MODULE III

WORKING OF AM AND FM TRANSMITTERS

 AM transmitter
low level AM Transmitter
high level AM Transmitter
AM collector modulator
Balanced modulator

 FM transmitter
FM Transmitter(Armstrong method)
Pre-Emphasis and De-Emphasis circuits

 Noise
Definition
Types of noises - External and Internal
Signal to noise ratio

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 AM TRANSMITTERS

• Devices that transmits AM signals.

• Used in medium wave(550kHz-1650kHz) and short wave frequency bands( 3MHz – 30MHz).

• Based on the transmitting powers, two types of AM transmitters:

1. Low level AM transmitters

2. High level AM transmitters.

• High level transmitters use high level modulation, and low level transmitters use low level modulation.

• The transmitting power is in the order of kilowatts for high level AM transmitters and only a few watts
of transmitting power are required for low level AM transmitters.

HIGH LEVEL AM TRANSMITTERS

The various sections of the figure (a) are:

 Carrier oscillator

 Buffer amplifier

 Frequency multiplier

 Power amplifier

 Audio chain

 Modulated class C power amplifier

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1. Carrier oscillator

The carrier oscillator generates the carrier signal, which lies in the RF range. The frequency of the
carrier is always very high.
A crystal oscillator is used as carrier oscillator to generate a low frequency carrier with high frequency
stability.

The frequency multiplier stage then increases the frequency of the carrier to its required value.

2. Buffer amplifier

To match the output impedance of the carrier oscillator with the input impedance of the frequency
multiplier

To isolates the carrier oscillator and frequency multiplier, so that the multiplier does not draw a large
current from the carrier oscillator.

If multiplier draw a large current from the carrier oscillator, the frequency of the carrier oscillator will not
remain stable.

3. Frequency Multiplier
The carrier signal, generated by the carrier oscillator, is now applied to the frequency multiplier
through the buffer amplifier.

This stage is also known as harmonic generator. The frequency multiplier generates higher
harmonics of carrier oscillator frequency.
4. Power Amplifier
The power of the carrier signal is then amplified in the power amplifier stage.
This is the basic requirement of a high-level transmitter. A class C power amplifier gives high
power current pulses of the carrier signal at its output.
5. Audio Section
The audio signal to be transmitted is obtained from the microphone.

Microphone is a transducer that converts voice signals into electrical signals.

The audio driver amplifier amplifies the voltage of this signal.

This amplification is necessary to drive the audio power amplifier.

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 Class A or Class B power amplifier is used as audio power amplifier.

It amplifies the power of the audio signal.

6. Modulated Class C Amplifier

The output stage of the transmitter.

The audio signal and the carrier signal, after power amplification, are applied to this modulating stage.

The modulation takes place at this stage.

Class C power amplifier is used in this stage.

Class C amplifier also amplifies the power of the AM signal to the required transmitting power.

7. Transmitting Antenna

It receives the modulated signal from Class C amplifier.

Antenna converts voltage or current signals into Electromagnetic wave and vice versa.
Signal is finally passed to the antenna, which radiates the signal into space of transmission.

LOW LEVEL AM TRANSMITTERS

A low-level AM transmitter performs the process of modulation near the beginning sections of the transmitter.

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 The low-level AM transmitter shown in the figure above is similar to a high-level transmitter,
exceptthat the powers of the carrier and audio signals are not amplified.
These two signals are directly applied to the modulated class C power amplifier.
Modulation takes place at the lower stage, and the power of the modulated signal is amplified to
therequired transmitting power level.
The transmitting antenna then transmits the signal.

COLLECTOR MODULATOR

 The Figure below shows a class C amplifier with two

inputs: a carrier Vc and a single frequency modulating
signal Vm. Class C amplifiers conduct for only a portion
of the positive half cycle of the input carrier.
 As the transistor is biased class C, it operates nonlinear
and is capable of nonlinear mixing. Thus this circuit is
also called as collector modulator because the modulating
signal is applied directly to the collector.
Working of Collector Modulator:
 The carrier signal is given to the base of the transistor which must be sufficient to drive the transistor in to
conduction state.
 The tuned circuit in the collector is tuned to resonate at the desired output frequency, the current pulse from
the collector controls this.
 The modulating signal is coupled to modulation transformer (T1) to the class C amplifier.

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 Secondary winding of modulation transformer is connected in series with a collector supply voltage (+VCC)
of class C amplifier.
 With zero modulating input voltage, there will be zero modulating voltage across the secondary of
transformer T1. Therefore the collector supply voltage will be applied directly to the class C amplifier and
the output carrier wave will be a steady sine wave.
 When the modulation signal is applied, the steady collector voltage changes to a slowly varying voltage
given by VCC + vm (t).
 RF bypass capacitor C1 provides a low impedance path for RF voltage is developed across the low
frequency transformer secondary.
 Since this varying supply voltage is applied to the class C amplifier, naturally the amplitude of current
pulses through the transistor Q1 will also vary. As a result, the amplitude of the carrier sine wave will vary
in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating input signal.
 Amplitude modulated carrier wave will be obtained at the secondary of transformer T1 and is fed to the
antenna for the transmission.
 When collector supply voltage varies, amplitude of carrier varies in accordance with the modulating signal.
 For eg:. When the modulating signal goes positive, it acts to the collector supply voltage there by increasing
the amplitude of the carrier.
 When modulating signal goes negative it subtract from supply voltage, thus making it less.

BALANCED MODULATOR

A balanced modulator is used to get a double side band suppressed carrier modulation (DSBSC).
Here, the carrier is suppressed by applying the carrier voltage to the two inputs of the active device
(transistor or FET) in phase and by applying modulating voltage 180°out of phase.
`If the sum-system is made completely symmetrical, the carrier frequency will be completely cancelled.

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Two circuits of the balanced modulator are shown in Figure (4-3). Each utilizes the nonlinear principles .
The modulation voltage v2 is fed in push-pull, and the carrier voltage v1 in parallel, to a pair of identical diodes or
class A (transistor or FET) amplifiers.
In the FET circuit; the carrier voltage is thus applied to the gates in phase; whereas the modulating voltage appears
180° out of phase at the gates since they are at the opposite ends of a center-tapped transformer.
The modulated output currents of the two FETs are combined in the center-tapped primary of the push-pull output
transformer.
They therefore subtract, as indicated by the direction of the arrows in Figure 4-3b. If this system is made completely
symmetrical, the carrier frequency will be completely cancelled.
No system can of course be perfectly symmetrical in practice, so that the carrier will be heavily suppressed rather than
completely removed (a 45-dB suppression is normally regarded as acceptable).
The output of the balanced modulator contains the two sidebands and some of the miscellaneous components-which
are taken care of by the tuning ·of the output transformer's secondary winding.
The final output consists only of sidebands. The input voltage will be v1 + v2 at the gate of T1 and v1 - v2 at the
gate of T2 .

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If perfect symmetry is assumed (it should be understood that the two devices used in the balanced modulator,
whether diodes or transistors, must be matched), the proportionality constants will be the same for both FETs
and may be called a, _b, and c as before. The two drain currents, calculated as in the preceding section, will be

The above equation shows that (under ideally symmetrical conditions) the carrier has been cancelled out, leaving
only the two sidebands and the modulating frequencies.

FM TRANSMITTER

FM transmitter is a low power transmitter and uses FM waves for transmitting the sound.

Transmits the audio signals through the carrier wave by the variation in frequency.

The variation in carrier wave frequency is equivalent to the amplitude of the audio signal

FM transmitter produces a VHF band of 88MHz to 108 MHZ.

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 FM wave can be generated by two methods:

1. Direct Method

2. Indirect method

INDIRECT METHOD OF FM GENERATION

In the direct methods of generation of FM, LC oscillators are to be used. The crystal oscillator cannot be
used.
The LC oscillators are not stable enough for the communication or broadcast purpose. Thus, the direct
methods cannot be used for the broadcast applications.
The alternative method is to use the indirect method called as the Armstrong method of FM generation.
This method is called as Indirect Method because we are generating a wide band FM wave indirectly.
This means, first we will generate NBFM wave and then with the help of frequency multipliers we will
get WBFM wave.
ARMSTRONG METHOD OF FM GENERATION (INDIRECT FM)
This method was first proposed by E.H Armstrong.
Hence this method is also called as Armstrong method

In this method FM wave is generated by two steps: Step1: Generate an NBFM through phase
modulation Step2: The generated NBFM signal is given to frequency multiplier so as to obtain
WBFM signal

A crystal oscillator is used to generate an NBFM, which have high frequency stability.

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A narrow band Phase modulated signal is generated by a DSB-SC signal and a 900 phase shifted sub
carrier signal from crystal oscillator.

The crystal oscillator generates the carrier at low frequency typically at 1MHz. This is applied to the
combining network and a 900 phase shifter.

The modulating signal is passed through an audio equalizer to boost the low modulating frequencies.
The modulating signal is then applied to a balanced modulator.

The balanced modulator produced two side bands such that their resultant is 900 phase shifted with
respect to the unmodulated carrier.

The unmodulated carrier and 900 phase shifted sidebands are added in the combining network.

The output of the combining network is an NBFM wave.

This wave has a low carrier frequency, fc and low modulation index, mf.

The carrier frequency, fc and modulation index, mf are then raised by passing the FM wave through
the first group of multipliers.

The carrier frequency is then raised by using a mixer and then the carrier frequency and modulation
index both are raised to required high values using the second group of multipliers.

The FM signal with high carrier frequency, fc and high modulation index, mf is then passed through
a class C power amplifier to raise the power level of the FM signal.

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PRE-EMPHASIS

The noise suppression ability of FM decreases with the increase in the frequencies. i.e The noise
has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies.
Increasing the amplitude of high frequency components of the message signal before modulation
is termed as Pre-emphasis.
Thus, if we boost the amplitude of higher frequency modulating signals artificially then it will
be possible to improve the noise immunity at higher modulating frequencies.
Pre-emphasis is done in the transmitter.
The pre-emphasis circuit is basically a high pass filter.

DE-EMPHASIS

Reducing the amplitude level of the received high frequency signal by the same amount as
the increase in pre-emphasis is termed as De-emphasis.
De-emphasis means attenuating those frequencies by the amount by which they are boosted.
A de-emphasis circuit which have a constant gain at lower frequencies and behaves as an
integrator at higher frequencies.
It is basically a Low Pass Filter.
De-emphasis is done in the receiver.
The purpose is to improve the signal-to-noise ratio for FM reception.

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NOISE
Noise is an unwanted signal which interferes with the original message signal and corrupts the
parameters of the message signal.
In communication systems, noise is an error or undesired random disturbance of a useful
information signal.
It is most likely to be entered at the channel or at the receiver.

CLASSIFICATION OF NOISE:
There are several way to classify Noise, but conveniently Noise is classified as
1) External Noise
2) Internal Noise

External Noise
Noises produced by the external sources which usually occurs in the medium or channel of
communication.
It cannot be completely eliminated.
The best way is to avoid the noise from affecting the signal.
The sources of external noise are :
o Manmade (Interference) usually from a human source
o Naturally occurring. (Atmospheric, Industrial and Extra-terresrial noise)
Interference (Industrial Noise)
• These are man-made signals.
• Arises from electrical or electronic equipment like other communication systems , SMPS, thyristor
circuits, ignition(car spark plugs),motors etc.

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 • It can be eliminated or at least minimized by careful engineering design and practice .
• Example: Industrial Noise

External Noise (naturally occurring ) may be classified as

a. Atmospheric Noise

• It is also known as static noise.

• It is the natural source of disturbance caused by lightning, discharge in thunderstorm or any other
natural disturbances occurring in the nature.
b. Extra-terrestrial Noise

• Extra-terrestrial Noise exist on the basis of their originating source.

• They are subdivided into

1. Solar Noise :- Due to radiation from sun.

2. Cosmic Noise :- Due to radiation from other heavenly bodies.
Internal Noise:

Internal Noises are the type of Noise which are generated internally or within the Communication
System or in the receiver.
Internal Noises are classified as:
 Shot noise
 Partition Noise
 Low Frequency Noise
 High Frequency Noise
 Thermal Noise

a. Shot noise:
• Generally, arises in the active devices due to the random behavior of charge particles or
carriers.
• In case of electron tube, shot Noise is produces due to the random emission of electron form
cathodes.
b. Partition noise
• When a circuit is to divide in between two or more paths then the noise generated is known
as partition noise.
• The reason for the generation is random fluctuation in the division.
c. Low frequency noise
• It is also known as Flicker noise or pink noise or 1/f noise.

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 • Occurs due to the fluctuations in current density of the carrier currents
• Noise are generally observed at a frequency range below few kHz.
• Power spectral density of these noise increases with the decrease in frequency.
• Hence the name is given Low Frequency Noise.
d. High frequency noise
• It is also known Transit Time Noise.
• Observed in the semiconductor devices when the transit time of a charge carrier while crossing a
junction is compared with the time period of that signal.

e. Thermal noise
• Thermal Noise are random and often referred as White Noise or Johnson Noise.
• Observed in the resistor or the sensitive resistive components of a complex impedance due to
the random and rapid movement of molecules or atoms or electrons.

• When the temperature increases, the movement of free electrons increases and thereby the
current flow through the conductor.

• Current flow due to free electrons will create noise voltage(t) and noise power , Pn

SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO

Noise effect in an analog communication system can be determined by measuring SNR

Noise effect in an digital communication system can be determined by measuring probability of

error or bit error rate(BER)

SNR is used to determine the quality of received signal at the receiver or an antenna

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) is the ratio of the signal power to the noise power.

�
SNR = 10log �
dB , where S is the signal power and N is the noise power

The higher the value of SNR, the greater will be the quality of the received output.

For good quality reception S/N > 1

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Figure of Merit

The ratio of input SNR to the output SNR can be termed as the Figure of merit (F).
It is denoted by F.
It describes the performance of a device.

���
1. Noise figure , F = ��� �
�
��
��
2. Noise Factor NF = 10 log F = 10 log �� dB
��

METHODS TO IMPROVE SIGNAL TO NOISE RATIO

1. Filtering out unwanted signals

2. Pre-emphasis and De-emphasis

3. Impedance matching

4. Use error correction techniques

5. Increase signal power

6. Decrease noise power

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