SDLC

Waterfall Model

 The Waterfall Model was the first Process Model to be introduced. It

is also referred to as a linear-sequential life cycle model. It is very
simple to understand and use. In a waterfall model, each phase
must be completed before the next phase can begin and there is
no overlapping in the phases.
 The Waterfall model is the earliest SDLC approach that was used for
software development.
 The waterfall Model illustrates the software development process in
a linear sequential flow. This means that any phase in the
development process begins only if the previous phase is complete.
In this waterfall model, the phases do not overlap.
Waterfall Model - Design

 Waterfall approach was first SDLC Model to be used widely in

Software Engineering to ensure success of the project. In "The
Waterfall" approach, the whole process of software development is
divided into separate phases. In this Waterfall model, typically, the
outcome of one phase acts as the input for the next phase
sequentially.
 The following illustration is a representation of the different phases of
the Waterfall Model.
Waterfall Model - Design

 The sequential phases in Waterfall model are −

 Requirement Gathering and analysis − All possible requirements of the system to be developed
are captured in this phase and documented in a requirement specification document.
 System Design − The requirement specifications from first phase are studied in this phase and the
system design is prepared. This system design helps in specifying hardware and system
requirements and helps in defining the overall system architecture.
 Implementation − With inputs from the system design, the system is first developed in small
programs called units, which are integrated in the next phase. Each unit is developed and tested
for its functionality, which is referred to as Unit Testing.
 Integration and Testing − All the units developed in the implementation phase are integrated into
a system after testing of each unit. Post integration the entire system is tested for any faults and
failures.
 Deployment of system − Once the functional and non-functional testing is done; the product is
deployed in the customer environment or released into the market.
 Maintenance − There are some issues which come up in the client environment. To fix those issues,
patches are released. Also to enhance the product some better versions are released.
Maintenance is done to deliver these changes in the customer environment.
Waterfall Model - Design

 All these phases are cascaded to each other in which progress is

seen as flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through the
phases. The next phase is started only after the defined set of goals
are achieved for previous phase and it is signed off, so the name
"Waterfall Model". In this model, phases do not overlap.
Waterfall Model - Application

 Every software developed is different and requires a suitable SDLC

approach to be followed based on the internal and external
factors. Some situations where the use of Waterfall model is most
appropriate are −
 Requirements are very well documented, clear and fixed.
 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is understood and is not dynamic.
 There are no ambiguous requirements.
 Ample resources with required expertise are available to support the
product.
 The project is short.
Waterfall Model - Advantages

 The advantages of waterfall development are that it allows for

departmentalization and control. A schedule can be set with
deadlines for each stage of development and a product can
proceed through the development process model phases one by
one.
 Development moves from concept, through design,
implementation, testing, installation, troubleshooting, and ends up
at operation and maintenance. Each phase of development
proceeds in strict order.
Waterfall Model - Advantages

Some of the major advantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −

 Simple and easy to understand and use
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has
specific deliverables and a review process.
 Phases are processed and completed one at a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well
understood.
 Clearly defined stages.
 Well understood milestones.
 Easy to arrange tasks.
 Process and results are well documented.
Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

The disadvantage of waterfall development is that it does not allow

much reflection or revision. Once an application is in the testing stage,
it is very difficult to go back and change something that was not well-
documented or thought upon in the concept stage.
The major disadvantages of the Waterfall Model are as follows −
 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
 High amounts of risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
Waterfall Model - Disadvantages

 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate

to high risk of changing. So, risk and uncertainty is high with this
process model.
 It is difficult to measure progress within stages.
 Cannot accommodate changing requirements.
 Adjusting scope during the life cycle can end a project.
 Integration is done as a "big-bang. at the very end, which doesn't
allow identifying any technological or business bottleneck or
challenges early.
Iterative Model

 In the Iterative model, iterative process starts with a simple

implementation of a small set of the software requirements and
iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the complete system
is implemented and ready to be deployed.
 An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full
specification of requirements. Instead, development begins by
specifying and implementing just part of the software, which is then
reviewed to identify further requirements. This process is then
repeated, producing a new version of the software at the end of
each iteration of the model.
Iterative Model - Design

 Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of

the software requirements and iteratively enhances the evolving
versions until the full system is implemented. At each iteration, design
modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added.
The basic idea behind this method is to develop a system through
repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller portions at a time
(incremental).
 The following illustration is a representation of the Iterative and
Incremental model −
Iterative Model - Design

 Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both

iterative design or iterative method and incremental build model for
development. "During software development, more than one
iteration of the software development cycle may be in progress at
the same time." This process may be described as an "evolutionary
acquisition" or "incremental build" approach."
 In this incremental model, the whole requirement is divided into
various builds. During each iteration, the development module goes
through the requirements, design, implementation and testing
phases. Each subsequent release of the module adds function to
the previous release. The process continues till the complete system
is ready as per the requirement.
Iterative Model - Design

 The key to a successful use of an iterative software development

lifecycle is rigorous validation of requirements, and verification &
testing of each version of the software against those requirements
within each cycle of the model. As the software evolves through
successive cycles, tests must be repeated and extended to verify
each version of the software.
Iterative Model - Application

Like other SDLC models, Iterative and incremental development has some
specific applications in the software industry. This model is most often used
in the following scenarios −
 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and
understood.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some functionalities or
requested enhancements may evolve with time.
 There is a time to the market constraint.
 A new technology is being used and is being learnt by the
development team while working on the project.
 Resources with needed skill sets are not available and are planned to
be used on contract basis for specific iterations.
 There are some high-risk features and goals which may change in the
future.
Advantages of the Iterative and
Incremental SDLC Model
 Some working functionality can be developed quickly and early in
the life cycle.
 Results are obtained early and periodically.
 Parallel development can be planned.
 Progress can be measured.
 Less costly to change the scope/requirements.
 Testing and debugging during smaller iteration is easy.
 Risks are identified and resolved during iteration; and each iteration
is an easily managed milestone.
 Easier to manage risk - High risk part is done first.
Advantages of the Iterative and
Incremental SDLC Model
 With every increment, operational product is delivered.
 Issues, challenges and risks identified from each increment can be
utilized/applied to the next increment.
 Risk analysis is better.
 It supports changing requirements.
 Initial Operating time is less.
 Better suited for large and mission-critical projects.
 During the life cycle, software is produced early which facilitates
customer evaluation and feedback.
Disadvantages of the Iterative and
Incremental SDLC Model
 More resources may be required.
 Although cost of change is lesser, but it is not very suitable for
changing requirements.
 More management attention is required.
 System architecture or design issues may arise because not all
requirements are gathered in the beginning of the entire life cycle.
 Defining increments may require definition of the complete system.
Disadvantages of the Iterative and
Incremental SDLC Model
 Not suitable for smaller projects.
 Management complexity is more.
 End of project may not be known which is a risk.
 Highly skilled resources are required for risk analysis.
 Projects progress is highly dependent upon the risk analysis phase.
Spiral Model

 The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development with

the systematic, controlled aspects of the waterfall model.
 This Spiral model is a combination of iterative development process
model and sequential linear development model i.e. the waterfall
model with a very high emphasis on risk analysis.
 It allows incremental releases of the product or incremental
refinement through each iteration around the spiral.
Spiral Model - Design

The spiral model has four phases. A software project repeatedly passes
through these phases in iterations called Spirals.
 Identification
 This phase starts with gathering the business requirements in the baseline
spiral. In the subsequent spirals as the product matures, identification of
system requirements, subsystem requirements and unit requirements are
all done in this phase.
 This phase also includes understanding the system requirements by
continuous communication between the customer and the system
analyst. At the end of the spiral, the product is deployed in the
identified market.
Spiral Model - Design

 Design
 The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral
and involves architectural design, logical design of modules, physical
product design and the final design in the subsequent spirals.
 Construct or Build
 The Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product
at every spiral. In the baseline spiral, when the product is just thought of
and the design is being developed a POC (Proof of Concept) is
developed in this phase to get customer feedback.
 Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and
design details a working model of the software called build is produced
with a version number. These builds are sent to the customer for
feedback.
Spiral Model - Design

 Design
 The Design phase starts with the conceptual design in the baseline spiral
and involves architectural design, logical design of modules, physical
product design and the final design in the subsequent spirals.
 Construct or Build
 The Construct phase refers to production of the actual software product
at every spiral. In the baseline spiral, when the product is just thought of
and the design is being developed a POC (Proof of Concept) is
developed in this phase to get customer feedback.
 Then in the subsequent spirals with higher clarity on requirements and
design details a working model of the software called build is produced
with a version number. These builds are sent to the customer for
feedback.
Spiral Model - Design

 Evaluation and Risk Analysis

 Risk Analysis includes identifying, estimating and monitoring the
technical feasibility and management risks, such as schedule slippage
and cost overrun. After testing the build, at the end of first iteration, the
customer evaluates the software and provides feedback.
Evaluation and Risk Analysis

 Based on the customer evaluation, the software development

process enters the next iteration and subsequently follows the linear
approach to implement the feedback suggested by the customer.
The process of iterations along the spiral continues throughout the
life of the software.
Spiral Model Application

 When there is a budget constraint and risk evaluation is important.

 For medium to high-risk projects.
 Long-term project commitment because of potential changes to
economic priorities as the requirements change with time.
 Customer is not sure of their requirements which is usually the case.
 Requirements are complex and need evaluation to get clarity.
 New product line which should be released in phases to get enough
customer feedback.
 Significant changes are expected in the product during the
development cycle.
Advantages of the Spiral SDLC
Model
 Changing requirements can be accommodated.
 Allows extensive use of prototypes.
 Requirements can be captured more accurately.
 Users see the system early.
 Development can be divided into smaller parts and the risky parts
can be developed earlier which helps in better risk management.
Disdvantages of the Spiral SDLC
Model
 Management is more complex.
 End of the project may not be known early.
 Not suitable for small or low risk projects and could be expensive for
small projects.
 Process is complex
 Spiral may go on indefinitely.
 Large number of intermediate stages requires excessive
documentation.
V-Model

 The V-model is an SDLC model where execution of processes

happens in a sequential manner in a V-shape. It is also known
as Verification and Validation model.
 The V-Model is an extension of the waterfall model and is based on
the association of a testing phase for each corresponding
development stage. This means that for every single phase in the
development cycle, there is a directly associated testing phase. This
is a highly-disciplined model and the next phase starts only after
completion of the previous phase.
V-Model - Design

 Under the V-Model, the corresponding testing phase of the

development phase is planned in parallel. So, there are Verification
phases on one side of the ‘V’ and Validation phases on the other
side. The Coding Phase joins the two sides of the V-Model.
V-Model - Verification Phases

 Business Requirement Analysis

This is the first phase in the development cycle where the product
requirements are understood from the customer’s perspective. This
phase involves detailed communication with the customer to
understand his expectations and exact requirement. This is a very
important activity and needs to be managed well, as most of the
customers are not sure about what exactly they need.
The acceptance test design planning is done at this stage as business
requirements can be used as an input for acceptance testing.
V-Model - Verification Phases

 System Design
Once you have the clear and detailed product requirements, it is time
to design the complete system. The system design will have the
understanding and detailing the complete hardware and
communication setup for the product under development. The system
test plan is developed based on the system design. Doing this at an
earlier stage leaves more time for the actual test execution later.
V-Model - Verification Phases

 Architectural Design
 Architectural specifications are understood and designed in this phase.
Usually more than one technical approach is proposed and based on
the technical and financial feasibility the final decision is taken. The
system design is broken down further into modules taking up different
functionality. This is also referred to as High Level Design (HLD).
 The data transfer and communication between the internal modules
and with the outside world (other systems) is clearly understood and
defined in this stage. With this information, integration tests can be
designed and documented during this stage.
V-Model - Verification Phases

 Module Design
In this phase, the detailed internal design for all the system modules is
specified, referred to as Low Level Design (LLD). It is important that the
design is compatible with the other modules in the system architecture
and the other external systems. The unit tests are an essential part of
any development process and helps eliminate the maximum faults
and errors at a very early stage. These unit tests can be designed at
this stage based on the internal module designs.
V-Model - Verification Phases

 Coding Phase
The actual coding of the system modules designed in the design phase
is taken up in the Coding phase. The best suitable programming
language is decided based on the system and architectural
requirements.
The coding is performed based on the coding guidelines and
standards. The code goes through numerous code reviews and is
optimized for best performance before the final build is checked into
the repository.
V-Model - Validation Phases

 Unit Testing
Unit tests designed in the module design phase are executed on the
code during this validation phase. Unit testing is the testing at code
level and helps eliminate bugs at an early stage, though all defects
cannot be uncovered by unit testing.
 Integration Testing
Integration testing is associated with the architectural design phase.
Integration tests are performed to test the coexistence and
communication of the internal modules within the system.
V-Model - Validation Phases

 System Testing
System testing is directly associated with the system design phase.
System tests check the entire system functionality and the
communication of the system under development with external
systems. Most of the software and hardware compatibility issues can
be uncovered during this system test execution.
 Acceptance Testing
Acceptance testing is associated with the business requirement
analysis phase and involves testing the product in user environment.
Acceptance tests uncover the compatibility issues with the other
systems available in the user environment. It also discovers the non-
functional issues such as load and performance defects in the actual
user environment.
V- Model ─ Application

 Requirements are well defined, clearly documented and fixed.

 Product definition is stable.
 Technology is not dynamic and is well understood by the project
team.
 There are no ambiguous or undefined requirements.
 The project is short.
Advantages of the V-Model

 This is a highly-disciplined model and Phases are completed one at

a time.
 Works well for smaller projects where requirements are very well
understood.
 Simple and easy to understand and use.
 Easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model. Each phase has
specific deliverables and a review process.
Disadvantages of the V-Model

 High risk and uncertainty.

 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Not suitable for the projects where requirements are at a moderate
to high risk of changing.
 Once an application is in the testing stage, it is difficult to go back
and change a functionality.
 No working software is produced until late during the life cycle.
Big Bang Model

 The Big Bang model is an SDLC model where we do not follow any
specific process. The development just starts with the required
money and efforts as the input, and the output is the software
developed which may or may not be as per customer requirement.
This Big Bang Model does not follow a process/procedure and there
is a very little planning required. Even the customer is not sure about
what exactly he wants and the requirements are implemented on
the fly without much analysis.
 Usually this model is followed for small projects where the
development teams are very small.
Big Bang Model ─ Design and
Application
 The Big Bang Model comprises of focusing all the possible resources
in the software development and coding, with very little or no
planning. The requirements are understood and implemented as
they come. Any changes required may or may not need to revamp
the complete software.
 This model is ideal for small projects with one or two developers
working together and is also useful for academic or practice
projects. It is an ideal model for the product where requirements are
not well understood and the final release date is not given.
Advantages of the Big Bang
Model
 The Big Bang Model comprises of focusing all the possible resources
in the software development and coding, with very little or no
planning. The requirements are understood and implemented as
they come. Any changes required may or may not need to revamp
the complete software.
 This model is ideal for small projects with one or two developers
working together and is also useful for academic or practice
projects. It is an ideal model for the product where requirements are
not well understood and the final release date is not given.
Disadvantages of the Big Bang
Model
 Very High risk and uncertainty.
 Not a good model for complex and object-oriented projects.
 Poor model for long and ongoing projects.
 Can turn out to be very expensive if requirements are
misunderstood.
Agile Model
 Agile SDLC model is a combination of iterative and incremental process models
with focus on process adaptability and customer satisfaction by rapid delivery
of working software product.
 Agile Methods break the product into small incremental builds. These builds are
provided in iterations. Each iteration typically lasts from about one to three
weeks.
 Every iteration involves cross functional teams working simultaneously on various
areas like −
 Planning
 Requirements Analysis
 Design
 Coding
 Unit Testing and
 Acceptance Testing.
At the end of the iteration, a working product is displayed to the customer and important
stakeholders.
What is Agile?

 Agile model believes that every project needs to be handled

differently and the existing methods need to be tailored to best suit
the project requirements. In Agile, the tasks are divided to time
boxes (small time frames) to deliver specific features for a release.
 Iterative approach is taken and working software build is delivered
after each iteration. Each build is incremental in terms of features;
the final build holds all the features required by the customer.
What is Agile?

Following are the Agile Manifesto principles −

 Individuals and interactions − In Agile development, self-
organization and motivation are important, as are interactions like
co-location and pair programming.
 Working software − Demo working software is considered the best
means of communication with the customers to understand their
requirements, instead of just depending on documentation.
 Customer collaboration − As the requirements cannot be gathered
completely in the beginning of the project due to various factors,
continuous customer interaction is very important to get proper
product requirements.
 Responding to change − Agile Development is focused on quick
responses to change and continuous development.
Agile Vs Traditional SDLC Models

 Agile is based on the adaptive software development methods,

whereas the traditional SDLC models like the waterfall model is
based on a predictive approach. Predictive teams in the traditional
SDLC models usually work with detailed planning and have a
complete forecast of the exact tasks and features to be delivered in
the next few months or during the product life cycle.
 Predictive methods entirely depend on the requirement analysis
and planning done in the beginning of cycle. Any changes to be
incorporated go through a strict change control management and
prioritization.
Agile Vs Traditional SDLC Models

 Agile uses an adaptive approach where there is no detailed

planning and there is clarity on future tasks only in respect of what
features need to be developed. There is feature driven
development and the team adapts to the changing product
requirements dynamically. The product is tested very frequently,
through the release iterations, minimizing the risk of any major
failures in future.
 Customer Interaction is the backbone of this Agile methodology,
and open communication with minimum documentation are the
typical features of Agile development environment. The agile teams
work in close collaboration with each other and are most often
located in the same geographical location.
Advantages of the Agile Model

 Is a very realistic approach to software development.

 Promotes teamwork and cross training.
 Functionality can be developed rapidly and demonstrated.
 Resource requirements are minimum.
 Suitable for fixed or changing requirements
 Delivers early partial working solutions.
 Good model for environments that change steadily.
 Minimal rules, documentation easily employed.
 Enables concurrent development and delivery within an overall planned
context.
 Little or no planning required.
 Easy to manage.
 Gives flexibility to developers.
Disadvantages of the Agile Model

 Not suitable for handling complex dependencies.

 More risk of sustainability, maintainability and extensibility.
 An overall plan, an agile leader and agile PM practice is a must without
which it will not work.
 Strict delivery management dictates the scope, functionality to be
delivered, and adjustments to meet the deadlines.
 Depends heavily on customer interaction, so if customer is not clear,
team can be driven in the wrong direction.
 There is a very high individual dependency, since there is minimum
documentation generated.
 Transfer of technology to new team members may be quite
challenging due to lack of documentation.
RAD Model

 The RAD (Rapid Application Development) model is based on

prototyping and iterative development with no specific planning
involved. The process of writing the software itself involves the
planning required for developing the product.
 Rapid Application Development focuses on gathering customer
requirements through workshops or focus groups, early testing of the
prototypes by the customer using iterative concept, reuse of the
existing prototypes (components), continuous integration and rapid
delivery.
What is RAD?

 Rapid application development is a software development

methodology that uses minimal planning in favor of rapid prototyping.
A prototype is a working model that is functionally equivalent to a
component of the product.
 In the RAD model, the functional modules are developed in parallel as
prototypes and are integrated to make the complete product for faster
product delivery. Since there is no detailed preplanning, it makes it
easier to incorporate the changes within the development process.
 RAD projects follow iterative and incremental model and have small
teams comprising of developers, domain experts, customer
representatives and other IT resources working progressively on their
component or prototype.
 The most important aspect for this model to be successful is to make
sure that the prototypes developed are reusable.
RAD Model Design

RAD model distributes the analysis, design, build and test phases into a
series of short, iterative development cycles.
Following are the various phases of the RAD Model −
 Business Modelling
The business model for the product under development is designed in
terms of flow of information and the distribution of information between
various business channels. A complete business analysis is performed to
find the vital information for business, how it can be obtained, how and
when is the information processed and what are the factors driving
successful flow of information.
RAD Model Design

 Data Modelling
The information gathered in the Business Modelling phase is reviewed
and analyzed to form sets of data objects vital for the business. The
attributes of all data sets is identified and defined. The relation
between these data objects are established and defined in detail in
relevance to the business model.
 Process Modelling
The data object sets defined in the Data Modelling phase are
converted to establish the business information flow needed to
achieve specific business objectives as per the business model. The
process model for any changes or enhancements to the data object
sets is defined in this phase. Process descriptions for adding, deleting,
retrieving or modifying a data object are given.
RAD Model Design

 Application Generation
The actual system is built and coding is done by using automation tools
to convert process and data models into actual prototypes.
 Testing and Turnover
The overall testing time is reduced in the RAD model as the prototypes
are independently tested during every iteration. However, the data
flow and the interfaces between all the components need to be
thoroughly tested with complete test coverage. Since most of the
programming components have already been tested, it reduces the
risk of any major issues.
RAD Model Vs Traditional SDLC

 The traditional SDLC follows a rigid process models with high

emphasis on requirement analysis and gathering before the coding
starts. It puts pressure on the customer to sign off the requirements
before the project starts and the customer doesn’t get the feel of
the product as there is no working build available for a long time.
 The customer may need some changes after he gets to see the
software. However, the change process is quite rigid and it may not
be feasible to incorporate major changes in the product in the
traditional SDLC.
 The RAD model focuses on iterative and incremental delivery of
working models to the customer. This results in rapid delivery to the
customer and customer involvement during the complete
development cycle of product reducing the risk of non-
conformance with the actual user requirements.
RAD Model - Application

RAD model can be applied successfully to the projects in which clear

modularization is possible. If the project cannot be broken into modules, RAD may
fail.
The following pointers describe the typical scenarios where RAD can be used −
 RAD should be used only when a system can be modularized to be delivered in
an incremental manner.
 It should be used if there is a high availability of designers for Modelling.
 It should be used only if the budget permits use of automated code generating
tools.
 RAD SDLC model should be chosen only if domain experts are available with
relevant business knowledge.
 Should be used where the requirements change during the project and working
prototypes are to be presented to customer in small iterations of 2-3 months.
Advantages of the RAD Model

 Changing requirements can be accommodated.

 Progress can be measured.
 Iteration time can be short with use of powerful RAD tools.
 Productivity with fewer people in a short time.
 Reduced development time.
 Increases reusability of components.
 Quick initial reviews occur.
 Encourages customer feedback.
 Integration from very beginning solves a lot of integration issues.
Disadvantages of the RAD Model

 Dependency on technically strong team members for identifying

business requirements.
 Only system that can be modularized can be built using RAD.
 Requires highly skilled developers/designers.
 High dependency on Modelling skills.
 Inapplicable to cheaper projects as cost of Modelling and
automated code generation is very high.
 Management complexity is more.
 Suitable for systems that are component based and scalable.
 Requires user involvement throughout the life cycle.
 Suitable for project requiring shorter development times.