Know your Instructor

1. Name: Chandrakant K Nirala

2. Research Interests: Micro/Macro manufacturing, conventional and non-conventional machining, tool condition
monitoring using virtual instrumentation, joining, forming, post processing of AM components, ML in machining, etc.
3. Laboratory: Micromachining and monitoring lab (SDB #201)
4. Laboratory strength: Ongoing Ph.D. (7), Completed Ph.D. (3), Ongoing M.Tech (3), Completed M.Tech (10+), JRF
completed (1), JRF ongoing (1).
5. M.Tech students: Vikalp Sharma (2017), Vishwajit Gupta (2018), Ankit meena (DD, 2020), Ishan Arora (2020), Shyamlim
Saikia (2020), Sujit Kadam (2020), Abhishek Gupta (DD, 2021), Shiva kumar (2021), Kuladeep (DD, 2021)
6. Ph.D Students: Dr. Hreetabh Kishore (2023), Tennessee Tech University, US. Dr. Jay Airai (2023), Aarhus University
Denmark, Sohaib Raza (Thesis submitted)
7. Lab funding: 2.25 crores approx. from IIT Ropar and various other gov. and private organizations.

Ongoing research activities

1. Micro-electro discharge machining for novel products.
2. Heat management in tool-based metal cutting operation.
3. Numerical modeling and simulation of plasma and electro discharge machining.
4. Micro-electro discharge machining performance enhancement through dielectric modifications
5. Macro and micro machining of difficult-to-cut metal alloys, including AM parts.
Micromachining and Monitoring Lab
 Lecture 1

Fundamentals of machining

Instructional objectives are:

1. To get an introduction to the machining classifications

2. Manufacturing scales
 Machining
Definition: Machining are the processes in which a piece of raw material (solid,
metal or non-metal) is cut into a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-
removal process. It is also known as subtractive manufacturing process.

Published in Economics of Metal Additive Manufacturing magazine on

January 31st, 2019 by Digital alloys Pvt. Ltd.
Common post processing
 • Conventional or mechanical source of energy
• Physical contact between the tool and the workpiece
Or Traditional • Single or multiple point sharp edge cutting tools are used
• Chip formation through plastic deformation

• Conventional or mechanical source of energy

• Physical contact between the tool and the workpiece
Or Cutting • Instead of pointed cutting tools hard, abrasive particles are used
• Material removed mostly in form of powders of very small chip

• Non-conventional source of energy

• No direct work-tool physical contact
Or Non- conventional
• Physical or non-physical tool with No sharp cutting edge
• No chip formation
 and abrasive
processes

Reaming Surface
finishing
Honing
Hobbing or
form milling

* No enhancement in Abrasive grinding Surface

mechanical and finishing
metallurgical property of Lapping
the w/p
 Evolution of machining

Period Tools, machining and manufacturing systems

1500-1700 Hand lathe for wood
1600-1700 Boring, turning, screw-cutting lathe, drill press
1700-1800 Main developments were in the casting and forging
1800-1900 Shaping, milling, universal milling, vitrified grinding wheel
1900-1920 Geared lathe, automatic screw machine, (after invention of high speed steel and aluminium
alloys)
1920-1940 Tool making using tungsten carbide
1940-1950 Exploration of cutting hard metallic materials using tungsten carbide tools
1950-1960 Electrical and chemical energies for materials modifications
1960-1970 Development of Titanium carbide, synthetic diamond, CNC circuit and chips
1970-1990 CNC machining and turning centres, FMS, Sensors technology, Simulation and optimization
1990-2000 Micro-nano fabrication, Lithography and LIGA
2000-2010 Sustainable and green manufacturing
Material and Process selection
 Lecture 2

Fundamentals of metal cutting, deformation mode and

mechanism

Instructional objectives are:

1. Role of machining in manufacturing

2. Mode of deformation through stress-strain curve
3. Mechanism of deformation
 Reaming Surface
finishing
Honing
Hobbing or
form milling

* No enhancement in Abrasive grinding Surface

mechanical and finishing
metallurgical property of Lapping
the w/p
Manufacturing Scales
Finishing and Surface Treatment Processes
• Surface finishing operations are as followed…
➢ Polishing
➢ Honing
Surface Average surface roughness,
➢ Buffing Ra (microns)
➢ Barrel Tumbling Abrasive grinding 0.06
➢ Lapping
Supper finishing (Lapping, 0.025
➢ Hard turning buffing, polishing etc.
➢ Electroplating Hard turning 0.025
➢ Abrasive belt/wheel grinding Coating, anodizing 0.018

➢ Inorganic coating
➢ Anodizing
• Surface finishing process are used ensure a smooth surface, to improve appearance or to provided a protective coating.
• Some of process are like honing and lapping are to remove the unwanted material. There primary aim is to produces a
good surface finish.
Boring Reaming

Lapping
Hobbing
Honing
Strain and strain

➢ Engineering stress is the applied load divided by the original cross-sectional area of a
material. Also known as nominal stress.
➢ True stress is the applied load divided by the actual cross-sectional area (the changing area
with respect to time) of the specimen at that load.
➢ Engineering strain is the amount that a material deforms per unit length in a tensile test.
Also known as nominal strain.
➢ True strain equals the natural log of the quotient of current length over the original length.
➢ The mode of deformation of a material under the applied load will depend not only on the
magnitude of the applied load and the mechanical properties of the materials, but also on
the way the force is applied.
Materials conditions for describing the ideal stress strain relation

➢ A rigid, perfectly plastic material

➢ An elastic, perfectly plastic materials
➢ A rigid, linear strain hardening materials
➢ An elastic, linear strain-hardening materials
Direction of dislocation motion

Edge dislocation line moves parallel to applied stress

Screw dislocation line moves perpendicular to applied stress

 Lecture 3

Deformation mechanism and tool geometry

Instructional objectives are:

1. Mechanism of deformation
2. Minimum stress required for a slip
3. Tool geometry
 Open questions from Lecture 2

1. Why do you get a declining trend in the stress strain curve for the stress beyond the UTS?
2. Why the yielding value under reloading with an opposite nature of the load is lesser?
3. Why the yield point keeps on shifting upon cyclic and continuous loading. (nature of
shifting is important)
4. Why do we consider the true stress strain curve?
5. What is the minimum stress required for a slip?
Variation in the yield stress
Minimum stress required for a slip
• Slip occurs when the shear stress acting in the slip direction on the slip plane reaches some
critical value.
• We want to relate the tensile stress applied to a sample to the shear stress that acts along the
slip direction
• Consider applying a tensile stress along the long axis of a cylindrical single crystal sample with
cross-sectional area A.
• The applied force along the tensile axis is F = σA. If slip occurs on the slip plane shown in the
diagram, with plane normal n, then the slip direction will lie in this plane.
• The area of the slip plane is A/cosφ, where φ is the angle between the tensile axis and the slip
plane normal.
• The component of the axial force F that lies parallel to the slip direction is F cos λ. The resolved
shear stress parallel to the slip direction is :

• τR at which slip occurs in a given material with specified dislocation density and purity is a
constant, known as the critical resolved shear stress τC. This is Schmid's Law.
• The quantity cos φ cos λ is called the Schmid factor.
• The tensile stress at which the crystal starts to slip is known as the yield stress σy. Therefore,
Schmid's Law can be written:
τC = σy cos φ cos λ
Any machining will have the following main component:-
• Work-tool materials
• Cutting tool geometry
• Tool fixture, and
• Machine tool
Work-tool material:

Correlation between different types of solid bonding and physical and mechanical properties

Ionic Solids Molecular Solids Covalent Solids Metallic Solids

poor conductors of heat poor conductors of heat poor conductors of heat good conductors of heat
and electricity and electricity and electricity* and electricity
melting points depend
relatively high melting
low melting point high melting point strongly on electron
point
configuration
easily deformed under
hard but brittle; shatter
soft very hard and brittle stress; ductile and
under stress
malleable
relatively dense low density low density usually high density
dull surface dull surface dull surface lustrous
*Many exceptions exist. For example, graphite has a relatively high electrical conductivity within the carbon
planes, and diamond has the highest thermal conductivity of any known substance.
 Work-tool material:
• An ionic solid consists of positively and negatively charged ions held together by electrostatic forces. The strength of the attractive forces
depends on the charge and size of the ions that compose the lattice and determines many of the physical properties of the crystal. For example,
NaF and CaO.
• Molecular solids consist of atoms or molecules held to each other by dipole–dipole interactions, London dispersion forces, or hydrogen
bonds, or any combination of these. Because the intermolecular interactions in a molecular solid are relatively weak compared with ionic and
covalent bonds, molecular solids tend to be soft, low melting, and easily vaporized (ΔHfus and ΔHvap are low). For example, benzene (C6H6), and
naphthalene (C10H8).
• Covalent solids are formed by networks or chains of atoms or molecules held together by covalent bonds. A perfect single crystal of a
covalent solid is therefore a single giant molecule. For example, the structure of diamond. All compounds with the diamond and related
structures are hard, high-melting-point solids that are not easily deformed. Instead, they tend to shatter when subjected to large stresses, and
they usually do not conduct electricity very well. In fact, diamond (melting point = 3500°C at 63.5 atm) is one of the hardest substances known,
and silicon carbide (melting point = 2986°C) is used commercially as an abrasive in sandpaper and grinding wheels. It is difficult to deform or
melt these and related compounds because strong covalent (C–C or Si–Si) or polar covalent (Si–C or Si–O) bonds must be broken, which
requires a large input of energy.
• Bonding in metallic solids is quite different from the bonding in the other kinds of solids. Because all the atoms are the same, there can be no
ionic bonding, yet metals always contain too few electrons or valence orbitals to form covalent bonds with each of their neighbors. Instead, the
valence electrons are delocalized throughout the crystal, providing a strong cohesive force that holds the metal atoms together. The packing
efficiency in metallic crystals tends to be high, so the resulting metallic solids are dense
Cutting tool:
➢ A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder than the work material.
➢ The cutting edge serves to separate a chip from the parent work material.
➢ Two basic types of tools, (a) single-point tools and (b) multiple-cutting-edge tools.
➢ A single-point tool has one cutting edge and is used for operations such as turning.
➢ During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the part.
➢ The point is usually rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius.
➢ Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their motion relative to the work
part by rotating.
➢ Drilling and milling use rotating multiple-cutting-edge tools.
➢ Although the shape is quite different from a single-point tool, many elements of tool geometry are similar.

➢ cutting speed “v”, feed “f” and depth of cut “d” are collectively called the cutting condition.

𝑅𝑀𝑅 = 𝑣𝑓𝑑 where 𝑅𝑀𝑅 is material removal rate in mm3/s; 𝑣 is cutting speed in mm/s; 𝑓 is
feed in mm; and 𝑑 is depth of cut in mm.
Cutting tool Nomenclature (different systems):

Different nomenclature for single point tool

Sequence of tool angle in different systems

Cutting tool Nomenclature (different systems):

Relative advantages and disadvantages

ASA system is advantageous particularly in measuring the tool angles for inspection. ORS is commonly used in
various analyses (especially when orthogonal machining is assumed) including estimation of cutting force, judging
machinability and performance on machining. However, while setting the angles in a 3-D vice for re-sharpening the
cutting tool by grinding, if ORS system is followed then further angle corrections are required (if the tool has non-
zero inclination angle). These limitations can be eliminated by employing NRS system.
Tool signature or tool nomenclature:

Example: Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8 1. Back rake angle (0°) 2. Side rake
angle (7°) 3. End relief angle (6°) 4. Side relief angle (8°) 5. End cutting edge
angle (15°) 6. Side cutting edge angle (16°) 7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)
 Parts of the single point cutting tool:
Shank:
➢ It is the main body of the tool. It is the backward part of tool which is hold by tool post.

Rake face or Face:

➢ The top surface tool on which chips passes after cutting is known as face.

Flank:
➢ The Cutting tool surface facing the work metal is known as Flank. There are two types like as end flank
and side flank or minor and major flanks respectively.

Base:
➢ It is a surface opposite of the rake face. It is a part of the shank, generally having a flat farming.

Cutting edge:
➢ It is a junction of rake face and two flanks. They are of two types,
• end cutting edge
• side cutting edge

Nose:
➢ It is a Junction of side and end cutting edge.
 Angle of single point cutting tool:
Back rake angle:
➢ It is the angle shown as an inclination of the rake face on the Z-X plane (base of the tool is the X-Y plane)
➢ Also known as Top rake angle and End rake angle .
➢ The angle may be positive, negative or neutral, depends upon the material being cut, tool material, depth of cut, cutting
speed, machine, setup and process. It has a great effect of cutting resistance.
➢ Value ranging between -25 and +25 degrees
Relief angle or clearance angle:
➢ It is when the slope is given downwards from cutting edge.
➢ That is divided in two types of clearance angle.
• End relief or end clearance angle
• Side relief or side clearance angle
➢ End relief or end clearance angle is the angle shown as an inclination of the minor flank on the Z-X plane. It prevents the
cutting tool from rubbing minor flank against workpiece.
➢ Side relief or side clearance angle is the angle shown as an inclination of the major flank on the Z-Y plane. It Helps in
avoiding rubbing major flank against workpiece.
➢ Both are generally it is kept small (from 6 to 10 degrees).
Side rake angle:
➢ It is the angle shown as an inclination of the rake face on the Z-Y plane.
➢ It can also be positive negative of neutral with a value ranging between -25 and +25 degrees
➢ It has a great effect in chip disposal
Advantages and Disadvantages of Machining> Variety of work materials can be machined.
➢ Most frequently used to cut metals
➢ Variety of part shapes and special geometric features are possible, such as: Screw threads, accurate round
holes
➢ Very straight edges and surfaces
➢ Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish
➢ Generally performed after other manufacturing processes, such as casting, forging, and bar drawing
Disadvantages:
➢ Wasteful of material and time consuming
 Lecture 5

Mechanism of orthogonal cutting

Instructional objectives are:

1. Recap of the last class

2. Orthogonal cutting model for shear angle and shear strain
3. Merchant theory
 Orthogonal and oblique cutting

S.No Orthogonal Cutting Oblique Cutting

1. The end cutting edge of tool make right angle to The cutting angle of tool foes not make right angle to the
the direction of motion. direction of motion.

2 The chip flow in the direction normal to the The chips make an angle with the normal to the cutting
cutting edge. edge.

3. In orthogonal cutting only two components of In oblique cutting three component of force are
force considered cutting force and thrust force considered, cutting force, thrust force and radial force
which can be represent by 2D coordinate system. which cannot represent by 2D coordinate. It used 3D
coordinate to represent the forces acting during cutting,
so it is known as 3D cutting.

4. This tool has lesser cutting life compare to This tool has higher cutting life.
oblique cutting.

5. The shear force act per unit area is high which The shear force per unit area is low, which decreases
increase the heat developed per unit area. heat develop per unit area hence increases tool life.

6. The chips flow over the tool. The chips flow along the sideways.
 Theory of chip formation (orthogonal cutting model)
1. Shear angle
2. Shear strain

*In the metal cutting process, the chip flow of the metal is shorter and
thicker than the metal prior to the cutting because of thermal
expansion and plastic deformation.
Shear strain
 Merchant Theory and merchant circle diagram

It establishes the relation between the various known and unknown forces to estimate shear stress in an orthogonal
cutting model. With the following assumptions.

1. The tool tip is sharp (zero edge radius) and that the chip makes contact only with the rake face of the tool.
2. The cutting edge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity
3. The deformation is 2D
4. The deformation takes place in a very thin zone so that the deformation zone could be reasonably represented by
a plane, called the shear plane.
5. Continuous chips without built-up-edge are formed.
6. The workpiece material is rigid, perfectly plastic.
7. The coefficient of friction is constant along the chip-tool interface it means it is based of single shear plane theory.
8. The resultant force R' on the chip applied at the shear plane is equal, opposite and collinear to the resultant force
R applied to the chip at the chip-tool interface.
9. This theory is based on the principle of minimum energy. According to this principle, angle will take a value such
that total work done in cutting is a minimum.
Merchant Theory and merchant circle diagram
Velocity analysis of single point cutting tool in orthogonal cutting
 Lecture 8

Mechanism of orthogonal cutting cont..

Instructional objectives are:

1. Estimation of optimum shear angle

2. Velocity triangle
3. Various chip formation
Q-1: A turning operation has to be performed on an aluminum rod of diameter 50 mm and
length 300mm. The Spindle speed of lathe is given to be 500 RPM. The feed and depth of
cut are 0.15mm/rev and 0.3 mm respectively. Find out the cutting speed in mm/s and the
volumetric material removal rate (MRRv).
Merchant Theory and merchant circle diagram
Velocity analysis of single point cutting tool in orthogonal cutting
Types of the Chips
Every Machining operation involves the formation of chips. The nature of which differs from operation to
operation, properties of work piece material and the cutting condition. Chips are formed due to cutting tool, which
is harder and more wearer-resistant than the work piece and the force and power to overcome the resistance of
work material. The chip is formed by the deformation of the metal lying ahead of the cutting edge by a process of
shear. Four main categories of chips are:

Discontinuous Chips, Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips, Continuous Chip Built-up-Edge (BUE), Serrated
Chips
Discontinuous Chips: These chips are small segments,
which adhere loosely to each other. They are formed when
the amount of deformation to which chips undergo is limited
by repeated fracturing. Hard and brittle materials like bronze,
brass and cast iron will produce such chips.

Continuous or Ribbon Type Chips: In continuous chip

formation, the pressure of the work piece builds until the
material fails by slip along the plane. The inside on the chip
displays steps produced by the intermittent slip, but the
outside is very smooth. It has its elements bonded together
in the form of long coils and is formed by the continuous
plastic deformation of material without fracture ahead of the
cutting edge of the tool and is followed by the smooth flow of
chip up the tool face.
Continuous Chip Built Up Edge: This type of chip is
very similar to that of continuous type, with the difference
that it is not as smooth as the previous one. This type of
chip is associated with poor surface finish, but protects the
cutting edge from wear due to movement of chips and the
action of heat causing the increase in tool life.

Serrated Chips: These chips are semicontinuous in the

sense that they possess a saw-tooth appearance that is
produced by a cyclical chip formation of alternating high
shear strain followed by low shear strain. This chip is most
closely associated with certain difficult-to-machine metals
such as titanium alloys, nickel-base superalloys, and
austenitic stainless steels when they are machined at
higher cutting speeds. However, the phenomenon is also
found with more common work metals (e.g., steels), when
they are cut at high speeds.
Measurement of shear angle
 Lecture 11

Practice questions (numerical examples)

Q-1. A mild steel workpiece is being machined at a cutting speed of 200 m/min with a tool which is given as: 0o – 8o –
5o – 7o – 15o – 75.5o – 0.05 inch (ASA). The depth of cut and uncut thickness are 0.5 mm and 0.2 mm respectively. If
the average value of coefficient of friction between the chip and the tool is given to be 0.5 and the shear stress of the
work material is 400 N/mm2 ,
1. determine the shear plane angle, and
2. determine the cutting and the thrust components of the machining force.

Q-2. During orthogonal turning of a mild steel work piece of 20 mm diameter with the 150 rpm and with a 0ο rake
angle, normal force is 85.6 N and thrust is 35 N. If the chip thickness is twice the uncut thickness, estimate the
power consumption in Watt.

Q-3 for an orthogonal cutting. The following data are given: cutting force Fc = 980 N, thrust force Ft = 440 N, rake
angle = 10o, chip thickness = 1.5 mm, width of cut = 2 mm, and shear plane angle = 24o. Determine
1. strength of the workpiece material, and
2. friction angle without using Merchant’s First Relationship.

Q-4. Find the arc efficiency for an RC based EDM process if the discharge current is 8 Amp and the discharge voltage is
100 Volts. Assume a cathode drop of 30 volts and anode drop of 10 volts with 30% of the spark column energy is
being transferred to the anode. Take spark temperature at 18000 K. Work function, ɸo for tungsten = 4.5 eV and
Boltzmann’s constant = 8.62 x 10 eV/K.
 Lecture 14

Various models in metal cutting

Instructional objectives are:

1. Top five theories in the metal shearing

2. Slip line field method
3. Lee and Shaffer theory in details, and
4. Numerical examples
 The following are the top five theories on mechanics of metal cutting
(shearing).

1. Ernst-Merchant Theory
2. Merchant Theory
3. Lee and Shaffer Theory, and

The initials theories of machining was essentially based on the equilibrium of forces associated with the cutting process.
That essentially works on the minimum energy principles. Since the comprehensive presentation of this model by
Merchant (1944), several other works applied the theory of plasticity to analyse the problem of orthogonal machining.
One simple analysis by Lee and Shaffer (1951) who assumed an uniform plastic zone in the chip and applied the slip-line
field theory to obtain the shear angle relationship for orthogonal cutting. Oxley (1961) also used the slip-time field
concept to develop his analysis.
 The following are the top five theories on mechanics of metal cutting
(shearing).

1. Ernst-Merchant Theory

1. That expenditure is minimum in the process, i.e., shear will take plane in a direction in which energy required
for shearing is minimum.
2. That shear stress is maximum at the shear plane and it remains constant.
 The following are the top five theories on mechanics of metal cutting
(shearing).

2. Merchant Theory

• Merchant has carried out lot of practical experiments on metal cutting and he found that the relationship
given by the Ernst-Merchant Theory does not hold good practically.
• He then modified his theory by assuming that shear stress τ along the shear plane varies linearly with normal
stress, i.e. τ = τ 0 + K σ, τ 0 is the value of τ when normal stress σ = 0
 Slip line field method
• The slip-line field analysis, a graphical approach, depends upon the determination of the plastic flow pattern in the
deforming material.
• The plastic flow occurs predominantly by slip on planes of closely-packed atoms and in the direction of the line of atoms
which lie closest to the line of maximum shear stress.
• In a real material, it is reasonable to assume that there will be sufficient number of favourably oriented planes for the
slip direction to coincide with the direction of maximum shear stress.
• In an ideal material, i.e., a structureless, homogeneous and isotropic material, the slip will always occur precisely in the
direction of maximum shear stress.
• Thus, once the direction of maximum shear stress is known, the direction of plastic flow in an ideal material is known.

Plastic Flow: Due to the relative motion between the tool and the workpiece, the workpiece material is compressed
as it approaches the cutting edge of the tool and reaches plastic state. Plastic flow occurs and the deformed material
moves upwards along the tool face and comes out as a chip.
Slip line field method
• In a deforming material the planes of maximum shear stress from an orthogonal curvilinear network as shown in
the figure.
• These orthogonal network of characteristics or the lines of maximum shear stress have come to be known as the
slip-line field and the directions of maximum shear stress as the slip lines.
• In a rigid plastic material, each element is subjected to the maximum shear stress k and a mean normal stress
(hydrostatic pressure) p.
Slip line field method
• The direction of principal stresses σ1 and σ3 are at 45° to the slip lines. The third principal stress σ2 acts normal to
the plane of the figure.
• The general problem of three-dimensional deformation is still intractable, but it is possible to analyse plane strain
(two dimensional) problems using the slip-line field approach.
• In a plane strain situation, the strain in the direction of the third principal stress is zero. Further, there can be no
normal stress at a free surface and components of the shear stresses along the slip lines when resolved parallel to
the surface must he equal.
• The slip lines, therefore, meet a free surface at 45° (see figure).
Slip line field method
The two directions of maximum shear stresses or the slip lines are usually identified as α and β lines. The usual
convention for identifying is that when α and β lines form a right-handed coordinate system of axes, then the
direction of the algebraically greatest principal stress (say σl, a shown in figure below) lies in the first and third
quadrants. The counter clock-wise rotation ψ of the α - line from the chosen x-direction is taken as positive. The
Hencky equations can then be written.
 Quiz1, Time: 45 Minutes
Instructions:
• Write to the point answers. If possible, try to answer in the form of sentences in the bullet points.
• Make neat and clean diagram using pencils, wherever needed.
• Calculator is allowed.

1. Justify the never decreasing phase in True stress during the necking phase in contrast of the
engineering stress. Also justify the statement “True strain equals the natural log of the quotient of
current length over the original length”. [4]
2. Derive the Ernst Merchant expression for minimum shear angle ɸ in an orthogonal cutting. Use the
shear stress express from the Merchant express directly for this purpose. Mention only the relevant
assumptions also. [6]
3. What is the avalanche motion of charged particles? How it is relevant with the EDM Process? [4]
4. Find the arc efficiency for an RC based EDM process if the discharge current is 8 Amp and the
discharge voltage is 100 Volts. Assume the cathode drop is 2 times of the anode drop while
experiencing 70% of the voltage drop taking place in the plasma drop region. Consider 30% of the
spark column energy transferred to the anode. Take spark temperature at 18000 K. Work function,
ɸo for tungsten = 4.5 eV and Boltzmann’s constant = 8.62 x 10 eV/K. [Hint: ɸ= ɸo+3/2KT] [6]
 Lecture 15

Material removal formulation in EDM

Instructional objectives are:

1. Deriving the expression for MRR in EDM

 Lecture 16

Thermal aspects of machining

Instructional objectives are:

1. Heat generation in metal cutting

2. Temperature distribution in work and chip in orthogonal cutting, and
3. Measurement of temperature in metal cutting
 Regions for heat generation and their significance

1. The shear zone

2. The tool chip interface and
3. The work tool interface

The cutting energy is converted into heat in two principal region of plastic deformation
1. Shear zone of primary deformation zone AB and,
2. Secondary deformation zone AC
Affecting factors

Material: Mild steel

Cutting speed: 25m/min
Width of the cut: 2mm
Tool rake angle: 30o
Simplified heat flow equation in Two dimensions
 Utilization of the simplified heat flow equation for temperature
distribution in the Shear plane and Chip

Shear Plane Temperature Distribution

Weiner [1955] was able to solve equation (4) using the following
assumptions for evaluating the shear plane temperature:
(a) Heat released at the shear plane is uniform.
(b) Workpiece is of infinite mass.
(c) Thermal properties of the workpiece and tool materials are
independent of temperature.
(d) Heat conduction at the tool-work interface is negligible.
(e) There is no loss of heat from the workpiece free surfaces AE and BD,
i.e., the, free surfaces
are insulated.
Weiner solution for Shear plane temperature distribution
Rapier (1954) solution for Temperature distribution in Chip
Average Shear plane and Tool-cip Interface temprature
 Measurement of temperature
1. Experimentally:
2. Analytically:- Using mathematical model (equations), if available or can be developed considering the following
assumptions

1. Materials leave the shear plane AB at a uniform temperature θs

2. The frictional heat source along the chip-tool interface AC is uniform
3. There in NO frictional heat loss from the chip surface CG and BH
4. As x-∞, the temperature across the chip θc become
 Effect of high cutting temperature on tool and work

High cutting temperatures are detrimental to both the tool and the job. The major portion of the heat is taken
away by the chips. But it does not matter because chips are thrown out. So attempts should be made such that
the chips take away more and more amount of heat leaving small amount of heat to harm the tool and the job.
The possible detrimental effects of the high cutting temperature on cutting are:

On tool

• Rapid tool wear , which reduces tool life

• Cutting edges plastically deform and tool may loose its hot hardness
• Thermal flaking and fracturing of cutting edges may take place due to thermal shock
• Built up edge formation

On work
• Dimension inaccuracy of work due to thermal distortion and expansion and contraction during and
after machining
• Surface damage by oxidation, rapid corrosion, burning etc.
• Tensile residual stresses and microcracks at the surface and sub surfaces
 Lecture 18

Thermal aspects of machining cont…

Tool wear

Instructional objectives are:

1. Average temperature of tool chip interface and shear plane

2. Tool wear mechanism and mode
Average Shear plane and Tool-cip Interface temprature
 Tool wear
• Three basic cause for the tool wear, which may also called as tool wear mechanism
• Adhesion
• Abrasion, and
• Diffusion
• Adhesion is due to strong bonds formation between asperities mating surfaces which get welded. After welding and
fracture of surface asperities have occurred several times a loose fragment may be formed and leave the system as a
wear particle. When the wear particles thus removed are very small the process is referred to as attritious wear, while
when large particles are generated the process is referred to as galling. The basic mechanisms involved are the same
except for the size of wear particles.
• Abrasion is a result of abrasive wear in which hard abrasive particles trapped between two mating surface sliding
over each other. When two surfaces are in sliding contact, the surface asperities of the harder material plough a series
of grooves on the softer material. loose hard particles of the workpiece comes into the action by getting trapped at the
sliding interface. loose hard particles trapped at the chip-tool interface may remove tool material due to abrasion. It
depends upon the hardness and elastic properties and the geometry of the mating surfaces.
• Diffusion is basically the migration of material due to high relative affinity of one of the mating surface. When two
surfaces come in close contact, atoms from one of the mating surfaces may get diffused into the matrix of the other
surface depending upon the relative affinity of the atoms. This phenomenon affects the wear process by causing a
change in physical properties such as hardness, toughness, etc. of either the tool material or the work material or both.
Tool wear

Adhesion mechanism