CHAPTER 12

ENERGY MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS

DALE A. GUSTAVSON, C.E.M. system (EMCS). The primary difference between early
D.A. Gustavson Company automatic temperature control systems and EMCS is
Orange, California the application of a broad base of variables through
(714) 639-6100 programmable logic controllers to optimize the use of
energy. While EMCS is used to control building environ-
TOM LUNNEBERG, P.E. mental conditions and industrial processes, this chapter
Manager, Energy Engineering will deal only with EMCS applications for control of
CTG Energetics, Inc. building HVAC and lighting functions.
Irvine, CA 92618
(949) 790-0010 12.1.1 Direct Digital Control
HVAC building control system manufacturers have
WILLIAM E. CRATTY greatly enhanced EMCS by incorporating direct digital
ALFRED R. WILLIAMS, P.E. control (DDC). DDC is defined as a digital computer
Energy Conservation Mgmt. Co. that measures particular variables, processes this data
Bethel, Conn. via control algorithms and controls a terminal device
to maintain a given setpoint or the on/off status of an
Competitive economic pressures on owners to reduce output device. The term “digital” refers only to the fact
building operating expenses are challenging the tra- that input/output information is processed digitally and
ditional design and control of heating, ventilating, air not that input or output devices are digital. Inputs and
conditioning (HVAC) and lighting functions. Facility outputs relative to a DDC EMCS can be either digital
owners and operators have strong financial incentives or analog. Typically, most inputs are analog signals
to match more closely control, zoning and HVAC equip- converted to digital signals by the computer while the
ment sizing to the use of building spaces and outside greater portion of outputs are likely to be digital (zero
environmental conditions. This must be done without or full voltage).
sacrificing comfort and safety. Energy management sys- DDC systems use software to program micropro-
tems play a key roll in meeting this challenge. cessors, therefore providing tremendous flexibility for
controlling and modifying sophisticated control ap-
plications. Changing control sequences by modifying
12.1 ENERGY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS software allows the user to improve performance of
control systems throughout a building.
Energy management is the control of energy con- DDC EMCSs can be programmed for customized
suming devices for the purpose of minimizing energy control of HVAC and lighting systems and perform
demand and consumption. Manually toggling on and facility wide energy management routines such as elec-
off devices based upon need is a rudimentary form of trical peak demand limiting, ambient condition lighting
energy management. The advent of mechanical devices control, start/stop time optimization, sitewide chilled
such as time clocks for automatic toggling and bimetallic water and hot water reset, time-of-day scheduling and
strip thermostats to control the output of heating and outdoor air free cooling control. An EMCS using DDC
cooling devices along with pneumatic and electrical can integrate automatic temperature control functions
transmission systems provided means for developing with energy management functions to ensure that
early energy management systems in the form of au- HVAC systems operate in accord with one another for
tomatic temperature controls. The advent of solid state greater energy savings.
electronic control devices and the increasing power The most significant benefits DDC systems of-
of the microprocessor based personal computer have fer are: a) the ability to customize the scheduling of
led to dramatic advances in energy management and equipment and their component devices to react to
what today is termed the energy management control ever changing conditions of use and weather, and b)
315
316 ENERGY MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK

additional control modes (integral and derivative) that lighting control diminishes the financial benefit of this
result in quicker, more accurate control when compared technology to the system owner.
to pneumatic systems. Pneumatic systems inherently of- Sometimes a business-specific or facility-specific
fer only proportional (how far is the input from setpoint) application will have a greater impact on EMCS jus-
control in which the terminal control device linearly var- tification than does the energy saving component. For
ies the output as an input variable changes relative to example, a 1990 law change in California requires banks
setpoint. Linear control results in offset or “hunting” by to maintain specified levels of lighting near their auto-
a terminal control device (valve) as it throttles to control matic teller machines (ATMs). The law was passed in
to setpoint. By adding the integral (how long has the response to muggings and killings at poorly lit ATMs.
input been away from setpoint) mode to a proportional Some banks have responded by randomly installing
controller, offset is minimized as the control point is au- additional lighting fixtures. This shortsighted approach
tomatically reset while the controller continually shifts still begs the question, what happens if the lights go
the throttling range. By adding the derivative (how fast out?
is the input approaching/moving away from setpoint) One possible DDC solution would be to measure
mode the controller can achieve setpoint much quicker and log an ATM’s light level. When lumens drop below
and more accurately whenever load varies. Generally, a specified level, that facility’s EMCS could simultane-
proportional-integral (PI) control is sufficient for build- ously activate an emergency backup lighting system,
ing HVAC applications. notify an alarm monitoring company, and automatically
The primary objective of an EMCS using DDC is to dial out to a central EMCS monitoring station to record
optimize the control and sequencing of mechanical sys- and verify that the notification function worked. An
tems. A DDC EMCS also allows centralized and remote alarm light or tone also could be activated at the site
monitoring, supervision and programming maintenance to alert the facility personnel to the problem the next
of the HVAC and lighting functions. Additionally, such morning. All of this by the same microprocessor that
systems can lead to improved indoor environmental controls the HVAC and lighting? Easily! Would it be
comfort and air quality. cost effective? That question might best be asked of the
Importantly, EMCS can also perform valuable non- bank’s legal department.
energy related tasks (NERTs). These often overlooked For more discussion on NERTs and other benefits
DDC applications, or “extra-standard” functions, can be of EMCSs, see Section 12.2.
business specific or facility specific such as follows:
12.1.2 Hardware
A design/build EMCS specialist for shopping
An EMCS can range from a very simple stand-
malls adds people counting, vehicle counting, and
alone unitary microprocessor based controller with
precipitation logs to normal EMCS monitoring to
firmware routines (control software logic that the user
help mall management lease space and track the
cannot modify except for setpoints) that provides con-
success of mall promotions.
trol of a terminal unit such as a heat pump to a very
During a facility appraisal of a year-old drug store sophisticated large building DDC EMCS that interfaces
distribution center, a West Coast EMCS consultant/ with fire and security systems. Although this chap-
contractor discovered an opportunity to control ter will generally cite examples from applications in
the facility’s conveyor system. The application not medium to large facilities, there have been numerous
only resulted in energy savings, but also stream- documented successes with stand-alone controllers in
lined shipping. small buildings. Fast food and dinner houses, auto deal-
erships, retail stores, bowling centers, super markets,
An imaginative plant engineer commissioned the
branch banks, small commercial offices, etc., have all
writing of custom front-end software for a brand
benefited from this technology. Typically, EMCS instal-
name EMCS to perform noise level control in a fac-
lations at small buildings are ‘design/build’. That is, an
tory. This ‘stretch’ of the EMCS now helps protect
EMCS manufacturer, distributor, installing contractor,
the hearing of employees.
end user, or some combination thereof select the EMCS
DDC EMCSs are being used to control environ- hardware and decides how it is to be applied.
ments in mushroom farms and banana distribution Much study remains to be done to determine
centers, to control pivot-irrigation systems, and even the extent by which firmware routines themselves
to control snow-making equipment at ski resorts. The contribute to the economics in small building EMCS
limiting of DDC EMCS application strictly to HVAC and projects. Empirical data suggests that while EMCSs in
ENERGY MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS 317

small facilities do improve the accuracy and response ing automatic temperature control system in an existing
of mechanical system controls, the energy management building to install an all encompassing DDC EMCS
routines are responsible only partially for the savings solely for energy conservation purposes. For example,
which are achieved. In applications where unitary con- an air handling unit is typically managed by a control-
trollers have been treated simply as ‘devices’, by-in-large ler that monitors signals for outside air temperature,
savings have proven to be less dramatic than where they mixed air temperature, discharge air temperature, and
have been treated as ‘systems’ and used as ‘tools for return air temperature, compares the signals to setpoint
saving energy’. Better applied, installed, documented, conditions and in turn transmits a signal to a terminal
supported, and maintained EMCS projects have yielded control device to position the outside air dampers, ex-
better results than those in which ‘black boxes’ were haust dampers, return air dampers, and heating valve
hung on walls in broom closets and left alone to work or chilled water valve to maintain a predetermined
their ‘magic’. setpoint. If the unit has a variable speed drive, humidi-
What is it that would lead one restaurant chain fier or dehumidifier there are even more conditions to
to bypass or disconnect hundreds of small EMCSs and monitor and control. To remove all of the existing con-
return to time clock and manual control while at another trols and install an all encompassing DDC EMCS could
chain, using nearly identical systems and strategies, a be very costly. An economical alternative is to eliminate
40% return on investment, better comfort, and more the traditional time clock function from the automatic
rapid HVAC service response is realized? The opposite temperature control system and interface a DDC EMCS
results suggest that the “human dimension” is a factor in a “supervisory” mode over the existing controller by
which must be more clearly understood and weighed. connecting key electric/pneumatic relays (EPs) to DDC
This is true for small design/build projects as well as outputs and installing strategically placed input sensors.
for very large, sophisticated, ‘engineered’ projects. The A representative sampling of conditions such as a space
“people” factor must not be ignored. Different building temperature or discharge air temperature in conjunction
managers and occupants have different needs and oc- with global inputs and well designed software in most
cupancy habits. Also, no matter how well a system is cases would provide adequate management to maintain
designed, if the building operators and occupants are comfort and save a significant amount of energy.
not properly taught how to use and maintain it, the The first cost of a DDC EMCS installation has de-
EMCS will never live up to its full potential. For more creased dramatically in the past several years, and DDC
discussion on the importance of training and the “hu- currently costs about the same or less than a pneumatic
man dimension,” see Section 12.3.8. control system in most new construction applications. In
The selection of EMCS type and sophistication for addition to this first cost advantage, some advantages
any given application should balance management and of DDC over pneumatic controls are: 1) more precise
control desires with economics. An all encompassing control, 2) unlimited customization of control schemes
DDC EMCS will provide the best overall control and for energy management and comfort, 3) centralizes and
management capability, but it is also the most expensive. integrates control and monitoring of HVAC and light-
On the other hand, stand-alone controllers are the least ing, 4) easier to maintain, and 5) easier to expand and
expensive for individual control applications; they also ‘grow’ with building size and use.
restrict control strategy and management capability. In Current day DDC EMCS hardware configuration
terms of energy savings, an all encompassing system varies from manufacturer to manufacturer but has a
may not provide significantly greater savings than using common hierarchical configuration of microprocessor
stand-alone controllers for all HVAC functions at a given based digital controllers as well as a front-end personal
building, but it surely provides for better and easier computer. This configuration can be categorized by three
management of the mechanical systems. However, with levels: 1) terminal equipment level controllers, 2) system
appropriate telecommunications software a system of level controllers, and 3) the operator interface level.
unitary stand-alone controllers connected to modems The three levels are networked together via a commu-
could prove to be a very effective EMCS for a chain of nications trunk which allows information to be shared
widely dispersed small facilities. between other terminal equipment controllers and all
There are two basic economic opportunities for level controllers.
application of an EMCS. The first is a retrofit of exist- The most important part of a DDC EMCS are the
ing buildings with functioning automatic temperature system controllers because they monitor and control
control systems. The second is in new construction. It most mechanical equipment. A major feature of system
could be very difficult to justify removing a function- level controllers is their ability to handle multiple control
318 ENERGY MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK

loops and functions such as proportional- integral-de- response systems that use a personal computer for cen-
rivative (PID) control, energy management routines, tralized control, panelized DDC EMCSs are still by far
and alarms while the terminal equipment controllers are the most popular approach for providing digital control
single control loop controllers with specific firmware. of building systems. It used to be the case that using a
The operator interface level is generally a personal host PC for building system automation allowed more
computer that serves as the primary means to monitor complicated sequences of operation to be implemented,
the network for specific data and alarms, customize the and greater amounts of trend data to be stored. Today,
control software for downloading to specific system con- however, reduction in physical size as well as cost for
trollers, maintain time-of-day scheduling, and generate computer memory chips has led to much greater capa-
management reports. However, it is not uncommon for bilities for stand-alone control units, and as a result there
a single personal computer to serve both as the system is not much of a performance gap between centralized
controller and operator interface. poll/response and panelized DDC systems.
The specific method of communications within Be it new construction or a retrofit, when select-
an EMCS is significant because of the amount of data ing an EMCS the actual needs and requirements of the
being processed simultaneously. While methods of data particular building or campus of buildings must be
transfer between DDC controllers and the operator in- considered. While facility layout and construction type
terface level vary from manufacturer to manufacturer, will influence EMCS configuration, software is the most
communications protocols can be simplified into two critical element in any EMCS application.
distinct categories: 1) poll/response, and 2) peer-to-peer
or token-ring-passing network. 12.1.3 Software
A peer-to-peer network does not have a communi- The effectiveness of the software control logic is
cation master or center point as does the poll/response what provides the building operator with the benefits
system because every trunk device, be it a terminal level of an energy management system. While color graphics
controller attached to a systems level controller or a and other monitoring enhancements are nice features
system level controller networked to other system level to have, the control logic in the system and terminal
controllers, at some point, has a time slot allowing it to controllers is what improves building systems efficiency
operate as the master in its peer grouping. However, and produces the energy savings.
the terminal level controller in a peer-to-peer network Networking DDC devices has provided building
usually is a poll/response device. A system using peer- operators with the ability to customize the traditional
to-peer communication can offer distinct advantages energy management strategies such as time-of-day/
over poll/response communication when redundancy of holiday scheduling, demand shedding, duty cycling,
critical global data is accommodated. These advantages optimum start/stop and temperature control as well
are: 1) communication is not dependent on one device, as the ability to implement energy management tech-
2) direct communication between controllers does not niques such as occupied/unoccupied scheduling of
require communication through the operator interface discrete building areas, resulting in reduced airflow
level, and 3) global information can be communicated volumes and unoccupied period setback strategies that
to all controllers quickly and easily. greatly reduce operating cost. PID control provides for
The speed of system communication in build- more accurate, precise and efficient control of build-
ing control usually is not an issue with today’s DDC ing HVAC systems. However, software that provides
technology. However, the response time for reaction to for adaptive or self tuning control not only enhances
control parameters can be an issue with the application savings but also addresses environmental quality.
of a centralized poll/response system where control Adaptive control software monitors the performance
and monitoring point densities are very high or alarm of a particular control loop and automatically adjusts
response time is critical. Generally, peer-to-peer commu- PID parameters to improve performance. This feature
nication distributive systems that network system level improves control loop response to more complicated
controllers and terminal equipment level controllers and dynamic processes.
provide the quickest response time. However, the ever If the energy management industry has an Achil-
increasing speed of the personal computer is allowing les heel it is the specifier who specifies an EMCS by
centralized poll/response systems effectively to expand reference to a particular manufacturer’s general hard-
their control and monitoring horizon. ware specifications rather than detailing the specifics
Although quantum leaps in desktop computer of software sequencing logic and system configura-
processing horsepower lend some advantages to poll/ tion. Specification by manufacturer reference is not a
ENERGY MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS 319

complement to a hardware manufacturer rather it is an What is the annual dollar value of an efficient
indication of EMCS ignorance on the part of the speci- office building 95% leased as compared to a less
fier. HVAC mechanical equipment operation sequences efficient building 75% leased?
are becoming increasingly complex. This is a result of
stricter criteria established by national codes (American What is the annual dollar value of being able to
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning provide basic comfort troubleshooting by tele-
Engineers’ Minimum Outdoor Air Requirements Stan- phone using a personal computer and remote
dard 62 for example) and by building operators who communication software?
require highly accurate control systems, energy use
monitoring and accounting by zone of use. To meet the What is the annual dollar value of increased pro-
challenges posed by these stricter codes and building ductivity in a building, which suffers little or no
operator demands the EMCS specifier must be thor- discomfort?
oughly knowledgeable about all aspects of EMCSs.
As suggested in the earlier discussion of the hu- What is the value of lowering absenteeism by
man dimension phenomenon, it is essential that the using EMCS to maintain indoor air quality moni-
EMCS specifier look beyond technology or, as the old toring and preventive action?
saying goes, look beyond the trees to the forest. That is,
a specifier must be knowledgeable about not only the What if one of the above benefits is the differ-
building construction and mechanical and lighting sys- ence between justifying an EMCS project and not going
tems to be controlled but also the businesses and people ahead? The key to making the most of NERTs, or
which occupy the building. And, of equal importance is extra-standard EMCS functions is recognizing that: 1)
the need to assess the level of training and ongoing sup- quantified benefits have more impact than unquantified
port that the EMCS owner/operator will need to realize ‘hopes’ when buying decisions are made, 2) it is the
the anticipated benefit. industry’s duty to continually observe, track and cre-
ate new EMCS ‘by-products’, and 3) only imagination
12.1.4 Control Strategies limits the range of extra-standard functions which can
A DDC EMCS can serve six basic functions: 1) be incorporated into the EMCS design. The extent and
manage the demand or need for energy at any given proficiency of performing these functions depends on
time, 2) manage the length of time that devices consume the software programming.
energy, 3) set alarms when devices fail or malfunction, 4) The energy management industry has evolved
facilitate monitoring of HVAC system performance and standard time-proven software routines that can be used
the functioning of other building systems, 5) assist the as a starting point to develop effective programming.
building operator to administer equipment maintenance, These routines are commonly referred to as control
and 6) provide the building/business owner/operator strategies. While these routines can be applied in virtu-
with non-energy related tasks (NERTs), i.e., extra-stan- ally all EMCS installations they must be customized for
dard functions to make the EMCS more effective or each building. A description of some of these routines
advantageous. There are financial benefits for each of follows.
these six functions, yet traditionally, only the first two Daily Scheduling: This routine provides for indi-
are quantified in an economic analysis. The industry still vidual, multiple start and stop schedules for each piece
has work to do to develop new, accurate, reliable models of equipment, for each day of the week.
for predicting energy savings by an EMCS. But, to limit Holiday Programming: This routine provides for
the inquiry to just energy savings falls far short of what multiple holiday schedules which can be configured
is necessary for EMCS technology to realize anywhere up to a year in advance. Typically, each holiday can be
close to its truly staggering potential. programmed for complete shutdown where all zones of
It is the industry’s responsibility to develop models control are maintained at setback levels, or for special
for predicting the value of all EMCS functions. It is too days requiring the partial shutdown of the facility. In
often left to sales and marketing people to explore and, addition, each holiday generally can be designated as a
even more importantly, assert the full range of ben- single date or a range of dates.
efits of EMCS technology. The energy and engineering Yearly Scheduling: Typically, any number of control
communities tend to stop where science ends and specu- points can be assigned to special yearly scheduling rou-
lation begins. Speculation is a healthy exercise. Here are tines. The system operator usually can enter schedules
some questions which might be worth asking: for yearly scheduled control points for any date during
320 ENERGY MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK

the year. Depending on the particular EMCS software hours, as well as parameters and limits for normal oc-
operating system, yearly scheduled dates may be erased cupied operation to be user selectable. Night setback is
once the dates have passed and the schedules have been usually programmed to evaluate outside air temperature
implemented; or, the scheduled dates may repeat in the in the algorithm.
following year as do scheduled holiday dates. Hot Water Reset: This routine varies the tem-
Demand Limiting or Load Shedding: Demand lim- perature of the hot water in a loop such that the water
iting can be based on a single electric meter or multiple temperature is reduced as the heating requirement for
meters. Generally, loads are assigned to the appropriate the building decreases. The reset temperature for night
meters in a specified order in which equipment is to be setback usually is less than the day reset temperature.
shed. Usually, a control point that is allowed to be shed Typically, reset is accomplished by controlling a three-
is given a status as a “round-robin” demand point (first way valve in the hot water loop; however, depending
off-first on), a “priority” demand point (first off-last on), on boiler type, reset can be accomplished by “floating”
or a “temperature” demand shed point (load closest the aquastat setpoint. For pneumatic control systems,
to setpoint is shed first). Other parameters per control the primary variable in the reset algorithm is outside air
point include Rated kW, Minimum Shed Time, Maxi- temperature. For newer systems that have DDC controls
mum Shed Time and Minimum Time Between Shed. on air handling units, it is possible to reset the heat-
Minimum On-Minimum Off Times: Normally a ing hot water temperature based on the “worst case”
system turns equipment on and off based on tempera- hot water control valve position. Under this strategy,
tures, schedules, duty cycles, demand limits and other the heating hot water temperature is reset downwards
environmental parameters. However, mechanical equip- until the air handling unit with the greatest need for
ment often is specified to run for a minimum amount heating has its hot water control valve fully open. For
of time once started and/or remain off for a minimum VAV systems that feature DDC control at the zone level,
amount of time once shut down. Therefore, this routine it is also possible to reset the temperature of hot water
gives the operator the ability to enter these minimum feeding zonal reheat coils based on the “worst case”
times for each piece of equipment controlled. zone. Under this strategy, each DDC zone controller re-
Duty Cycling: This routine provides the ability for ports the position of its hot water reheat control valve,
a control point to be designated for either temperature and the temperature it reset downwards until the zone
compensated (cycle a piece of equipment on and off to with the greatest reheat requirements has its valve fully
maintain a setpoint within a dead band) or straight time open. This strategy can provide a significant reduction
dependent (cycle a piece of equipment on and off for in wasteful reheating of conditioned air.
distinct time intervals) duty cycling. Control parameters Boiler Optimization: In a facility that has multiple
for temperature compensated duty cycling include Total boilers this routine schedules the boilers to maximize
Cycle Lengths, Long and Short Off Cycles and Hi and plant efficiency by staging the units to give preference
Low Temperatures. There are separate sets of param- to the most efficient boiler, by controlling the burner
eters for both heating and cooling. Time dependent duty firing mode when desirable, and by minimizing partial
cycling uses Total Cycle Length and Off Cycle Lengths. loading.
Cycles for each load can be programmed in specific Chilled Water Reset: This routine varies the tem-
minute increments and based on a selectable offset from perature of the chilled water in a loop such that the water
the top of the hour. temperature is increased as the cooling requirement for
Optimum Start/Stop: For both heating and cooling the building decreases. This is typically done by control-
seasons DDC systems can provide customized optimum ling a three-way valve in the chilled water loop. Chilled
start/stop routines which take into account outside tem- water reset also can be accomplished by interfacing the
perature and inside zone temperatures when preparing EMCS with the chiller controls to reduce the maximum
the building climate for the occupant or shutting the facil- available cooling capacity such as during demand limit-
ity down at the end of the day. During unoccupied hours ing. For pneumatic control systems, the primary variable
(typically at night) the software tracks the rate of heat loss in the reset algorithm is outside air temperature. For new-
or gain and then utilizes this data to decide when equip- er systems that have DDC controls on air handling units,
ment will be enabled in order to regain desired climatic it is possible to reset the chilled water temperature based
conditions by the scheduled time of occupation. The same on the “worst case” chilled water control valve position.
logic is used in reverse for optimum stop. Under this strategy, the chilled water temperature is reset
Night Setback: This routine allows building low upwards until the air handling unit with the greatest need
temperature limits for nighttime, weekend and holiday for cooling has its chilled water control valve fully open.
ENERGY MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS 321

In this way, the chilled water temperature will be reset to Duty Logs: DDC systems can track and display
as high as possible—which improves chiller capacity and various types of information such as last time on,
efficiency—without compromising comfort. It must be last time off, daily equipment runtimes, temperatures
noted that this strategy must be carefully implemented (or other analog inputs) kWh and even remote panel
with variable flow chilled water systems, as it is possible hardware performance. DDC systems can also accumu-
for improvements in chiller efficiency to be eclipsed by late and display monthly scheduled and unscheduled
increased pumping energy. runtimes for each piece of equipment controlled or
Chiller Optimization: In a facility that has multiple monitored.
chillers this routine schedules the chillers to maximize Temperature and hardware performance informa-
plant efficiency by staging the units to give preference to tion can be monitored and displayed. Change of state
the most efficient chiller. Unlike the boiler optimization can be logged for all loads and can be reviewed on a
routine, however, it can be more efficient to operate a daily basis for all loads. In addition, a system can pro-
chiller plant with units sharing the load rather than fully duce line graphics or historical trends of input data and
loading a unit. hardware systems information.
Chiller Demand Limiting: This routine limits chiller Energy consumption logs can be kept separately
demand by interfacing the EMCS with the chiller controls for every pulse meter point. For electricity these energy
to reduce the maximum available cooling capacity in logs can record data (by the day) such as daily kilowatt
several fixed steps. The primary variable in the demand hour consumption, kilowatt demand, time the peak oc-
limiting algorithm is kW demand. curred, selected demand limit, time that any load was
Free Cooling: Free cooling is the use of outside air to shed, minimum, maximum and average outside tem-
augment air conditioning or to ventilate a building when peratures and degree day information.
the enthalpy (total heat content) of the outside air is less Alarm Monitoring and Reporting: DDC systems
than the enthalpy of the internal air and there is a desire register and display alarms for conditions such as 1)
to cool the building environment. In arid climates, an manual override of machinery at remote locations, 2)
economizer cycle can work well by measuring dry-bulb equipment failures, 3) high temperatures, 4) low temper-
temperature only. In climates where humidity is of con- atures, invalid temperatures (sensor is being tampered
cern, enthalpy-based controls are preferable as they can with), and 5) communication problems.
provide greater comfort and increased energy savings.
An economizer can be categorized as integrated (mean-
ing it can operate in conjunction with mechanical cooling) 12.2 JUSTIFICATION OF EMCSs
or non-integrated (meaning that the outside air damper is
fixed at its minimum position when mechanical cooling is Traditionally, a commercial building is constructed
required). by one party (a developer) owned by a second party
Recirculation: This routine provides for rapid (investors) and operated by a third party (a facilities
warm-up during heating and rapid cool-down during management firm). Typically, the building will have
cooling by keeping outside air dampers fully closed and one electric meter and a central heating plant. There-
return air dampers fully opened during system start-up. fore, total energy cost must be included in the rental
Hot Deck/Cold Deck Temperature Reset: This rou- structure. Before the ‘first energy crisis’ and energy was
tine selects the zones or areas with the greater heating cheap, lessees typically paid a flat rental charge based on
and cooling requirements and establishes the minimum square footage rented and nobody paid much attention
hot and cold deck temperature differential which will to operating hours of the HVAC and lighting systems.
meet the requirements in order to maximize system ef- When energy prices started their rapid upward
ficiency. (NOTE: Multi-zone system) spiral building owners and operators implemented mea-
Motor Speed Control: This routine will vary the sures to pass the cost increase directly on to the lessee.
speed of fan and pump motors to reduce air and water However, now because of the volume of space available
velocity as loads decrease. Speed control can be accom- and other competitive pressures building owners and
plished either by controlling a two speed motor with a operators are being forced to find means of reducing
digital output or a variable speed drive with an analog the energy cost component of the base rent in order to
output. reduce operating costs and entice customers with lower
Manual Override: This routine provides separate base rentals in the lease market.
manual override schedules to allow for direct control of Depending on the type of HVAC and lighting con-
equipment for specific periods of time. trol systems installed in a building, energy consumption
322 ENERGY MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK

and operating costs can be dramatically different. There- more productivity and lower cost for service.
fore, it should go without saying that since operating Keeps polluting vehicles off the street. Leads to
costs are a key ingredient when establishing competitive higher profits and increased competitiveness.
rentals, the type of control system installed can have a
significant impact on the owner’s income. And, to fol- • Monitor/log building equipment performance
low this line of reasoning to its conclusion, since rental and energy use—Resulting, accumulated data
income is a key ingredient in the appraisal of a com- leads to improved performance of all EMCS func-
mercial facility, the type of control systems installed can tions, thereby increasing magnitude of all benefits
have a significant impact on the value placed on the itemized above. Also confirms cost avoidance ben-
building should the owner want to sell. efit of project.
A well-designed and properly operated EMCS is an
investment which offers the building owner/manager a • Perform NERTs (non-energy related tasks)—For
multitude of benefits, which can oftentimes be bundled every NERT there is a corresponding NEB (non-
and quantified. These benefits include, yet go beyond, energy benefit). In fact, the value of NERTs can
impressive payback and return-on-investment figures. exceed the value of all the other benefits combined.
In addition to the immediate financial benefits, there are (Refer back to Section 12.1.1 for specific examples
long-range benefits to managing energy and demand as of NERT applications.) Some NEBs can be easily
well. Such benefits can be wide-ranging, positively af- quantified and others cannot, but they should be
fecting society in general. Consider the following EMCS articulated in your investment justification.
functions, along with the related benefits:
While some of these benefits may seem far-reaching,
• Manage energy consumption and demand—Low- different building owners and operators have different
er operating expenses, higher profits and increased needs and requirements. Energy management profes-
competitiveness, keep energy prices affordable in sionals should always be on the alert for specific ways an
the long term. Less smog, reduced acid rain and EMCS can benefit a facility, as each case is unique.
less global warming.
12.2.1 An EMCS Opportunity
• Optimize operating efficiencies of energy con-
suming equipment—Same benefits as above plus For purposes of discussion, consider a ten story,
extended equipment life which further increases multiple tenant, commercial office building configured
profits and competitiveness. and occupied as follows as an example of an opportu-
nity for an EMCS application (Figure 12.1).
• Improve comfort—Increases occupant productiv-
ity and concentration. Helps occupants feel more a. One boiler room in the basement with 2 boilers
alert, rested, make fewer mistakes and perform and 2 redundant sets of circulating pumps (4 in
better. Leads to a more vital U.S. economy with all) to supply hot water to perimeter radiation and
better educated and less stressed populace. heating coils.

• Improve indoor air quality—Saves lives, increases b. One domestic hot water system for the entire
productivity, prevents lawsuits, lowers insurance building.
costs and reduces absenteeism. Contributes to bet-
ter economical and educational systems. c. Four mechanical rooms—a north and a south
mechanical room on the 5th floor each with 2 air
• Activate alarms when equipment malfunc- handling units (AHUs) supplying the first 5 floors
tions—Provides for less costly disruptions of and a north and a south mechanical room on the
productivity due to faster response, increased prof- 10th floor each with 2 AHUs supplying the top 5
itability, extended equipment life and increased floors. Each AHU has a preheat coil on the inlet
competitiveness. side of the supply fan and a chilled water coil
and a reheat coil on the discharge side to maintain
• Assist on- or off-site operator administer service/ desired hot deck and cold deck temperatures for
maintenance—Results in better records, histories a double duct distribution system. The north me-
for more efficient, accurate work, less downtime, chanical room on the 10th floor has a chiller and
ENERGY MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS 323

Figure 12.1 Ten-story office building.

a redundant set of circulators to service the north f. Toilet exhaust is provided by 2 roof mounted ex-
side AHUs while the south mechanical room on haust fans that are switched in one of the 10th floor
the 10th floor has a chiller and a redundant set of mechanical rooms.
circulators to service the south side AHUs.
g. Corridor and lobby lighting is switched from a
central location while space lighting is operated by
d. One roof top mounted cooling tower serving both
a wall switch in each space.
chillers.
h. The building is normally occupied between 8:00
e. The building is zoned by AHU (8 zones) and each am and 5:00 p.m. Monday thru Friday and sporadi-
room has a mixing box that is controlled by its cally occupied a various times after normal hours
own thermostat to allow heating and cooling as until midnight on work days and occasionally on
required. weekends.
324 ENERGY MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK

An opportunity for use of DDC EMCS in either of the example building must incur after-normal hours
retrofits or new construction can be found when con- operating costs and allocate them over the entire leasing
sidering building use. One of the keys to effective cost. This unfairly spreads the costs generated by a few
utilization of an EMCS is zoning. Through flexible tenants over the lease costs of all tenants. The overall
program scheduling to control the energy consuming effect are higher leasing charges for all.
systems by zone the building operator can realize sub- The most cost effective way to retrofit a DDC
stantial energy savings. EMCS in a building controlled by a reasonably main-
Most likely an existing building configured and tained pneumatic control system is to interface it with
occupied as the above example building will have the existing pneumatics in a supervisory mode by elim-
manual lighting control and a mechanical time clock inating night thermostats, replacing time clock contacts
based pneumatic system controlling HVAC functions as with DDC outputs, direct hard wiring for start/stop
follows: control of the equipment not under the influence of
the pneumatic system (i.e. toilet exhaust fans, domestic
a. Each mechanical room has a time clock activated
service hot water circulators, and corridor, lobby and
control panel for occupied/unoccupied switch
exterior lighting); direct hard wiring boilers, chillers
over of day/night air pressures for space thermo-
and hot water and chilled water circulators for start/
stats and start/stop of the mechanical equipment.
stop control, and direct hard wiring to enable/disable
b. Each AHU has a mixed air temperature control- the equipment under control of the pneumatic system
ler, a cold deck temperature controller and a hot (i.e. the AHUs and dampers). Enabled equipment is
deck temperature controller to maintain supply air allowed to operate under the control of the pneumatic
temperatures at preset levels. system. Disabled equipment is shut down (Figure
12.2).
c. Outside air dampers are calibrated to maintain With a supervisory DDC system the building op-
desired minimum air intake. erator can effect a dramatic reduction in energy usage
d. Each zone has a centrally located night thermostat by incorporating a simple timed on/off control strategy
for its respective AHU. for all HVAC and lighting zones that segregates the
operation of the equipment into discrete tenant zones.
e. In the boiler room there is a summer/winter The control strategy would shut down the tenant zones
change over of the heating and cooling functions. when outside of normal lease times. If a tenant wished
to utilize a space after hours, he/she could initial an
f. Corridor and lobby lighting is controlled by a me- override (using a simple automated telephone interface
chanical time clock in the electrical control room. from his/her office) to signal the system to preserve
his/her working environment. Additionally, on week-
To accommodate after normal hours occupancy ends and holidays the entire building can be kept in
the temperature control system provides for occupied the unoccupied mode unless a tenant requires extended
conditions from 7:00 am to midnight on weekdays. On occupancy of a particular zone. That tenant could initi-
weekends the system provides for occupied conditions ate an override from any outside telephone to ensure
from 8:00 am to 5:00 pm. Toilet exhaust fans run con- occupied conditions for his/her space upon arrival at
tinuously. The corridor and lobby lighting controller is the building. Whenever an override is initiated, an
set to maintain lights on from 6:00 am to 1:00 am on operator interface level personal computer could track
weekdays and from 7:00 am to 6:00 pm on weekends. the energy consumption and/or runtimes of that zone’s
Cleaning crews and tenants are responsible for control HVAC equipment for the purpose of billing the tenant
of lighting in the tenant spaces and toilets. an after hours usage charge.
In multiple tenant, high rise commercial office Experience at a multiple tenant, high rise com-
buildings with HVAC and lighting systems configured mercial office building on Long Island, New York, has
and operated in a manner similar to the example facility shown that this “tenant strategy” not only results in a
the DDC EMCS provides an opportunity to save a sig- dramatic reduction in energy usage but also allows the
nificant amount of energy and recover costs associated building operator to reduce the base rental and recover
with after normal hours tenant use. after normal hours operating cost directly from those
tenants responsible for the use.
12.2.2 The EMCS Retrofit By installing a DDC system as a supervisor of and
Without the benefit of a DDC EMCS the operator existing pneumatic control system the building operator
ENERGY MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS 325

AI-1 Boiler #1 water supply temperature BO-1 Boiler #1 S/S

AI-2 Boiler #2 water supply temperature BO-2 Boiler #2 S/S
AI-3 Common boiler water supply temperature BO-3 Circ Pump #1 S/S
AI-4 North loop supply temperature BO-4 Circ Pump #2 S/S
AI-5 South loop supply temperature BO-5 Circ Pump #3 S/S
AI-6 North loop return temperature BO-6 Circ Pump #4 S/S
AI-7 South loop return temperature AO-1 Reset control north
AI-8 Outside air temperature sensor SLC AO-2 Reset control south
AI-9 Ambient light sensor BO-7 Summer winter changeover
BI-1 Circ Pump #1 flow BO-8 Exterior lighting
BI-2 Circ Pump #2 flow BO-9 Domestic hot water
BI-3 Circ Pump #3 flow BO-10 Alarm
BI-4 Circ Pump #4 flow

TELC TELC TELC TELC

#1 #2 #3 #4

Typical for AI 1 Hot deck sensor AHU-1 AI-11 Rm sensor AHU-1

TELC 2, 3, 4 AI 2 Cold deck sensor AHU-1 AI-12 Rm sensor AHU-1
AI 3 Mixed air sensor AHU-1 AI-13 Rm sensor AHU-2
AI 4 Return air sensor AHU-1 AI-14 Rm sensor AHU-2
AI 5 Chiller outlet #1 AI-15 Hot deck sensor AHU-2
AI 6 Spare AI-16 Cold deck sensor AHU-2
BI 7 Chilled water Pump #1 flow AI-17 Mixed air sensor AHU-3
BI 8 Chilled water Pump #2 flow AI-18 Return air sensor AHU-2
BI 9 Cooling water Pump #1 flow AI-19 Rm sensor AHU-1
BI 10 Cooling water Pump #2 flow AI-20 Rm sensor AHU-1
AI-21 Rm sensor AHU-2
AI-22 Rm sensor AHU-2
BO 1 AHU #1 S/S
BO 2 AHU #2 S/S
BO 3 Chiler S/S
BO 4 Day/night switchover AHU-1 zone
BO 5 Lighting control
BO 6 Toilet exhaust
BO 7 AHU damper control (both units)
BO 8 Day/night switchover AHU-2 zone

SLC - System level controller

TELC - Terminal equipment level controller
AI - Analog input
BI - Binary input
AO - Analog output
BO - Binary output
S/S - Stop/start

Figure 12.2 Office building supervisory EMCS configuration,

326 ENERGY MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK

can implement traditional control strategies (see section to identify any comfort complaints (i.e. are there ‘hot’
12.1.4) to improve building operating efficiency and or ‘cold’ spots in the building, is ventilation adequate,
achieve additional energy cost reductions. In addition etc.), to assess the attitude that the building maintenance
to optimizing heating and cooling functions, the toilet staff has towards an EMCS, and to determine exactly
exhaust fans, domestic service hot water and corridor what the building manager expects the system to ac-
and lobby lighting can be interlocked with zone oc- complish.
cupied/unoccupied status to shut down these systems During the facility appraisal, the following people
when not needed. Pay backs for this type of EMCS should be interviewed:
retrofit are typically very attractive.
Tenants (by company, department, job function)
12.2.3 New Construction EMCS
Prospective tenants
If the exampled building were under construction
Delivery services
as a new building, the developer would be remiss not
to consider a DDC EMCS as part of the original design. Security personnel
In addition to all of the benefits described above, the all Service vendors (including janitorial, HVAC, lighting,
encompassing system would provide added benefit in electrical, life safety)
the form of PI control of heating and cooling valves and Building engineers/facility managers
dampers. The design engineer also would be remiss not Corporate energy manger, if any
to consider improvements in the mechanical design that
Building owner/CEO/CFO
along with DDC control could significantly improve the
energy efficiency of the building. Property manager and staff
By combining more aggressive zoning with DDC Leasing agents.
EMCS in new construction the building designer has the
opportunity to better match control of the HVAC with Perhaps the most overlooked above are leasing
building usage and optimize equipment sizing to better agents. These professionals must understand the ben-
fit loads thus improving equipment operating efficiency. efits of energy efficiency, or they will not be able to sell
However, the bulk of the EMCS opportunity lies in the it to perspective tenants.
thousands of existing buildings which are controlled
with pneumatic and electrical/mechanical automatic 12.3.2 Equipment List
temperature control systems. Surprisingly enough there Next, the designer should develop a complete and
are also buildings still being controlled by hand! accurate equipment list. In a retrofit situation the list
should include all of the equipment and devices to be
controlled, the present method of control for these items,
12.3 SYSTEMS INTEGRATION
the operating condition of the items and their controls,
The performance of an EMCS is directly pro- and the area each item services. Do not forget to include
portional to the quality of the designer ’s systems exterior and interior lighting on the list.
integration effort. Systems integration can be defined
as those activities required to accomplish the precise 12.3.3 Input/Output Point Definition
monitoring and control desired when incorporating an The third step is to define the input and output
EMCS into a building’s HVAC and lighting systems. points required to achieve the monitoring and control de-
This definition implies that systems integration includes sired, in the most cost-effective or efficient manner. This
not only selecting the appropriate EMCS and detail- requires an in-depth appraisal of such items as the equip-
ing monitoring points and control interfaces, but also, ment list, layout of building spaces, method of building
customizing the software algorithms to meet the user’s construction, HVAC physical plant makeup and layout,
needs and commissioning the system. methods of heating and cooling, types of secondary
HVAC distribution systems and controls, and the condi-
12.3.1 Facility Appraisal tion of the mechanical equipment and existing controls.
An appraisal of the job site is the first step of The definition of a control point should include a
EMCS systems integration. The appraisal is generally listing of all inputs that will influence the functioning
done by interviewing the building users to determine of that point. The installation specifications should detail
building usage patterns (be careful to differentiate be- this information and indicate the nature of the influence
tween normally scheduled usage and after hours usage), as follows:
ENERGY MANAGEMENT CONTROL SYSTEMS 327

Output Point Analog Input Point Notes and perform the necessary administrative functions
AHU #1 Outside Air Temperature (i.e. inputting schedule changes, monitoring alarms,
Room #1027 Temperature- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
and producing reports) not only affects how many
Room #935 Temperature
Room #837 Temperature Room of greatest but also where the operator interface level personal
Room #715 Temperature Demand computer is to be located, and the type of monitoring
Room #625 Temperature- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - and alarming that will be needed. This will also deter-
mine training requirements and the extent of support
12.3.4 Systems Configuration services needed.
Once the inputs and outputs have been defined,
the designer needs to define any constraints that might 12.3.5 Specifics of Software Logic
be placed on the EMCS hardware. Building size, build- The most critical phase of systems integration
ing design, building location, building use, design of the is the software specification. The designer must take
physical plant, type and layout of the secondary distri- care to be as explicit as he/she can when detailing
bution systems, design of the electrical system, and type the nature of the algorithms to be installed. This can
and condition of existing controls in retrofits as well as be done by structuring the software specifications in
the nature of the personnel operating the building are a manner that clearly defines the algorithms and their
some of the items to be considered when configuring an interrelationships. The designer who simply includes a
EMCS. manufacturer’s general hardware specifications rather
Cost of installation can vary significantly depend- than detailing the specifics of software sequencing logic
ing on the type of system architecture (centralized most assuredly dooms the system to failure.
versus distributive), the method of transmitting APPENDIX A “EMCS Software Specifications” is
information between system controllers and the input/ a sample of what can be described as a minimally ac-
output devices (direct hardwire versus multiplexing ceptable software specification. Ideally, in addition to
versus powerline carrier), the types of system con- a descriptive specification, the designer would leave
trollers and input/output devices selected (two way little doubt as to exactly what he/she has in mind by
versus one way communicators) and the amount of providing a listing, in easy to understand English for-
programming required (customized algorithms versus mat, of all system application programs associated with
firmware). each piece of equipment. Following is an example of
Knowing who is going to maintain the software what a listing might look like for control of boilers.

HOT WATER BOILER CONTROL

Where there are multiple boilers in a set the software shall change the lead-lag status of boilers 1 and 2 in the set on a
biweekly basis (Note the call to the lead-lag algorithm). This specific algorithm calls the general CENTHEAT algorithm
which assumes that the heating circulation pump is stage one of the central heating plant.

For the following control points CONTRACTOR shall apply this HOT WATER BOILER CONTROL algorithm:

1. Boiler 1
2. Boiler 2

VARIABLE DEFINITION:

User defined variables (operating parameters):

HEATSET: The heating target temperature (72°F).

SETBACKTEMP: The minimum set back temperature allowed (55°F).
MAXOATHEAT: The maximum outside air temperature for heating to be utilized (65°F).
OCCLOWOAT: The low outside air temperature parameter to be used for hot water reset during occupied time of day (0°F).
OCCHIGHOAT: The high outside air temperature parameter to be used for hot water reset during occupied time of day (60°F).