 Design Criteria for the Traction Control System 78
6.3.4.3 Design Criteria for the Electronic Stability Control 79
6.3.5 Design Criteria for Electrohydraulic Brake Systems 80
i Contents

6.4 Simulation of Brake Systems 81

6.4.1 Brake System Design 82
6.4.2 Analysis of the Brake System Components Using the Finite
Elements Method 83
6.4.3 Simulation of Brake-System Components 84
6.4.4 Overall System Simulation 85
\
Construction and Components of Passenger Car Braking Systems 87
7.1 Introduction 87
7.1.1 The Underlying Physics 87
7.1.2 Braking System Types 89
7.1.3 Construction of Braking Systems in Passenger Cars 90
7.1.3.1 Front-Rear Split 90
7.1.3.2 Diagonal Split ("X Split") 90
7.1.3.3 Other Hydraulic Brake Circuit Splits 91
7.2 Generation of the Braking Force 91
7.2.1 Disc Brakes 92
7.2.1.1 Fixed Calipers 95
7.2.1.2 Frame Calipers 95
7.2.1.3 FistCaliper 95
7.2.1.4 FN Fist Caliper 96
7.2.1.5 FNR Fist Frame Caliper 97
7.2.1.6 Combined Fist Caliper 97
7.2.1.7 Brake Discs 98
7.2.1.8 Brake Linings : 100
7.2.2 Drum Brakes 100
7.2.2.1 Simplex Drum Brake 100
7.2.2.2 Duplex Drum Brake 101
7.2.2.3 Duo-Servo Drum Brake 101
7.2.3 Electric Generator 102
7.2.3.1 Crankshaft Starter Alternator 102
7.3 Transfer and Modulation of Braking Energy 103
7.3.1 Mechanical-Hydraulic Modulation of Brake Pressure 103
7.3.2 Electrohydraulic Brake Pressure Modulation 104
7.3.2.1 Hydraulic-Electronic Control Unit (HCU) 106
7.3.2.2 Electronic Control Unit (ECU) 108
7.3.2.3 Electronic Control Functions 108
7.3.2.4 Sensors for Electronic Brake Control Systems 113
7.3.3 Transmission Elements 117
7.3.3.1 BrakeFluid 117
7.3.3.2 Brake Tubes and Hoses 117
7.4 Brake Actuation 117
7.4.1 Brake Booster 117
7.4.1.1 Vacuum Brake Boosters 117
7.4.1.2 Hydraulic Brake Boosters 120
7.4.2 Tandem Master Cylinder 120
7.4.2.1 Compensating Bore TMc 121
7.4.2.2 Central Valve TMc 121
7.4.2.3 Plunger TMc 122
7.4.2.4 Reservoir 123
7.5 Human-Machine Interface (HMI) 123
7.5.1 Service Brake HMI 123
7.5.2 Parking Brake HMI 123
7.5.3 Pedal Characteristics (Ergonomics) 125
7.5.3.1 Adjustable Pedals 125
7.5.3.2 Crash Compatibility : 125
7.6 New and Future System Architectures 126
7.6.1 Electric Hydraulic Combi Brake EHC 126
Contents

Braking Systems and Braking Performance of Commercial Vehicles and Buses • 128
8.1 Evaluation of a Braking System 128
8.1.1 Vehicle Stability When Braking 128
8.1.2 Distribution of the Braking Forces to the Axles 128
8.1.3 Brake Application in the Braking Force Distribution Diagram 131
8.1.4 Load-Sensitive Braking Force Distribution (ALB) 131
8.1.4.1 Braking Force Limiters 132
8.1.4.2 Braking Force Reducers 132
8.1.5 Influence of Engine Drag Torques, Inertia Masses and Braking Torques of
Continuous Braking Systems 133
8.1.6 Determination of Brake Factor Fluctuations and Their Influence on
the Braking Force Distribution 134
8.1.7 Brake Circuits and Brake Circuit Failure 134
8.2 Braking Systems for Medium and Heavy Commercial Vehicles 136
8.2.1 Structure of a Braking System 136
8.2.2 Wheel Brakes and Components 138
8.3 Continuous Braking Systems 140
8.3.1 Engine Braking Systems 141
8.3.2 Retarders 142
8.4 Conventional Braking- and Driving-Slip Control Systems 143
8.4.1 Antilock Braking Systems (ABS) 143
8.4.2 Traction Control : 144
8.5 Electronic Braking Management (EBS) 144
8.5.1 Integration of Continuous Braking Systems 147
8.5.2 Vehicle Stability Control with Integrated Roll-Over Protection 147
8.5.3 Optimization of the Compatibility Between Tractor Vehicle and
Semitrailer/Full Trailer 149
8.5.4 Braking Assistant 150
8.5.5 Hill Holder 150
8.5.6 Lining/Pad Wear Control 150
8.5.7 Distance Monitoring 150
8.5.8 Systems for Automatic Vehicle Guidance " 151
8.6 System Integration and Electronic Networking 152
8.7 Concluding View on X-by-Wire Systems 152

Brakes for Commercial Vehicles 154

9.1 Types of Pneumatically Operated CV Brakes 154
9.1.1 Drum Brakes 154
9.1.2 Disc Brakes 154
9.2 Design and Operation of the Pneumatically Operated Floating Caliper
Disc Brake 155
9.2.1 Actuating System 155
9.2.1.1 Service Brake 155
9.2.1.2 Parking Brake and Secondary Braking System 155
9.2.2 Automatic Wear-Adjusting System 156
9.2.3 Adjustment Behavior 157
9.2.4 Significance of the Clearance 157
9.2.5 Interaction Brake/Wheel Hub 158
9.2.5.1 Forces Resulting at the Brake 158
9.2.5.2 Thermal Load of the Wheel Bearing 159
9.3 Performance and Service Life Behavibr 160
9.3.1 Design Data ) 160
9.3.1.1 Durability 160
9.3.1.2 Long-Term Braking Performance " 160
9.4 Friction Elements 161
9.4.1 Brake Pads 161
9.4.2 Brake Disc 162
9.4.2.1 Brake Disc Designs 162
x Contents

9.4.2.2 Brake Disc Material 163

9.4.2.3 Causes for Heat Cracks 164
9.4.2.4 Causes for Brake Vibrations 164
9.4.2.5 Dimensioning of the Friction Partners 164
9.4.2.6 The Specific Braking Performance 164
9.5 Development and Testing of Brake and Friction Partners 166
9.6 Trailer Brakes \ 168
9.6.1 Trailer-Specific Characteristics 168
9.6.1.1 Wheel Brakes 169
9.6.1.2 Adjustment 170
9.6.2 Trailer-Specific Requirements 171
9.6.2.1 Trailer Homologation 171
9.6.2.2 Trailer Brake Certificates 172
9.6.3 Trailer-Specific Brake Systems 172
9.6.3.1 Brake Calculations for Vehicle Homologation 172
9.6.3.2 Parking Brake Effect 173
9.7 Compatibility in Tractor/Trailer Units 173
9.7.1 Legislation 173
9.7.2 Matching of Tractor/Trailer Combinations 174
9.7.3 Causes and Consequences of Inadequate Matching 174

10 Braking Behavior of Single-Track Vehicles 175

10.1 Motorcycles 175
10.1.1 Riding Dynamics of Single-Track Vehicles 175
10.1.1.1 Stationary Straight-Ahead Motion and Stability 175
10.1.1.2 Stationary Motion in Bends 175
10.1.1.3 Balance of Forces and Roll Angle 176
10.1.2 Braking Behavior of Single-Track Vehicles 176
10.1.2.1 Fundamental Aspects of Riding Dynamics in the Braking Process 176
10.1.2.2 Brake Behavior on Slopes 177
10.1.2.3 Influence of Tire-Road Friction 177
10.1.2.4 Ideal and Real Distribution of Brake Forces 178
10.1.2.5 Influence of Suspension Geometry 178
10.1.2.6 Braking Dive Compensation 178
10.1.2.7 Application of the Brakes in a Bend 180
10.1.3 Typical Riding Errors While Braking 181
10.1.3.1 Over-Braking -181
10.1.3.2 Errors When Braking in an Emergency 181
10.1.4 Brake Systems of Single-Track Vehicles 182
10.1.4.1 The Brake Caliper 183
10.1.4.2 Brake Discs 186
10.1.4.3 Brake Pads 188
10.1.5 Configuration of the Brake System 189
10.1.5.1 Transformation of Lever Force Into Deceleration 189
10.1.5.2 Thermal Stability 191
10.1.5.3 Brake Noise 192
10.1.5.4 Long-Term Behavior of Brake Components 193
10.1.6 Integral Brake Systems and Brake Control Systems 194
10.1.6.1 Antilock Systems (ABS) 194
10.1.6.2 ABS Components 194
10.1.6.3 The ABS Braking Process 195
10.1.6.4 Operating Principles 196
10.1.7 Integral Brake Systems 200
10.1.7.1 Combined Brake System by Honda 202
10.1.7.2 Integral Brake System by BMW 202
10.1.8 Brake-by-Wire 203
10.2 Bicycles 204
10.2.1 Introduction 204
10.2.2 Braking Behavior of Bicycles 204
Contents xi

10.2.3 Typical Braking Faults : ...... 204

10.2.3.1 Over-Braking of the Front Wheel 204
10.2.3.2 Locking of the Rear Wheel 204
10.2.4 Bicycle Braking Systems 204
10.2.4.1 Basic Demands for Bicycle Braking Systems 204
10.2.4.2 Rim Brakes 204
10.2.4.3 Hub Brakes 206
10.2.4.4 Disc Brakes 207

11 Overrun Braking Systems 211

11.1 Introduction 211
11.2 Construction and Function of the Braking System 211
11.2.1 Components 211
11.2.1.1 Overrun Coupling 211
11.2.1.2 Transmission System : 214
11.2.1.3 WheelBrakes 214
11.2.2 Functions 215
11.2.2.1 Service Brake, Forward Travel 215
11.2.2.2 Automatic Reversing System, Reverse Travel 215
11.2.2.3 Parking Brake 215
11.2.2.4 Breakaway Braking Function 217
11.3 Braking System Layout 217
11.3.1 Brake Compatibility Calculation as per Directive 71/320/EEC 217
11.3.2 Brake Force Utilization 217
11.3.3 ABS Compatibility 218
11.4 Maintenance and Care 218
11.4.1 Maintenance 219
11.4.2 Readjustment 219
11.5 New Developments 219

12 Brakes of Off-Road Vehicles 221

12.1 Historical Development of Brakes in Off-Road Vehicles 221
12.2 Survey of National and International Legal Specifications for
Brake Systems 221
12.2.1 Transport Laws in the Federal Republic of Germany 221
12.2.2 Guidelines of the European Community (EC) 222
12.2.3 Regulations of the Economic Commission for Europe 222
12.2.4 Standards of the Society of Automotive Engineers 222
12.3 Technical Versions and Design 222
12.3.1 Drum Brake 223
12.3.2 Disc Brake 224
12.3.3 Multiple-Disc Brake (Wet Brake) 224
12.3.3.1 Design of a Multiple-Disc Brake 224
12.3.3.2 Calculation of the Brake Torque 224
12.3.3.3 Friction Characteristics 225
12.3.3.4 Power Loss and Efficiency 226
12.4 Brake Testing and Braking Effect 228
12.4.1 Laboratory Testing 228
12.4.1.1 Proof of Compliance with Legal Specifications 228
12.4.1.2 Durability and We*-Testing 228
12.4.2 Vehicle Testing J 228
12.4.2.1 Cold Performance Test (Type 0) 228
12.4.2.2 Heat Fading Test ' 228
12.4.2.3 Comparison of the Standards 229
12.5 Prospects and Tendencies 230
12.5.1 Interaction Between Wheel Brake and Other Brake Systems in
the Vehicle (Brake Management) 230
12.5.2 Environmental Protection Thanks to New Brake Concepts 231
 Contents

13 Brakes for Tracked Vehicles 232

13.1 Introduction 232
13.2 Special Requirements for Brakes of Tracked Vehicles 232
13.3 Mechanical Brakes for Tracked Vehicles 233
13.3.1 Mechanical Friction Brakes 234
13.3.2 Multiple Wet Plate Brakes 234
13.3.3 Dry-Type Single and l&ultiple-Disc Brakes 235
13.3.4 Control of Mechanical Brakes 237
13.4 Combination Brake Systems 237
13.4.1 Combination with a Primary Retarder 237
13.4.2 Combination with a Hydrodynamic Service Brake 238
13.4.3 Other Brake Combinations 238
13.5 Approval of Tracked Vehicle Brakes 239
13.6 Summary and Outlook 239

14 Aircraft Brakes 241

14.1 General Description of an Aircraft Braking System 241
14.1.1 Hydromechanical Brake Control 242
14.1.2 Electronic Brake Control (Brake-by-Wire) 243
14.1.3 Subsystems 244
14.1.3.1 Anti-Skid System 244
14.1.3.2 Auto-Braking System 245
14.1.3.3 Parking Brake System 245
14.1.3.4 Emergency Braking System 245
14.1.3.5 Brake Cooling System 245
14.1.3.6 Indicating and Monitoring System 245
14.2 Design Criteria for Military and Civil Aircraft 246
14.2.1 Qualification Directions 246
14.2.1.1 Civil Aviation Requirements 246
14.2.1.2 Military Aviation Requirements 247
14.2.2 Simulation Procedures 247
14.3 Layout of a Modern BBW System and its Components 248
14.3.1 Brake Pedal Assembly 248
14.3.2 Brake Control Unit (BCU) 249
14.3.3 Valves 250
14.3.3.1 Brake Control Valves 250
14.3.3.2 Shutoff Valves 250
14.3.3.3 Hydraulic Fuses 250
14.3.4 System Sensors 250
14.3.4.1 Thermocouples (Optional) 250
14.3.4.2 Brake Torque Transducer 250
14.3.4.3 Wheel Speed Sensor 250
14.3.5 Wheel Brakes 250
14.4 Friction Materials 252
14.5 Cooling and Temperature Monitoring 252
14.5.1 Thermal Loads 252
14.5.2 Cooling Features 253
14.5.3 Temperature Monitoring 253
14.6 Future Aspects 254

15 Race Car Brake Systems 255

15.1 Introduction 255
15.2 Race Car Performances 255
15.3 Racing Car Straight-Line Braking 257
15.4 Brake System 258
15.4.1 Brake Caliper 259
15.4.2 Master Cylinder , 260
xiv Contents

16.8.3.2 Electrodynamic Brake 276

16.8.3.3 Electrohydraulic Brake 276
16.8.4 Brake Matrix 276
16.8".5 Schematic Tram Brake System 278
16.8.6 Main Components of a Hydraulic Brake System 278
16.8.6.1 Brake Force Actuator, Brake Disc, Brake Pad 278
16.8.6.2 Electrohydraulic Supply and Control Units 278
16.8.6.3 Brake Control Electronics 278

17 Mechatronic Systems: A Short Introduction 279

17.1 From Mechanical to Mechatronic Systems 279
17.2 Mechanical Systems and Mechatronic Developments 280
17.3 Functions of Mechatronic Systems 282
17.3.1 Basic Mechanical Design 282
17.3.2 Distribution of Mechanical and Electronic Functions 282
17.3.3 Operating Properties 283
17.3.4 New Functions 283
17.3.5 Other Developments 283
17.4 Integration Forms of Processes and Electronics 283
17.5 Design Procedures for Mechatronic Systems 286
17.6 Computer-Aided Design of Mechatronic Systems 287

18 Basics of Electrically Actuated Braking Systems for Passenger Cars 290

18.1 Introduction 290
18.2 Definition of Brake-by-Wire 291
18.3 Structure of Electrically Actuated Braking Systems 292
18.4 Design of the Actuation Device 293
18.4.1 Control Element 293
18.4.2 Basic Attributes 293
18.4.3 Information Feedback . , 294
18.5 Electrohydraulic Braking Systems 294
18.5.1 EHB Systems with Pressure Modulator and Pressure Accumulator 294
18.5.2 EHB Systems with Electrohydraulic Converter 295
18.6 Electromechanical Braking System 296
18.6.1 Electrically Actuated Vehicle Brake 297
18.6.1.1 Components 297
18.6.1.2 Modes of Operation: Interaction of the Components 298
18.6.2 Energy Demand 300
18.6.3 Operation of Electrically Actuated Wheel Brakes 302
18.6.4 Braking System Design 305
18.6.5 Failsafe Concept 306
18.7 Mechatronic Interventions in the Self-Reinforcement of the Brake 306
18.7.1 Active Guidance of the Brake Pad 307
18.7.2 Active Intervention in the Brake Factor Mechanism 308
18.8 Comparisons of the Concepts 308
18.9 Hybrid Electric Brake Systems 309
18.10 Perspectives 311

19 Electrohydraulically Actuated Brakes 313

19.1 Conflicts of Goals and Limitations of Conventional Brake Systems 313
19.2 Comparison of Operating Principles of Various Brake Systems 313
19.3 Characteristics of Electrohydraulically Actuated Brake Systems 315
19.4 System and Component Description 316
19.4.1 Actuator Unit 316
19.4.2 Hydraulic Unit 318
19.4.3 Control Units and Sensors 319
19.5 Functional System Characteristics 319
19.5.1 Pedal Feel 319
19.5.2 Stopping Distance 319
Contents xv

20 The Electromechanically Actuated Brake - 321

20.1 Objective 321
20.2 System Structure: Interaction of the Components 321
20.2.1 Actuation Unit 321
20.2.2 The Electromechanical Wheel Brake 322
20.2.2.1 Converter 322
20.2.2.2 Gearing Systems 322
20.2.2.3 Sensors • 323
20.2.3 Control Concepts 323
20.2.4 Power Supply 323
20.2.5 Passive Safety Aspects 324
20.3 Electric Parking Brake (EPB) and Active Parking Brake (APB) 324
20.4 Electric Hydraulic Combi (EHC) Brake 325
20.5 Utilization of Self-Energizing Brakes 326
20.6 Electronically Actuated Wedge Brake 327
20.6.1 Summary 327
20.6.2 History 327
20.6.3 Principles 328
20.6.4 Embodiments 329
20.6.5 Control Theory 330
20.6.6 Selected Measurement Results 331
20.6.6.1 General Test Profile 331
20.6.6.2 Response Dynamics 331
20.6.6.3 Sinusoidal Excitation 332
20.6.7 Outlook 332

21 The Brake System in Driver Assistance Systems 334

21.1 Overview, Function, and Requirements of Driver Assistance Systems for Cars 334
21.1.1 Antilock Brake System (ABS) 334
21.1.2 Traction Control System (TCS) 337
21.1.3 Electronic Stability Control (ESC) 339
21.1.3.1 Vehicle Dynamics Controller 342
21.1.3.2 Brake Slip Controller 344
21.1.3.3 Drive Slip Controller 346
21.1.4 Electronic Brake Force Distribution (EBV) 348
21.1.5 Electronically Controlled Deceleration (ECD) 348
21.1.6 Hill Descent Control (HDC) 348
21.1.7 Brake Assistant (BA) 349
21.1.8 Active Trailer Stabilization 350
21.2 Function of the Brake System in Driver Assistance Systems 351
21.3 Requirements of the Brake System for Driver Assistance Systems 352
21.4 Brake System Designs for Driver Assistance Systems 352
21.5 Monitoring the Brake System for Driver Assistance Systems 356
21.6 Outlook and Perspective 356

22 The Brake in the Mechatronic Chassis 358

22.1 Introduction 358
22.2 Chassis Mechanics 358
22.2.1 Function Structure and Suspension Interfaces 358
22.2.2 Interaction Between Brakes and Suspension 358
22.2.3 Representation of Chassis Piameters 359
22.3 Limitations of Passive Chassis Systems 360
22.3.1 Constraints of Conventional Hydraulically Actuated Wheel Brakes 360
22.3.2 Dynamics : 360
22.3.3 Braking Comfort 361
22.3.4 Conflict of Objectives Between Handling and Ride 361
22.4 Solution Potential Using Mechatronics 362
22.4.1 Opportunities Through Mechatronics 362
22.4.2 Mechatronics in the Brake System 362
xvi Contents

22.4.3 Mechatronics in the Suspension 364

22.4.4 Interaction Between Steering System and Brake 367
22.4.5 Interaction Between Tires and Brakes 368
22.5 Outlook 370

23 Friction Linings 372

23.1 Introduction \ 372
23.2 Friction Lining Requirements .* 372
23.3 Material Concepts 373
23.3.1 Semimetallic Friction Linings 373
23.3.2 Low Steel Friction Materials 375
23.3.3 Non-Asbestos Organic Friction Linings 375
23.3.4 Nonmetallic Linings 375
23.3.5 Hybrid Linings 376
23.3.6 Friction Linings for Ceramic Discs 376
23.3.7 Underlayer 377
23.4 Ecology 378
23.5 Raw Materials and Their Characteristics in Friction Linings 380
23.6 Test Methods for Raw Materials 382
23.6.1 Analytical Equipment Test Methods 382
23.7 Manufacturing Procedures 384
23.8 Outlook 385

24 Function Mechanism and Properties of Friction Couplings in Brake Processes 387

24.1 Introduction 387
24.2 Test Devices, Characteristic Load Values, and Assessment Criteria 387
24.2.1 Test Methods, Testing Opportunities, and Measurement Systems 387
24.2.2 Characteristic Parameters of Load 389
24.2.3 Criteria for Assessment of Friction and Wear Properties 389
24.2.4 Friction Surface Temperature 391
24.3 Running-In Process 391
24.4 The Function Mechanism in the Contact Surface 392
24.5 Local Friction Lining Wear 393
24.6 Local Friction Coefficients 394
24.7 Explanation of the Function Mechanism in the Contact Surface 395
24.8 Parameters that Influence Friction and Wear Properties 395

25 Mechanical Brakes in Stationary Industrial Plants 399

25.1 Introduction 399
25.2 Industrial Brakes 399
25.2.1 Preferred Types of Mechanical Brakes 399
25.2.2 The Interaction of Energy Between Drive Gear and Brake 401
25.2.3 Friction and Wear Properties of the Friction Couples 402
25.2.4 Dimensioning of Friction Couples for Industrial Brakes 405
25.3 Friction Disc Brakes 407

26 Vibration and Noise 410

26.1 Definition 410
26.2 Forms of Vibration and Noise 410
26.2.1 Low-Frequency Vibrations and Noise 410
26.2.2 High-Frequency Noises 410
26.3 Sources of Excitation 410
26.3.1 Causes of Low-Frequency Noises and Vibrations 410
26.3.2 Causes of High-Frequency Noise 412
26.4 Effects 412
26.4.1 Vibrations 412
26.4.2 Acoustic Effects 412
' 26.5 Test and Evaluation Methods 412
26.5.1 Simulation 412
Contents xvn

26.5.2 Test Setup Investigations •. 413

26.5.3 Road Tests 414
26.6 Measures to Reduce or Avoid Vibrations and Noise 414
26.6.1 Measures at the Excitation Sources 414
26.6.2 Measures at the Transfer System 415
26.6.3 Secondary Measures 415
26.7 Outlook and Prospects 416

27 Brakes with Nonmetallic Brake Discs 417

27.1 Introduction 417
27.1.1 History 417
27.1.2 Carbon Brake Discs 417
27.2 Material 417
27.2.1 Definition, Properties, Applications 417
27.2.2 Manufacture of a Carbon-Ceramic Brake Disc 417
27.2.2.1 Manufacturing Process 417
27.2.3 Quality Assurance 419
27.2.3.1 Tests During Manufacture 419
27.2.3.2 Random Sample Tests 419
27.3 Application 419
27.3.1 Design of Ceramic Brakes 419
27.3.1.1 Dimensioning of the Brake System 419
27.3.1.2 Brake Disc Ring 419
27.3.1.3 Brake Disc Chamber 420
27.3.1.4 Brake Linings 421
27.3.2 Influence of Ceramic Brakes on Vehicle Properties 421
27.3.2.1 Influence on Braking Performance 421
27.3.2.2 Influence on Driving Performances, Driving Properties,
and Comfort 421
27.3.3 Wear Behavior 421
27.3.3.1 Abrasive Wear 421
27.3.3.2 Cracking Due to Thermal Stresses 422
27.3.3.3 Thermal Wear (Fiber Erosion) 422
27.3.3.4 Wear Assessment .' 422
27.4 Further Development of the Carbon-Ceramic Brake Disc Technology 422

28 Brake Fluid 424

28.1 Brake Fluid Types 424
28.1.1 Glycol-, Glycol Ether-, and Borate Ester-Based Brake Fluids 424
28.1.2 Silicone Ester-Based Brake Fluids 424
28.1.3 Mineral Oil-Based Brake Fluids 425
28.2 National and International Standards 425
28.3 Brake Fluid Properties 425
28.3.1 Vehicle-Specific Suitability 425
28.3.2 Compatibility with Other Brake Fluids 426
28.3.3 Physical Properties 426
28.4 Brake Fluid Handling and Storage 427
28.4.1 Handling 427
28.4.2 Storage 427
28.4.3 Disposal : 428

29 Brake Testing ) 429

29.1 Wheel Brake 429
29.1.1 Laboratory Tests '. 429
29.1.1.1 Functional Behavior 429
29.1.1.2 Tightness 430
29.1.1.3 Strength 430
29.1.1.4 Vibration 431
29.1.1.5 Corrosion 431
xviii Contents

29.1.2 Dynamometer Tests 431

29.1.2.1 Brake Dynamometers 432
29.1.2.2 Strength and Brake Disc Testing 438
29.1.2.3 Function of the Wheel Brake 439
29.1.2.4 Performance , '. 439
29.1.2.5 Comfort ... j 440
29.1.3 Road Tests .1 442
29.1.3.1 Static/Dynamic Basic Measurements 442
29.1.3.2 Brake Lining Coefficient of Friction Tests 443
29.1.3.3 Performance Tests 443
29.1.3.4 Comfort Tests 444
29.1.3.5 Endurance Tests 444
29.1.3.6 Statutory Requirements 445
29.2 Electronic Brake Systems (EBS) 445
29.2.1 Laboratory Tests 445
29.2.1.1 Environmental Simulations 446
29.2.1.2 Resistance to Media 446
29.2.1.3 Testing in Corrosive Gas Atmospheres 446
29.2.1.4 Corrosion Tests 446
29.2.2 Dynamometer Tests 447
29.2.2.1 Functional Developments on the Overall System Test Rig 447
29.2.2.2 Endurance Testing of the Overall EBS System 447
29.2.2.3 Vibration Resistance 449
29.2.3 Vehicle Tests 449

30 Safety and Reliability of Brake Systems 455

30.1 Brakes as Sources of Trouble 455
30.1.1 Safety Considerations on Conventional Braking Devices 455
30.1.2 Safety Considerations for Braking Systems Incorporating Newer
Technologies 456
30.1.2.1 System Reliability 457
30.1.2.2 System Availability 458
30.1.2.3 Requirements Pertaining to Electronic Safety Systems 458
30.2 Lean Testing in Automotive Industry 460
30.2.1 Support in the Design and Development Phase 460
30.2.2 Homologation 460
30.2.3 Field Experience 460
30.3 Developing the Basic Principles of Testing and Inspection 461
30.3.1 Continuous Improvement of the Main Roadworthiness Inspection 461
30.3.2 Future Homologation 463

31 Legislation and Testing Procedures 465

31.1 Homologation Procedure in Europe and the United States 465
31.2 Development Processes of Regulations in Europe and the United States 466
31.2.1 Development Process for Regulations in the EU 466
31.2.2 Development Process for Regulations at the UN ECE 466
31.2.3 Development Process for Regulations in the United States 467
31.3 European Regulations for Road Vehicles 467
31.3.1 General Regulations, ECE Regulation 13, and EU Directive 71/320/EEC 467
31.3.2 Performance Regulations 469
31.3.3 The Distribution of Braking Forces and Compatibility Between
Tractor and Trailer 471
31.3.4 Regulations for ABS Systems 472
31.3.5 Regulations for Complex Electronic Systems 473
31.3.6 Testing Aftermarket Friction Linings 473
31.4 United States Braking Regulations 473
31.4.1 FMVSS 105—Hydraulic Braking Systems 473
31.4.2 FMVSS 121—Pneumatic Braking Systems 473
Contents

31.4.3 FMVSS 106—Brake Hose Assemblies • 473

31.4.4 FMVSS 116—Brake Fluids for Motor Vehicles 474
31.5 Worldwide Harmonization 474
31.5.1 FMVSS 135 and ECE R.13H 474
31.5.2 Harmonization: A Look into the Future 474
32 Maintenance and Diagnosis of Brake Systems 476
32.1 Influence of Standards, Regulations, and Laws in Practice 476
32.2 Brake Diagnosis 477
32.2.1 Noise and Vibrations 477
32.2.2 Pedal Box 477
32.2.3 Booster 478
32.2.4 Master Cylinder 478
32.2.5 Supply Pipes and Brake Hoses 479
32.2.6 Brakes 479
32.2.6.1 Disc Brakes 479
32.2.6.2 Drum Brakes 481
32.2.7 Pressure Control Devices 482
32.2.8 Brake Fluid 482
32.2.9 ABS, BA, EHB, VSC, and Other Components and Their Inspection 483
32.3 Environment, Repair, and Maintenance at Fair Market Value 483
32.4 Test Devices 483
33 Development Trends and Future Aspects 485
33.1 Social and Economic Trends 485
33.2 The Driver's Task—Today and Tomorrow 485
33.3 Quantum Leaps in New Technology 487
33.4 Limits of Power-Assisted Systems—Potential of By-Wire Systems 487
33.5 The Human-Machine Interface 488
33.6 Examples of By-Wire Technologies and Assistance Systems in the Chassis Sector 488
33.6.1 Throttle-by-Wire (E-Gas) 488
33.6.2 Shift-by-Wire 490
33.6.3 Steer-by-Wire 491
33.6.4 Brake-by-Wire (EHB and EMB) 491
33.6.5 Energy Management in the Car of the Future: The 42-Volt Onboard Network ... 492
33.7 Global Chassis Control with Networked Assistance and Chassis Systems 493
33.7.1 ESC II—Networking with Externally Controlled Lead Steering 493
33.7.2 Electronic Air Suspension; Damper and Stabilizer Adjustment 494
33.7.3 Technical and Economic Necessities 495
33.7.4 APIA—The All-Encompassing Approach to Safety 496
33.7.5 The Long-Term Goal of Accident Prevention 496

Chapters, Contributions, and Authors 499

Author Index 501

Index of Companies and Universities 506

Illustration Credits 509

About the Editors \ 510

Index 511

Color Section 529