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COMMUNICATION RECEIVERS

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TOPICS COVERED

• BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL REPRODUCTION

• SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS
• FREQUENCY CONVERSION
• INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
• NOISE
• TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS
• RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION
• IN RADIO COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS, THE TRANSMITTED SIGNAL IS
VERY WEAK WHEN IT REACHES THE RECEIVER, PARTICULARLY WHEN IT
HAS TRAVELED OVER A LONG DISTANCE.
• THE SIGNAL HAS ALSO PICKED UP NOISE OF VARIOUS KINDS.
• RECEIVERS MUST PROVIDE THE SENSITIVITY AND SELECTIVITY THAT
PERMIT FULL RECOVERY OF THE ORIGINAL SIGNAL.
• THE RADIO RECEIVER BEST SUITED TO THIS TASK IS KNOWN AS THE
SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION
• A COMMUNICATION RECEIVER MUST BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY AND
SELECT A DESIRED SIGNAL FROM THE THOUSANDS OF OTHERS
PRESENT IN THE FREQUENCY SPECTRUM (SELECTIVITY) AND TO
PROVIDE SUFFICIENT AMPLIFICATION TO RECOVER THE MODULATING
SIGNAL (SENSITIVITY).
• A RECEIVER WITH GOOD SELECTIVITY WILL ISOLATE THE DESIRED
SIGNAL AND GREATLY ATTENUATE OTHER SIGNALS.
• A RECEIVER WITH GOOD SENSITIVITY INVOLVES HIGH CIRCUIT GAIN.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION
SELECTIVITY: Q AND BANDWIDTH
• SELECTIVITY IN A RECEIVER IS OBTAINED BY USING TUNED CIRCUITS
AND/OR FILTERS.
• LC TUNED CIRCUITS PROVIDE INITIAL SELECTIVITY.
• FILTERS PROVIDE ADDITIONAL SELECTIVITY.
• BY CONTROLLING THE Q OF A RESONANT CIRCUIT, YOU CAN SET THE
DESIRED SELECTIVITY.
• THE OPTIMUM BANDWIDTH IS ONE THAT IS WIDE ENOUGH TO PASS THE
SIGNAL AND ITS SIDEBANDS BUT NARROW ENOUGH TO ELIMINATE
SIGNALS ON ADJACENT FREQUENCIES.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION

Selectivity curve of a tuned circuit.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION
SELECTIVITY: SHAPE FACTOR
• THE SIDES OF A TUNED CIRCUIT RESPONSE CURVE ARE KNOWN AS
SKIRTS.
• THE STEEPNESS OF THE SKIRTS, OR THE SKIRT SELECTIVITY, OF A
RECEIVER IS EXPRESSED AS THE SHAPE FACTOR, THE RATIO OF THE 60-
DB DOWN BANDWIDTH TO THE 6-DB DOWN BANDWIDTH.
• THE LOWER THE SHAPE FACTOR, THE STEEPER THE SKIRTS AND THE
BETTER THE SELECTIVITY.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION
SENSITIVITY
• A COMMUNICATION RECEIVER’S SENSITIVITY, OR ABILITY TO PICK UP
WEAK SIGNALS, IS A FUNCTION OF OVERALL GAIN, THE FACTOR BY
WHICH AN INPUT SIGNAL IS MULTIPLIED TO PRODUCE THE OUTPUT
SIGNAL.
• THE HIGHER THE GAIN OF A RECEIVER, THE BETTER ITS SENSITIVITY.
• THE MORE GAIN THAT A RECEIVER HAS, THE SMALLER THE INPUT SIGNAL
NECESSARY TO PRODUCE A DESIRED LEVEL OF OUTPUT.
• HIGH GAIN IN RECEIVERS IS OBTAINED BY USING MULTIPLE
AMPLIFICATION STAGES.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION
SENSITIVITY
• ANOTHER FACTOR THAT AFFECTS THE SENSITIVITY OF A RECEIVER IS THE
SIGNAL-TO-NOISE (S/N) RATIO (SNR).
• ONE METHOD OF EXPRESSING THE SENSITIVITY OF A RECEIVER IS TO
ESTABLISH THE MINIMUM DISCERNIBLE SIGNAL (MDS).
• THE MDS IS THE INPUT SIGNAL LEVEL THAT IS APPROXIMATELY EQUAL TO THE
AVERAGE INTERNALLY GENERATED NOISE VALUE.
• THIS NOISE VALUE IS CALLED THE NOISE FLOOR OF THE RECEIVER.
• MDS IS THE AMOUNT OF SIGNAL THAT WOULD PRODUCE THE SAME AUDIO
POWER OUTPUT AS THE NOISE FLOOR SIGNAL.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION
BASIC RECEIVER CONFIGURATION
• THE SIMPLEST RADIO RECEIVER IS A CRYSTAL SET CONSISTING OF A
TUNED CIRCUIT, A DIODE (CRYSTAL) DETECTOR, AND EARPHONES.
• THE TUNED CIRCUIT PROVIDES THE SELECTIVITY.
• THE DIODE AND A CAPACITOR SERVE AS AN AM DEMODULATOR.
• THE EARPHONES REPRODUCE THE RECOVERED AUDIO SIGNAL.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION

The simplest receiver—a crystal set.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION
TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY (TRF) RECEIVER
• IN THE TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY (TRF) RECEIVER SENSITIVITY IS
IMPROVED BY ADDING A NUMBER OF STAGES OF RF AMPLIFICATION
BETWEEN THE ANTENNA AND DETECTOR, FOLLOWED BY STAGES OF
AUDIO AMPLIFICATION.
• THE RF AMPLIFIER STAGES INCREASE THE GAIN BEFORE IT IS APPLIED TO
THE DETECTOR.
• THE RECOVERED SIGNAL IS AMPLIFIED FURTHER BY AUDIO AMPLIFIERS,
WHICH PROVIDE SUFFICIENT GAIN TO OPERATE A LOUDSPEAKER.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION

Tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver.

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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF SIGNAL

REPRODUCTION
TUNED RADIO FREQUENCY (TRF) RECEIVER
• MANY RF AMPLIFIERS USE MULTIPLE TUNED CIRCUITS.
• WHENEVER RESONANT LC CIRCUITS TUNED TO THE SAME FREQUENCY
ARE CASCADED, OVERALL SELECTIVITY IS IMPROVED.
• THE GREATER THE NUMBER OF TUNED STAGES CASCADED, THE
NARROWER THE BANDWIDTH AND THE STEEPER THE SKIRTS.
• THE MAIN PROBLEM WITH TRF RECEIVERS IS TRACKING THE TUNED
CIRCUITS.
• IN A RECEIVER, THE TUNED CIRCUITS MUST BE MADE VARIABLE SO THAT
THEY CAN BE SET TO THE FREQUENCY OF THE DESIRED SIGNAL.
• ANOTHER PROBLEM WITH TRF RECEIVERS IS THAT SELECTIVITY VARIES
WITH FREQUENCY.

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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

• SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS CONVERT ALL INCOMING SIGNALS

TO A LOWER FREQUENCY, KNOWN AS THE INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY (IF), AT WHICH A SINGLE SET OF AMPLIFIERS IS USED TO
PROVIDE A FIXED LEVEL OF SENSITIVITY AND SELECTIVITY.
• GAIN AND SELECTIVITY ARE OBTAINED IN THE IF AMPLIFIERS.
• THE KEY CIRCUIT IS THE MIXER, WHICH ACTS LIKE A SIMPLE AMPLITUDE
MODULATOR TO PRODUCE SUM AND DIFFERENCE FREQUENCIES.
• THE INCOMING SIGNAL IS MIXED WITH A LOCAL OSCILLATOR
SIGNAL.

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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

Figure 9-8: Block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.

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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

RF AMPLIFIER
• THE ANTENNA PICKS UP THE WEAK RADIO SIGNAL AND FEEDS IT TO THE
RF AMPLIFIER, ALSO CALLED A LOW-NOISE AMPLIFIER (LNA).
• RF AMPLIFIERS PROVIDE SOME INITIAL GAIN AND SELECTIVITY AND ARE
SOMETIMES CALLED PRESELECTORS.
• TUNED CIRCUITS HELP SELECT THE FREQUENCY RANGE IN WHICH THE
SIGNAL RESIDES.
• RF AMPLIFIERS MINIMIZE OSCILLATOR RADIATION.
• BIPOLAR AND FETS CAN BE USED AS RF AMPLIFIERS.

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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

MIXERS AND LOCAL OSCILLATORS

• THE OUTPUT OF THE RF AMPLIFIER IS APPLIED TO THE INPUT OF THE
MIXER.
• THE MIXER ALSO RECEIVES AN INPUT FROM A LOCAL OSCILLATOR OR
FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER.
• THE MIXER OUTPUT IS THE INPUT SIGNAL, THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR
SIGNAL, AND THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE FREQUENCIES OF THESE
SIGNALS.
• A TUNED CIRCUIT AT THE OUTPUT OF THE MIXER SELECTS THE DIFFERENCE
FREQUENCY, OR INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY (IF).
• THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR IS MADE TUNABLE SO THAT ITS FREQUENCY
CAN BE ADJUSTED OVER A RELATIVELY WIDE RANGE.

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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

IF AMPLIFIERS
• THE OUTPUT OF THE MIXER IS AN IF SIGNAL CONTAINING THE SAME
MODULATION THAT APPEARED ON THE INPUT RF SIGNAL.
• THE SIGNAL IS AMPLIFIED BY ONE OR MORE IF AMPLIFIER STAGES, AND
MOST OF THE GAIN IS OBTAINED IN THESE STAGES.
• SELECTIVE TUNED CIRCUITS PROVIDE FIXED SELECTIVITY.
• SINCE THE INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY IS USUALLY LOWER THAN THE
INPUT FREQUENCY, IF AMPLIFIERS ARE EASIER TO DESIGN AND GOOD
SELECTIVITY IS EASIER TO OBTAIN.

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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

DEMODULATORS
• THE HIGHLY AMPLIFIED IF SIGNAL IS FINALLY APPLIED TO THE
DEMODULATOR, WHICH RECOVERS THE ORIGINAL MODULATING
INFORMATION.
• THE DEMODULATOR MAY BE A DIODE DETECTOR (FOR AM), A
QUADRATURE DETECTOR (FOR FM), OR A PRODUCT DETECTOR (FOR SSB).
• THE OUTPUT OF THE DEMODULATOR IS THEN USUALLY FED TO AN AUDIO
AMPLIFIER.

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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL

• THE OUTPUT OF A DEMODULATOR IS USUALLY THE ORIGINAL
MODULATING SIGNAL, THE AMPLITUDE OF WHICH IS DIRECTLY
PROPORTIONAL TO THE AMPLITUDE OF THE RECEIVED SIGNAL.
• THE RECOVERED SIGNAL, WHICH IS USUALLY AC, IS RECTIFIED AND
FILTERED INTO A DC VOLTAGE BY A CIRCUIT KNOWN AS THE
AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL (AGC) CIRCUIT.
• THIS DC VOLTAGE IS FED BACK TO THE IF AMPLIFIERS, AND SOMETIMES
THE RF AMPLIFIER, TO CONTROL RECEIVER GAIN.
• AGC CIRCUITS HELP MAINTAIN A CONSTANT OUTPUT LEVEL OVER A
WIDE RANGE OF RF INPUT SIGNAL LEVELS.

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SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVERS

AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL

• THE AMPLITUDE OF THE RF SIGNAL AT THE ANTENNA OF A RECEIVER CAN
RANGE FROM A FRACTION OF A MICROVOLT TO THOUSANDS OF
MICROVOLTS; THIS WIDE SIGNAL RANGE IS KNOWN AS THE DYNAMIC
RANGE.
• TYPICALLY, RECEIVERS ARE DESIGNED WITH VERY HIGH GAIN SO THAT
WEAK SIGNALS CAN BE RELIABLY RECEIVED.
• HOWEVER, APPLYING A VERY HIGH-AMPLITUDE SIGNAL TO A RECEIVER
CAUSES THE CIRCUITS TO BE OVERDRIVEN, PRODUCING DISTORTION
AND REDUCING INTELLIGIBILITY.
• WITH AGC, THE OVERALL GAIN OF THE RECEIVER IS AUTOMATICALLY
ADJUSTED DEPENDING ON THE INPUT SIGNAL LEVEL.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

• FREQUENCY CONVERSION IS THE PROCESS OF TRANSLATING A

MODULATED SIGNAL TO A HIGHER OR LOWER FREQUENCY WHILE
RETAINING ALL THE ORIGINALLY TRANSMITTED INFORMATION.
• IN RADIO RECEIVERS, HIGH-FREQUENCY SIGNALS ARE CONVERTED TO
A LOWER, INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY. THIS IS CALLED DOWN
CONVERSION.
• IN SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS, THE ORIGINAL SIGNAL IS
GENERATED AT A LOWER FREQUENCY AND THEN CONVERTED TO A
HIGHER FREQUENCY. THIS IS CALLED UP CONVERSION.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

MIXING PRINCIPLES
• FREQUENCY CONVERSION IS A FORM OF AMPLITUDE MODULATION
CARRIED OUT BY A MIXER CIRCUIT OR CONVERTER.
• THE FUNCTION PERFORMED BY THE MIXER IS CALLED HETERODYNING.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

MIXING PRINCIPLES
• MIXERS ACCEPT TWO INPUTS: THE SIGNAL TO BE TRANSLATED TO
ANOTHER FREQUENCY IS APPLIED TO ONE INPUT, AND THE SINE WAVE
FROM A LOCAL OSCILLATOR IS APPLIED TO THE OTHER INPUT.
• LIKE AN AMPLITUDE MODULATOR, A MIXER ESSENTIALLY PERFORMS A
MATHEMATICAL MULTIPLICATION OF ITS TWO INPUT SIGNALS.
• THE OSCILLATOR IS THE CARRIER, AND THE SIGNAL TO BE TRANSLATED IS
THE MODULATING SIGNAL.
• THE OUTPUT CONTAINS NOT ONLY THE CARRIER SIGNAL BUT ALSO
SIDEBANDS FORMED WHEN THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR AND INPUT SIGNAL
ARE MIXED.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

Concept of a mixer.
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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

MIXER AND CONVERTER CIRCUITS: DIODE MIXER

• THE PRIMARY CHARACTERISTIC OF MIXER CIRCUITS IS NONLINEARITY.
• ANY DEVICE OR CIRCUIT WHOSE OUTPUT DOES NOT VARY LINEARLY
WITH THE INPUT CAN BE USED AS A MIXER.
• ONE OF THE MOST WIDELY USED TYPES OF MIXER IS THE SIMPLE DIODE
MODULATOR.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

MIXER AND CONVERTER CIRCUITS: DIODE MIXER

• THE INPUT SIGNAL IS APPLIED TO THE PRIMARY WINDING OF THE
TRANSFORMER.
• THE SIGNAL IS COUPLED TO THE SECONDARY WINDING AND APPLIED
TO THE DIODE MIXER, AND THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR SIGNAL IS COUPLED
TO THE DIODE BY WAY OF A CAPACITOR.
• THE INPUT AND LOCAL OSCILLATOR SIGNALS ARE LINEARLY ADDED AND
APPLIED TO THE DIODE, WHICH PRODUCES THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE
FREQUENCIES.
• THE OUTPUT SIGNALS ARE DEVELOPED ACROSS THE TUNED CIRCUIT
WHICH SELECTS THE DIFFERENCE FREQUENCY.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

A simple diode mixer.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

MIXER AND CONVERTER CIRCUITS

• SINGLY BALANCED MIXER: A POPULAR MIXER CIRCUIT USING TWO
DIODES.
• DOUBLY BALANCED MIXER: THIS VERSION OF THE DIODE BALANCED
MODULATOR IS PROBABLY THE SINGLE BEST MIXER AVAILABLE,
ESPECIALLY FOR VHF, UHF, AND MICROWAVE FREQUENCIES.
• FET MIXERS: FETS MAKE GOOD MIXERS BECAUSE THEY PROVIDE GAIN,
HAVE LOW NOISE, AND OFFER A NEARLY PERFECT SQUARE-LOW
RESPONSE.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

MIXER AND CONVERTER CIRCUITS: IC MIXER

• THE NE602, A TYPICAL IC MIXER, IS ALSO KNOWN AS A GILBERT
TRANSCONDUCTANCE CELL OR GILBERT CELL.
• IT CONSISTS OF A DOUBLE BALANCED MIXER CIRCUIT MADE UP OF TWO CROSS-
CONNECTED DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIERS.

MIXER AND CONVERTER CIRCUITS: IMAGE REJECT MIXER

• AN IMAGE REJECT MIXER IS A SPECIAL TYPE OF MIXER USED IN DESIGNS IN WHICH
IMAGES CANNOT BE TOLERATED.
• IT USES GILBERT CELL MIXERS IN A CONFIGURATION LIKE THAT USED IN A PHASING-
TYPE SSB GENERATOR.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

NE602 IC MIXER. (A)

BLOCK DIAGRAM AND
PINOUT. (B) SIMPLIFIED
SCHEMATIC.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

LOCAL OSCILLATOR AND FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS

• THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR SIGNAL FOR THE MIXER COMES FROM EITHER A
CONVENTIONAL LC TUNED OSCILLATOR OR A FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER.
• THE SIMPLER CONTINUOUSLY TUNED RECEIVERS USE AN LC OSCILLATOR.
• CHANNELIZED RECEIVERS USE FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

LOCAL OSCILLATOR AND FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS: LC OSCILLATOR

• A LOCAL OSCILLATOR IS SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS A VARIABLE-
FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR, OR VFO.
• AN AMPLIFIER (E.G. FET) IS CONNECTED AS A COLPITTS OSCILLATOR.
• FEEDBACK IS DEVELOPED BY A VOLTAGE DIVIDER MADE UP OF
CAPACITORS.
• THE FREQUENCY IS SET BY A PARALLEL TUNED CIRCUIT.
• THE OUTPUT IS TAKEN ACROSS AN RFC AND IT IS BUFFERED BY A DIRECT-
COUPLED EMITTER FOLLOWER.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

Figure 9-17: A VFO for receiver local oscillator service.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

LOCAL OSCILLATOR AND FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS: FREQUENCY

SYNTHESIZER
• MOST NEW RECEIVER DESIGNS INCORPORATE FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZERS
FOR THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR, WHICH PROVIDES SOME IMPORTANT BENEFITS
OVER SIMPLE VFO DESIGNS.
• THE SYNTHESIZER IS USUALLY OF THE PHASE-LOCKED LOOP (PLL) DESIGN
AND THE OUTPUT IS LOCKED TO A CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR REFERENCE WHICH
PROVIDES HIGH STABILITY.
• TUNING IS ACCOMPLISHED BY CHANGING THE FREQUENCY DIVISION
FACTOR IN THE PLL, RESULTING IN INCREMENTAL RATHER THAN CONTINUOUS
FREQUENCY CHANGES.

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FREQUENCY CONVERSION

A frequency synthesizer used as a receiver local oscillator.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
• THE PRIMARY OBJECTIVE IN THE DESIGN OF AN IF STAGE IS TO
OBTAIN GOOD SELECTIVITY.
• NARROW-BAND SELECTIVITY IS BEST OBTAINED AT LOWER
FREQUENCIES.
• AT LOW FREQUENCIES, CIRCUITS ARE MORE STABLE WITH HIGH GAIN.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
• AT LOW FREQUENCIES, IMAGE INTERFERENCE IS POSSIBLE. AN IMAGE
IS AN RF SIGNAL TWO TIMES THE IF ABOVE OR BELOW THE
INCOMING FREQUENCY.
• AT HIGHER FREQUENCIES, CIRCUIT LAYOUTS MUST TAKE INTO
ACCOUNT STRAY INDUCTANCES AND CAPACITANCES.
• AT HIGHER FREQUENCIES, THERE IS A NEED FOR SHIELDING.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES

Relationship of the signal and image frequencies.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES

Signal, local oscillator, and image frequencies in a superheterodyne.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
SOLVING THE IMAGE PROBLEM
• TO REDUCE IMAGE INTERFERENCE, HIGH-Q TUNED CIRCUITS SHOULD BE
USED AHEAD OF THE MIXER OR RF AMPLIFIER.
• THE IF IS MADE AS HIGH AS POSSIBLE FOR EFFECTIVE ELIMINATION OF
THE IMAGE PROBLEM, YET LOW ENOUGH TO PREVENT DESIGN
PROBLEMS.
• IN MOST RECEIVERS THE IF VARIES IN PROPORTION TO THE FREQUENCIES
THAT MUST BE COVERED.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES

A low IF compared to the signal frequency with low-Q tuned circuits causes images to pass and
interfere.
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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
DUAL-CONVERSION RECEIVERS
• ANOTHER WAY TO OBTAIN SELECTIVITY WHILE ELIMINATING THE IMAGE
PROBLEM IS TO USE A DUAL-CONVERSION SUPERHETERODYNE
RECEIVER.
• A TYPICAL RECEIVER USES TWO MIXERS AND LOCAL OSCILLATORS, SO IT
HAS TWO IFS.
• THE FIRST MIXER CONVERTS THE INCOMING SIGNAL TO A HIGH
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY TO ELIMINATE THE IMAGES.
• THE SECOND MIXER CONVERTS THAT IF DOWN TO A MUCH LOWER
FREQUENCY, WHERE GOOD SELECTIVITY IS EASIER TO OBTAIN.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES

A dual-conversion superheterodyne.
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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
DIRECT CONVERSION RECEIVERS
• A SPECIAL VERSION OF THE SUPERHETERODYNE IS KNOWN AS THE
DIRECT CONVERSION (DC) OR ZERO IF (ZIF) RECEIVER.
• DC RECEIVERS CONVERT THE INCOMING SIGNAL DIRECTLY TO
BASEBAND WITHOUT CONVERTING TO AN IF.
• THEY PERFORM DEMODULATION AS PART OF THE TRANSLATION.
• THE LOW-NOISE AMPLIFIER (LNA) BOOSTS THE SIGNAL BEFORE THE
MIXER.
• THE LOCAL OSCILLATOR (LO) FREQUENCY IS SET TO THE FREQUENCY OF
THE INCOMING SIGNAL.
• BASEBAND OUTPUT IS PASSED VIA A LOW-PASS FILTER (LPF).

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES

A direct-conversion (zero-IF) receiver.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
DIRECT CONVERSION RECEIVERS
• ADVANTAGES:
• NO SEPARATE IF FILTER IS NEEDED.
• NO SEPARATE DETECTOR CIRCUIT IS NEEDED.
• IN TRANSCEIVERS THAT USE HALF DUPLEX AND IN WHICH THE TRANSMITTER
AND RECEIVER ARE ON THE SAME FREQUENCY, ONLY ONE PLL FREQUENCY
SYNTHESIZER VOLTAGE-CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR IS NEEDED.
• THERE IS NO IMAGE PROBLEM.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
DIRECT CONVERSION RECEIVERS
• DISADVANTAGES:
• IN DESIGNS WITH NO RF AMPLIFIER (LNA), THE LO SIGNAL CAN LEAK
THROUGH THE MIXER TO THE ANTENNA AND RADIATE.
• AN UNDESIRED DC OFFSET CAN DEVELOP IN THE OUTPUT.
• THE ZIF RECEIVER CAN BE USED ONLY WITH CW, AM, SSB, OR DSB. IT
CANNOT RECOGNIZE PHASE OR FREQUENCY VARIATIONS.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES

A direct conversion receiver for FM, FSK, PSK, and digital modulation.
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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
DIRECT CONVERSION RECEIVERS
• TO DEMODULATE FM AND PM MODULATIONS IN A ZERO-IF RECEIVER,
TWO MIXERS AND FILTERS ARE NEEDED.
• THERE MUST BE A 90° PHASE SHIFT BETWEEN THE LO SIGNALS TO
PRODUCE I AND Q SIGNALS FOR THE DSP DEMODULATION.

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INTERMEDIATE
FREQUENCY AND IMAGES
SOFTWARE-DEFINED RADIO
• A SOFTWARE-DEFINED RADIO (SDR) IS A RECEIVER IN WHICH MOST OF
THE FUNCTIONS ARE PERFORMED BY A DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSOR
(DSP).
• THE BENEFITS OF SDRS ARE IMPROVED PERFORMANCE AND FLEXIBILITY.
• THE RECEIVER CHARACTERISTICS (TYPE OF MODULATION, SELECTIVITY,
ETC.) CAN BE EASILY CHANGED BY RUNNING A DIFFERENT PROGRAM.

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NOISE

• NOISE IS AN ELECTRONIC SIGNAL THAT GETS ADDED TO A RADIO OR

INFORMATION SIGNAL AS IT IS TRANSMITTED FROM ONE PLACE TO
ANOTHER.
• IT IS NOT THE SAME AS INTERFERENCE FROM OTHER INFORMATION
SIGNALS.

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NOISE

• NOISE IS THE STATIC YOU HEAR IN THE SPEAKER WHEN YOU TUNE
ANY AM OR FM RECEIVER TO ANY POSITION BETWEEN STATIONS. IT
IS ALSO THE “SNOW” OR “CONFETTI” THAT IS VISIBLE ON A TV
SCREEN.
• THE NOISE LEVEL IN A SYSTEM IS PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE
AND BANDWIDTH, THE AMOUNT OF CURRENT FLOWING IN A
COMPONENT, THE GAIN OF THE CIRCUIT, AND THE RESISTANCE OF
THE CIRCUIT.

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NOISE

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
• THE SIGNAL-TO-NOISE (S/N) RATIO INDICATES THE RELATIVE STRENGTHS
OF THE SIGNAL AND THE NOISE IN A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM.
• THE STRONGER THE SIGNAL AND THE WEAKER THE NOISE, THE HIGHER
THE S/N RATIO.
• THE S/N RATIO IS A POWER RATIO.

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NOISE

EXTERNAL NOISE
• EXTERNAL NOISE COMES FROM SOURCES OVER WHICH WE HAVE LITTLE
OR NO CONTROL, SUCH AS:
• INDUSTRIAL SOURCES
• MOTORS, GENERATORS, MANUFACTURED EQUIPMENT
• ATMOSPHERIC SOURCES
• THE NATURALLY OCCURRING ELECTRICAL DISTURBANCES IN THE EARTH’S
ATMOSPHERE; ATMOSPHERIC NOISE IS ALSO CALLED STATIC.
• SPACE
• THE SUN RADIATES A WIDE RANGE OF SIGNALS IN A BROAD NOISE SPECTRUM.

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NOISE

INTERNAL NOISE
• ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS IN A RECEIVER SUCH AS RESISTORS, DIODES,
AND TRANSISTORS ARE MAJOR SOURCES OF INTERNAL NOISE. TYPES
OF INTERNAL NOISE INCLUDE:
• THERMAL NOISE
• SEMICONDUCTOR NOISE
• INTERMODULATION DISTORTION

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NOISE

EXPRESSING NOISE LEVELS

• THE NOISE QUALITY OF A RECEIVER CAN BE EXPRESSED IN THE FOLLOWING
TERMS:
• THE NOISE FACTOR IS THE RATIO OF THE S/N POWER AT
THE INPUT TO THE S/N POWER AT THE OUTPUT.
• WHEN THE NOISE FACTOR IS EXPRESSED IN DECIBELS, IT IS
CALLED THE NOISE FIGURE.
• MOST OF THE NOISE PRODUCED IN A DEVICE IS THERMAL,
WHICH IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO TEMPERATURE.
THEREFORE, THE TERM NOISE TEMPERATURE (TN) IS USED.
• SINAD IS THE COMPOSITE SIGNAL PLUS NOISE AND
DISTORTION DIVIDED BY NOISE AND DISTORTION
CONTRIBUTED BY THE RECEIVER.

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NOISE

NOISE IN CASCADED STAGES

• NOISE HAS ITS GREATEST EFFECT AT THE INPUT TO A RECEIVER BECAUSE
THAT IS THE POINT AT WHICH THE SIGNAL LEVEL IS LOWEST.
• THE NOISE PERFORMANCE OF A RECEIVER IS DETERMINED IN THE FIRST
STAGE OF THE RECEIVER, USUALLY AN RF AMPLIFIER OR MIXER.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

• TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS INCLUDE:

• RF AMPLIFIERS
• IF AMPLIFIERS
• AGC
• AFC
• SPECIAL CIRCUITS

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

RF INPUT AMPLIFIER
• THE RF AMPLIFIER, ALSO CALLED A LOW-NOISE AMPLIFIER (LNA),
PROCESSES THE VERY WEAK INPUT SIGNALS, INCREASING THEIR
AMPLITUDE PRIOR TO MIXING.
• LOW-NOISE COMPONENTS ARE USED TO ENSURE A SUFFICIENTLY HIGH
S/N RATIO.
• SELECTIVITY SHOULD BE SUCH THAT IT EFFECTIVELY ELIMINATES IMAGES.
• THE RF AMPLIFIER IS TYPICALLY A CLASS A CIRCUIT THAT CAN BE
CONFIGURED WITH BIPOLAR OR FIELD-EFFECT TRANSISTORS.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

A typical RF amplifier used in receiver front ends.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

IF AMPLIFIER
• MOST OF THE GAIN AND SELECTIVITY IN A SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER ARE
OBTAINED IN THE IF AMPLIFIER.
• IF AMPLIFIERS ARE TUNED CLASS A CIRCUITS CAPABLE OF PROVIDING GAIN
IN THE 10- TO 30-DB RANGE.
• USUALLY TWO OR MORE IF AMPLIFIERS ARE USED TO PROVIDE ADEQUATE
RECEIVER GAIN.
• FERRITE-CORE TRANSFORMERS ARE USED FOR COUPLING BETWEEN STAGES.
• SELECTIVITY IS PROVIDED BY TUNED CIRCUITS.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

Figure 9-33: A two-stage IF amplifier using double-tuned transformer coupling for selectivity.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

TRADITIONAL IF AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS: COUPLED CIRCUIT SELECTIVITY

• CHANGING THE AMOUNT OF COUPLING BETWEEN THE PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY WINDINGS ALLOWS THE DESIRED AMOUNT OF
BANDWIDTH TO BE OBTAINED. AT SOME PARTICULAR DEGREE OF
COUPLING, KNOWN AS CRITICAL COUPLING, THE OUTPUT REACHES A
PEAK VALUE.
• IN FM RECEIVERS, ONE OR MORE OF THE IF AMPLIFIER STAGES IS USED
AS A LIMITER, TO REMOVE ANY AMPLITUDE VARIATIONS ON THE FM
SIGNAL BEFORE THE SIGNAL IS APPLIED TO THE DEMODULATOR.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

TRADITIONAL IF AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS: COUPLED CIRCUIT SELECTIVITY

• MOST MODERN RECEIVERS DO NOT USE LC TUNED FILTERS BUT
INSTEAD USE CRYSTAL, CERAMIC, MECHANICAL, SAW OR DSP FILTERS.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL CIRCUITS

• RECEIVER GAIN IS TYPICALLY FAR GREATER THAN REQUIRED FOR
ADEQUATE RECEPTION. EXCESSIVE GAIN USUALLY CAUSES THE RECEIVED
SIGNAL TO BE DISTORTED AND THE TRANSMITTED INFORMATION TO BE
LESS INTELLIGIBLE.
• MANUAL GAIN CONTROL CAN BE ACHIEVED BY USING A
POTENTIOMETER IN RF AND IF STAGES.
• RECEIVERS INCLUDE VOLUME CONTROLS IN AUDIO CIRCUITS.
• AGC CIRCUITS ARE MORE EFFECTIVE IN HANDLING LARGE SIGNALS AND
GIVE THE RECEIVER A VERY WIDE DYNAMIC RANGE.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

AUTOMATIC GAIN CONTROL CIRCUITS: CONTROLLING CIRCUIT GAIN

• THE GAIN OF A BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR AMPLIFIER IS PROPORTIONAL TO
THE AMOUNT OF COLLECTOR CURRENT FLOWING.
• TWO METHODS OF APPLYING AGC ARE AS FOLLOWS:
1. THE GAIN CAN BE DECREASED BY DECREASING THE COLLECTOR CURRENT.
THIS IS CALLED REVERSE AGC.
2. THE GAIN CAN BE REDUCED BY INCREASING THE COLLECTOR CURRENT. A
STRONGER SIGNAL INCREASES AGC VOLTAGE AND BASE CURRENT AND, IN
TURN, INCREASES COLLECTOR CURRENT, REDUCING THE GAIN. THIS
METHOD OF GAIN CONTROL IS KNOWN AS FORWARD AGC.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

AN IF DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER WITH AGC.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

SQUELCH CIRCUIT
• A SQUELCH CIRCUIT, OR MUTING CIRCUIT, IS FOUND IN MOST
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVERS.
• THE SQUELCH IS USED TO KEEP THE RECEIVER AUDIO TURNED OFF UNTIL
AN RF SIGNAL APPEARS AT THE RECEIVER INPUT.
• IN AM SYSTEMS SUCH AS CB RADIOS, THE NOISE LEVEL IS HIGH AND
CAN BE VERY ANNOYING.
• SQUELCH CIRCUITS PROVIDE A MEANS OF KEEPING THE AUDIO
AMPLIFIER TURNED OFF DURING THE TIME THAT NOISE IS RECEIVED IN
THE BACKGROUND AND ENABLING IT WHEN AN RF SIGNAL APPEARS AT
THE INPUT.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

SSB AND CONTINUOUS-WAVE RECEPTION

• COMMUNICATION RECEIVERS DESIGNED FOR RECEIVING SSB OR
CONTINUOUS-WAVE SIGNALS HAVE A BUILT-IN OSCILLATOR THAT
PERMITS RECOVERY OF THE TRANSMITTED INFORMATION.
• A CIRCUIT CALLED THE BEAT FREQUENCY OSCILLATOR (BFO) IS USUALLY
DESIGNED TO OPERATE NEAR THE IF.
• THE BFO SIGNAL IS APPLIED TO THE DEMODULATOR ALONG WITH THE IF
SIGNAL CONTAINING THE MODULATION.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

Figure 9-42: The use of a BFO.

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TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICS) IN RECEIVERS

• IN NEW DESIGNS, VIRTUALLY ALL RECEIVER CIRCUITS ARE ICS.
• A COMPLETE RECEIVER USUALLY CONSISTS OF THREE OR FOUR ICS,
PLUS COILS, TRANSFORMERS, CAPACITORS, AND FILTERS.
• MOST MODERN RECEIVERS ARE CONTAINED ON A SINGLE IC.

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9-6: TYPICAL RECEIVER CIRCUITS

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICS) IN RECEIVERS

• IC RECEIVERS ARE TYPICALLY BROKEN DOWN INTO THREE MAJOR
SECTIONS:
1. THE TUNER, WITH RF AMPLIFIER, MIXER, AND LOCAL OSCILLATOR
2. THE IF SECTION, WITH AMPLIFIERS, DEMODULATOR, AND AGC AND MUTING
CIRCUITS
3. THE AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER.
• THE SECOND AND THIRD SECTIONS ARE ENTIRELY IMPLEMENTED WITH
ICS. THE TUNER MAY OR MAY NOT BE, FOR OFTEN THE LNA IS SEPARATE.

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RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS

VHF AIRCRAFT COMMUNICATION CIRCUIT

• A TYPICAL VHF RECEIVER IS DESIGNED TO RECEIVE TWO-WAY AIRCRAFT
COMMUNICATION BETWEEN PLANES AND AIRPORT CONTROLLERS.
• THEY HAVE A TYPICAL FREQUENCY RANGE OF 118 TO 135 MHZ.
• AMPLITUDE MODULATION IS TYPICAL WITH THESE RECEIVERS.
• VHF RECEIVERS ARE DESIGNED TO USE A COMBINATION OF DISCRETE
COMPONENTS AND ICS.

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RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS

The aviation receiver—a superheterodyne unit built around four ICs—is designed to receive AM
signals in the 118- to 135-MHz frequency range. (Popular Electronics, January 1991,
Gernsback Publications, Inc.)
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RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS

SINGLE-IC FM RECEIVER
• THE MOTOROLA MC3363 FM RECEIVER IC CHIP CONTAINS ALL RECEIVER
CIRCUITS EXCEPT FOR THE AUDIO POWER AMPLIFIER (A SEPARATE CHIP).
• IT IS DESIGNED TO OPERATE AT FREQUENCIES UP TO ABOUT 200 MHZ
• IT IS WIDELY USED IN CORDLESS TELEPHONES, PAGING RECEIVERS, AND
OTHER PORTABLE APPLICATIONS.
• THIS DUAL-CONVERSION RECEIVER CONTAINS TWO MIXERS, TWO
LOCAL OSCILLATORS, A LIMITER, A QUADRATURE DETECTOR, AND
SQUELCH CIRCUITS.
• THE FIRST LOCAL OSCILLATOR HAS A BUILT-IN VARACTOR THAT ALLOWS
IT TO BE CONTROLLED BY AN EXTERNAL FREQUENCY SYNTHESIZER.

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RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS

The Motorola MC3363 dual-conversion receiver IC.

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RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS

TRANSCEIVER
• MOST TWO-WAY RADIO COMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT IS PACKAGED
SO THAT BOTH TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER ARE IN A UNIT KNOWN AS
A TRANSCEIVER.
• TRANSCEIVERS RANGE FROM LARGE, HIGH-POWER DESKTOP UNITS TO
SMALL, POCKET-SIZED, HANDHELD UNITS.
• TRANSCEIVERS HAVE A COMMON HOUSING AND POWER SUPPLY.
• TRANSCEIVERS CAN SHARE CIRCUITS, THEREBY ACHIEVE COST SAVINGS,
AND IN SOME CASES ARE SMALLER IN SIZE.

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RECEIVERS AND TRANSCEIVERS

An SSB transceiver showing circuit sharing.

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END OF PRESENTATION

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies