Prof. Dr. Md.

Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

First Year and Second Semester

NE 1201 Nuclear and Radiochemistry Credits: 3.0

3.0 Hours/week

COURSE CONTENTS

Introduction: Atom, atomic nucleus, atomic masses, mass defect, nuclear binding energy, nuclear stability,
atomic models.

Radioactive Decay and Nuclear Reactions: Radioactive decay, decay modes, decay series, Transient and
Secular Equilibrium, radio-dating. Nuclear reaction, types of nuclear reactions, Q value of reaction.

Elements of Radiation chemistry: Interaction of ionizing radiation with matter, Units for measuring
radiation absorption and radiation energy. Radiolysis of water and aqueous solutions.

Applications of Radiation & Radioisotopes: General principles of using radioisotopes, radio techniques
of radioisotopes production application of ionizing radiation for environmental protection, food
irradiation, sterilization of medical products and drugs, application of radiotracers in trace analysis of
elements and compounds, neutron activation analysis, isotope dilution analysis. Glass chemistry,
radiation chemistry of polymers, biological polymers, solvent extraction and ion exchange in
radiochemistry.

Reactor Coolant Chemistry: Effects of radiation on coolant chemistry, chemistry parameters (e. g., pH,
conductivity, dissolved oxygen, total gas content, chlorides), reasons and means of control of
chemistry parameters, activation and corrosion product transport in coolant system.

Nuclear Fuel cycle Chemistry: Uranium and plutonium compounds and their properties, chemistry of
uranium mining, milling, conversion, and fuel fabrication, nuclear waste reprocessing methods-
Aqueous (e.g., purex process) and pyro processing.

Trans-uranium Elements: Production of transuranium nuclides, separation of transuranium elements,

solid-state properties of transuranium metals and compounds.

Recommended Readings

A. Handbook of Nuclear chemistry. Attila Ve’ rtes, Sa’ ndor Nagy, Zolta’ n Klencsa’ r, Rezso G.
Lovas Frank Ro”sch, , Second Edition, ISBN 978-1-4419-0719-6.
B. Nuclear Chemical Engineering. Benedict, M., T. H. Pigford, and H. W. Levi.. 2nd ed. Chfapter 3-
5, Columbus, OH: McGrew-Hill, 1981. ISBN: 9780070045316.
C. Handbook of Nuclear Engineering, Dan Gabriel Cacuei, Springer, 2010, ISBN: 9780387981307.
D. Essentials of Nuclear Chemistry H. J Arnikar, Revised Fourth Edition, 2004.
E. Fundamentals of Nuclear Science and Engineering, J. Kenneth Shultis, Richard E. Faw, Kansas
State University Manhattan, Kansas, U.S.A. ISBN: 0-8247-0834-2, 2002.
F. Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, John R. Lamarsh,Anthony J. Baratta, 3rd Edition, ISBN 0-
201-82498-1.

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

CHAPTER ONE

Introduction:

➢ Atom,
➢ atomic nucleus,
➢ atomic masses,
➢ mass defect,
➢ nuclear binding energy,
➢ nuclear stability,
➢ atomic models.

What is nuclear chemistry?

Nuclear chemistry is the sub-field of chemistry dealing with radioactivity, nuclear processes, and
transformations in the nuclei of atoms, such as nuclear transmutation and nuclear properties.

It is the chemistry of radioactive elements such as the actinides, radium and radon together with the
chemistry associated with equipment (such as nuclear reactors) which are designed to perform nuclear
processes.

It includes the study of the chemical effects resulting from the absorption of radiation within living
animals, plants, and other materials.

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

Nuclear Chemistry

1) What is nuclear chemistry? Nuclear chemistry is all about what happens in the nucleus of an atom.
In nuclear chemistry, neutrons bomb bard other atoms and force them to split apart. Fission is when
one atoms splits into two new atoms and releases energy in the form of heat. Fusion is when two
atoms join together.
2) What is radiation? In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity. Radioactivity is the
spontaneous emission of energy and particles by atoms of certain elements producing new
elements. Materials that emit this kind of radiation are said to be radioactive and to undergo
radioactive decay.
3) Nuclear chemistry 2 In 1899, Ernest Rutherford discovered that uranium compounds produce three
different kinds of radiation. He separated the radiations according to their penetrating abilities and
named them a alpha, b beta, and g gamma radiation, after the first three letters of the Greek alphabet.
4) Alpha Decay In alpha decay, the nucleus emits an alpha particle; an alpha particle is essentially a
helium nucleus, so it is a group of two protons and two neutrons. A helium nucleus is very stable.
Alpha radiation can be stopped by a sheet of paper.
5) Beta Decay A beta particle is an electron. In beta decay an electron is involved. The number of
neutrons in the nucleus decreases by one and the number of protons increases by one. Six
millimeters of aluminum are needed to stop most beta particles
6) Gamma Decay The third class of radioactive decay is gamma decay, in which the nucleus changes
from a higher-level energy state to a lower level. Several millimeters of lead are needed to stop
gamma rays.
7) Half-Life The time required for half of the atoms in any given quantity of a radioactive isotope to
decay is the half-life of that isotope. Each particular isotope has its own half-life.
8) Half-Life 2 For example, the half-life of 238 U is 4.5 billion years. That is, in 4.5 billion years, half
of the 238 U on Earth will have decayed into other elements. In another 4.5 billion years, half of
the remaining 238 U will have decayed. One fourth of the original material will remain on Earth
after 9 billion years.

Key areas of study in nuclear chemistry include:

1. Nuclear reactions: These involve changes in the composition of atomic nuclei, such as the
collision of nuclei resulting in fusion or the splitting of a nucleus in fission reactions.
2. Radioactive decay: This is the spontaneous transformation of unstable atomic nuclei into more
stable configurations, often emitting radiation in the process. Common types of radioactive decay
include alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma decay.
3. Nuclear stability and binding energy: Nuclear chemistry explores the factors that determine the
stability of atomic nuclei, such as the balance between nuclear forces and electrostatic repulsion.
The concept of binding energy, which represents the energy required to disassemble a nucleus into
its constituent nucleons, is fundamental to understanding nuclear stability.
4. Nuclear reactions in nature and applications: Nuclear processes play crucial roles in natural
phenomena such as stellar fusion in stars, as well as in various human-made applications such as
nuclear power generation, nuclear medicine (e.g., medical imaging and cancer treatment), and the
production of isotopes for research and industrial purposes.

Overall, nuclear chemistry plays a vital role in understanding the behavior of matter at the atomic and
subatomic levels and has numerous applications in energy production, medicine, materials science, and
environmental monitoring, among other fields.

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

What is ATOM?

An atom is the smallest unit of an element, consisting of a nucleus

composed of protons and neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of
electrons. Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter and are
characterized by the number of protons they contain, known as the
atomic number. The number of protons determines the element's
identity. For example, hydrogen atoms have one proton, carbon
atoms have six protons, and oxygen atoms have eight protons. The
electrons of an atom orbit the nucleus in various energy levels or
shells. The arrangement of these electrons determines the chemical
properties of the element.

Most of the atom is empty space. The rest consists of three basic types of subatomic particles:
protons, neutrons, and electrons. The protons and neutrons form the atom’s central nucleus. (The ordinary
hydrogen atom is an exception; it contains one proton but no neutrons.) As their names suggest, protons
have a positive electrical charge, while neutrons are electrically neutral—they carry no charge; overall,
then, the nucleus has a positive charge. Circling the nucleus is a cloud of electrons, which are negatively
charged. Like opposite ends of a magnet that attract one another, the negative electrons are attracted to a
positive force, which binds them to the nucleus. The nucleus is small and dense compared with the electrons,
which are the lightest charged particles in nature. The electrons circle the nucleus in orbital paths called
shells, each of which holds only a certain number of electrons.

Investigate varying electron configurations in electron shells around an atom's nucleus

Atomic model of electron configurations.

An ordinary, neutral atom has an equal number of protons (in the nucleus) and electrons
(surrounding the nucleus). Thus the positive and negative charges are balanced. Some atoms, however, lose
or gain electrons in chemical reactions or in collisions with other particles. Ordinary atoms that either gain
or lose electrons are called ions. If a neutral atom loses an electron, it becomes a positive ion. If it gains an
electron, it becomes a negative ion. These basic subatomic particles—protons, neutrons, and electrons—
are themselves made up of smaller substances, such as quarks and leptons.

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

More than 90 types of atoms exist in nature, and each kind of atom forms a different chemical
element. Chemical elements are made up of only one type of atom—gold contains only gold atoms, and
neon contains only neon atoms--and they are ranked in order of their atomic number (the total number of
protons in its nucleus) in a chart called the periodic table. Accordingly, because an atom of iron has 26
protons in its nucleus, its atomic number is 26 and its ranking on the periodic table of chemical elements is
26. Because an ordinary atom has the same number of electrons as protons, an element’s atomic number
also tells how many electrons its atoms have, and it is the number and arrangement of the electrons in their
orbiting shells that determines how one atom interacts with another. The key shell is the outermost one,
called the valence shell. If this outermost shell is complete, or filled with the maximum number of electrons
for that shell, the atom is stable, with little or no tendency to interact with other atoms. But atoms with
incomplete outer shells seek to fill or to empty such shells by gaining or losing electrons or by sharing
electrons with other atoms. This is the basis of an atom’s chemical activity. Atoms that have the same
number of electrons in the outer shell have similar chemical properties.

The structure of the atom

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of the chemical properties of an element. For example,
a gold coin is simply a very large number of gold atoms molded into the shape of a coin, with small amounts
of other, contaminating elements. Gold atoms cannot be broken down into anything smaller while still
retaining the properties of gold. A gold atom gets its properties from the tiny subatomic particles it's made
up of.

An atom consists of two regions. The first is the tiny atomic nucleus, which is in the center of the
atom and contains positively charged particles called protons and neutral, uncharged, particles called
neutrons. The second, much larger, region of the atom is a “cloud” of electrons, negatively charged
particles that orbit around the nucleus. The attraction between the positively charged protons and negatively
charged electrons holds the atom together. Most atoms contain all three of these types of subatomic
particles—protons, electrons, and neutrons. Hydrogen (H) is an exception because it typically has one
proton and one electron, but no neutrons. The number of protons in the nucleus determines which element
an atom is, while the number of electrons surrounding the nucleus determines which kind of reactions the
atom will undergo. The three types of subatomic particles are illustrated below for an atom of helium—
which, by definition, contains two protons.

Structure of an atom. The protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge) are found together
in the tiny nucleus at the center of the atom. The electrons (negative charge) occupy a large, spherical cloud
surrounding the nucleus. The atom shown in this particular image is helium, with two protons, two neutrons,
and two electrons. Protons and neutrons do not have the same charge, but they do have approximately the

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

same mass, about grams. Since grams are not a very convenient unit for measuring masses that tiny,
scientists chose to define an alternative measure, the dalton or atomic mass unit (amu). A single neutron
or proton has a weight very close to 1 amu. Electrons are much smaller in mass than protons, only about
1/1800 of an atomic mass unit, so they do not contribute much to an element’s overall atomic mass. On the
other hand, electrons do greatly affect an atom’s charge, as each electron has a negative charge equal to the
positive charge of a proton. In uncharged, neutral atoms, the number of electrons orbiting the nucleus is
equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus. The positive and negative charges cancel out, leading to
an atom with no net charge.

Protons, neutrons, and electrons are very small, and most of the volume of an atom—greater than
99 percent—is actually empty space. With all this empty space, you might ask why so-called solid objects
don’t just pass through one another. The answer is that the negatively charged electron clouds of the
atoms will repel each other if they get too close together, resulting in our perception of solidity.

*************************************** *************************************

Atomic mass and atomic mass unit

Each element in the periodic table consists of atoms, and each atom has a unique atomic mass and unique
atomic number. The atomic number refers to the number of protons in the atom's nucleus, while atomic
mass reflects the sum of the number of protons and neutrons. It is expressed in AMU or Da. One AMU is
the average of the proton rest mass and the neutron rest mass. This can be expressed as the following:

1 AMU = 1.67377 x 10-27 kilograms = 1.67377 x 10-24 grams

Carbon-12 is considered a reference for all atomic mass calculations. Thus, the mass of any isotope of
any element is expressed in terms of the 12C standard of AMU.

What is Mass Defect?

Mass defect is the difference between the actual atomic mass and the predicted mass calculated by
adding the mass of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus. The actual atomic mass is less than
the predicted mass calculated by adding the masses of nucleons. This additional mass is accounted for by
binding energy that is released when a nucleus is formed. When a nucleus is formed, some of the mass is

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

converted to energy and this results in the mass defect. Due to this reason, the actual mass of an atomic
nucleus is less than the mass of particles it is made up of.

The actual mass of the atomic nucleus is always less than the mass of protons and neutrons
present in the nucleus. When a nucleus is formed, energy is released. This energy is removed in the form
of a reduction in total mass. This missing mass is known as the ‘mass defect’ and it accounts for the
energy released.

The mass defect (𝚫M) can be calculated by subtracting the original atomic mass (MA) from the
sum of the mass of protons (mp= 1.00728 amu) and neutrons (mn= 1.00867 amu) present in the nucleus.

Mass defect formula:

𝚫M = (Zmp + Nmn) – MA
𝚫M: mass defect
MA: mass of the nucleus
mp : mass of a proton, i.e. 1.00728 amu
mn : mass of a neutron, i.e. 1.00867 amu
Z : number of protons
N : number of neutrons

Example, the isotope iron-56 contains 26 protons, 26 electrons, and 30 neutrons. The experimental
atomic mass of iron-56 is 55.934938 amu. Find the mass defect.

Mass Defect = 26(mass protons) + 30(mass neutrons) – atomic mass

Mass Defect = (26)(1.007825 amu) + 30(1.008665 amu) – 55.934938 amu

Mass Defect = 0.528462 amu

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

Mass defect

Mass defect (also called "mass deficit") is the difference between the mass of an object and the sum of the
masses of its constituent particles. Discovered by Albert Einstein in 1905, it can be explained using his
formula E = mc2, which describes the equivalence of energy and mass. The decrease in mass is equal to
the energy emitted in the reaction of an atom's creation divided by c2. By this formula, adding energy also
increases mass (both weight and inertia), whereas removing energy decreases mass. For example, a helium
atom containing four nucleons has a mass about 0.8% less than the total mass of four hydrogen atoms (each
containing one nucleon). The helium nucleus has four nucleons bound together, and the binding energy
which holds them together is, in effect, the missing 0.8% of mass.

If a combination of particles contains extra energy—for instance, in a molecule of the explosive

TNT—weighing it reveals some extra mass, compared to its end products after an explosion. (The end
products must be weighed after they have been stopped and cooled, however, as the extra mass must escape
from the system as heat before its loss can be noticed, in theory.) On the other hand, if one must inject
energy to separate a system of particles into its components, then the initial mass is less than that of the
components after they are separated. In the latter case, the energy injected is "stored" as potential energy,
which shows as the increased mass of the components that store it. This is an example of the fact that energy
of all types is seen in systems as mass, since mass and energy are equivalent, and each is a "property" of
the other.

The latter scenario is the case with nuclei such as helium: to break them up into protons and neutrons, one
must inject energy. On the other hand, if a process existed going in the opposite direction, by which
hydrogen atoms could be combined to form helium, then energy would be released. The energy can be
computed using E = Δmc2 for each nucleus, where Δm is the difference between the mass of the helium
nucleus and the mass of four protons (plus two electrons, absorbed to create the neutrons of helium).

For lighter elements, the energy that can be released by assembling them from lighter elements
decreases, and energy can be released when they fuse. This is true for nuclei lighter than iron/nickel. For
heavier nuclei, more energy is needed to bind them, and that energy may be released by breaking them up
into fragments (known as nuclear fission). Nuclear power is generated at present by breaking up uranium
nuclei in nuclear power reactors, and capturing the released energy as heat, which is converted to electricity.

As a rule, very light elements can fuse comparatively easily, and very heavy elements can break up
via fission very easily; elements in the middle are more stable and it is difficult to make them undergo either
fusion or fission in an environment such as a laboratory.

The reason the trend reverses after iron is the growing positive charge of the nuclei, which tends to
force nuclei to break up. It is resisted by the strong nuclear interaction, which holds nucleons together. The
electric force may be weaker than the strong nuclear force, but the strong force has a much more limited
range: in an iron nucleus, each proton repels the other 25 protons, while the nuclear force only binds close
neighbors. So for larger nuclei, the electrostatic forces tend to dominate and the nucleus will tend over time
to break up.

As nuclei grow bigger still, this disruptive effect becomes steadily more significant. By the time
polonium is reached (84 protons), nuclei can no longer accommodate their large positive charge, but emit
their excess protons quite rapidly in the process of alpha radioactivity—the emission of helium nuclei, each
containing two protons and two neutrons. (Helium nuclei are an especially stable combination.) Because of
this process, nuclei with more than 94 protons are not found naturally on Earth (see periodic table). The

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

isotopes beyond uranium (atomic number 92) with the longest half-lives are plutonium-244 (80 million
years) and curium-247 (16 million years).

Nuclear Binding Energy

The nuclear binding energy is the energy needed to split an atomic nucleus into its component protons
and neutrons. It is the energy equivalent to the mass defect. In 1905, Albert Einstein described mass
defect and explained it using his famous formula relating energy, mass, and the speed of light:

E = mc2

So, the decrease in an atom’s mass equals the energy that is given off when the atom forms, divided by c2.
This comes out to about 931 MeV/amu.

Nuclear binding energy in experimental physics is the minimum energy that is required to disassemble the
nucleus of an atom into its constituent protons and neutrons, known collectively as nucleons. The binding
energy for stable nuclei is always a positive number, as the nucleus must gain energy for the nucleons to
move apart from each other. Nucleons are attracted to each other by the strong nuclear force. In
theoretical nuclear physics, the nuclear binding energy is considered a negative number. In this context it
represents the energy of the nucleus relative to the energy of the constituent nucleons when they are
infinitely far apart. Both the experimental and theoretical views are equivalent, with slightly different
emphasis on what the binding energy means.

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

The mass of an atomic nucleus is less than the sum of the individual masses of the free constituent
protons and neutrons. The difference in mass can be calculated by the Einstein equation, E = mc2, where E
is the nuclear binding energy, c is the speed of light, and m is the difference in mass. This 'missing mass' is
known as the mass defect, and represents the energy that was released when the nucleus was formed.

The term "nuclear binding energy" may also refer to the energy balance in processes in which the
nucleus splits into fragments composed of more than one nucleon. If new binding energy is available when
light nuclei fuse (nuclear fusion), or when heavy nuclei split (nuclear fission), either process can result in
release of this binding energy. This energy may be made available as nuclear energy and can be used to
produce electricity, as in nuclear power, or in a nuclear weapon. When a large nucleus splits into pieces,
excess energy is emitted as gamma rays and the kinetic energy of various ejected particles (nuclear fission
products).

These nuclear binding energies and forces are on the order of one million times greater than the electron
binding energies of light atoms like hydrogen.

Calculating the Nuclear Binding Energy

Let’s calculate the nuclear binding energy of the 12C isotope. For this, we are going to need the masses of
the 12C atom (12.0 amu), the proton (1.00727647 amu), the neutron (1.008665 amu), and the electron
(0.00054858 amu).

First, we will write the equation for breaking carbon into protons and neutrons. The atomic number of
carbon is 6, and therefore, it has 6 protons and 12 – 6 = 6 neutrons:

12
C→6p+6n

The mass defect is going to be the difference between the masses of 6 protons + 6 neutrons and the mass
of the nucleus of 12C. Notice that we are talking about the mass of the nucleus for 12C rather than its
atomic mass because the nuclear binding energy is referred to the nucleus and its component.

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

So, how do we find the mass of the nucleus if it’s not given in the problem? Most tables give the atomic
masses, and to find the mass of the nucleus, we need to subtract the mass of the electrons in the atom:

m (nucleus) = m (atom) – m (electrons)

The number of electrons in an atom is equal to the number of protons, and therefore, the mass of 12C
nucleus will be:
m (12C nucleus) = m (12C atom) – m (6 electrons)
m (12C nucleus) = 12.0 amu – 6 x 0.00054858 amu = 11.99671 amu

Now, the actual mass defect:

Δm = Σ m (products) – Σ m (reactants)
Δm = 6 x m (p) + 6 x m (n) – m (12C nucleus)
Δm = 6 x 1.00727647 amu + 6 x 1.008665 amu – 11.99671 amu
Δm = 12.095649 – 11.99671 = 0.09893882 amu
And now, we can calculate the nuclear bind energy using the Einstein’s equation:

ΔE = (Δm)c2

Before adding the numbers, remember to convert the amu or grams to kilograms to match the SI units of
mass and Joule (kg⋅m2⋅s−2). Recall that 1 amu = 1.66054 x 10-27 kg, therefore:

1.66054 × 10−27
∆𝑚 = 0.09893882 𝑎𝑚𝑢 ×
1 𝑎𝑚𝑢

∆𝑚 = 1.6429 × 10−28 𝑘𝑔

******************************************************************************

The Nuclear Binding Energy

ΔE = (Δm)c2
ΔE = 1.6429 x 10-28 kg x (3.00 x 108 m/s)2
ΔE = 1.4786 x 10-11 kg⋅m2⋅s−2 = 1.4786 x 10-11 J

Notice that the sign for the mass change and hence the energy change is positive indicating this is how
much energy is absorbed for breaking one 12C isotope into its component protons and neutrons. If the
isotope was formed from these nuclei, then this is how much energy would be released:

12
C → 6 p + 6 n ΔE = +1.4786 x 10-11 J

6 p + 6 n → 12C ΔE = –1.4786 x 10-11 J

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

Nuclear Binding Energy and

Stability of Nuclei

Nuclear binding energy per nucleon is used as a measure of nuclear stability. The greater the binding
energy per nucleon, the more stable the nuclide is. The approximate sketch of the plot showing the binding
energy (in MeV per nucleon) vs the atomic mass shows that the most stable elements are in the region of
~60 amu. The binding energy increases up to this region and then goes down as we move toward heavier
elements:

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

We can predict important trends for nuclear reactions based on the binding energies. For example, we can
predict that smaller nuclei will tend to combine (fusion) forming nuclei in the more stable region, while
heavy elements, being unstable, will have the tendency to split into smaller nuclei (fission) as these have
greater binding energy (more stable).

This may seem counterintuitive by looking at the energy graph since fusion and fission appear to
be going uphill. However, this is simply because the energy scale shows the energy needed to break nuclei
rather than forming them. By mirroring the graph, we can show the energy released when a nucleus is
formed, and in this case, the most stable nuclei will appear in the downhill region:

So, the more energy is released when the nucleus is formed, the more stable it is, and this shows
why smaller nuclei have the tendency to undergo fusion (form new elements) in the A = 60 amu region,
while heavy nuclei will tend to undergo fission (break into smaller elements).

An example of a fusion is the reaction in the core of the Sun where hydrogen is being converted
into helium. Although the process consists of several steps, overall, it takes four hydrogen atoms to fuse
into each helium atom. During the process, some of the mass is converted into energy.

4 11H → 42He + 2 01β + Energy

Fission, on the other hand, is energetically profitable from heavier elements. For example, the uranium-
235 isotope undergoes nuclear fission when bombarded with neutrons according to the following
equation:

235
92U + 10n→ 14056Ba + 9336Kr + 3 10n + Energy

Now, both nuclear fusion and fission reactions often require energy input, and sometimes huge amounts of
it, so when we say that smaller nuclei have the tendency to undergo fusion, we are talking about the overall
energy change of the process, but in order for it to occur a huge activation energy barrier must be
overcome. Recall from kinetics and thermodynamics that activation energy shows how fast the reaction can
occur while thermodynamics shows whether the overall process is energetically favorable or not.

So, for the tendencies of fusion and fission, we are saying that the fusion of smaller elements into
new ones in the A ≈ 60 region is energetically favorable – exothermic, while fission is exothermic for
heavier elements. We will talk more about nuclear fusion an

####################################### ---###############################

Nuclear stability refers to the stability of a nucleus of an atom.

A stable nucleus does not decay spontaneously. Radioactive elements contain unstable nuclei and decay
spontaneously emitting various radiations.

Nuclear Stability

Nuclei of atoms contain protons and neutrons. Positively charged protons repel each other due to
electrostatic repulsion between them. This electrostatic repulsion is overcome by the strong nuclear force,

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 Prof. Dr. Md. Safiur Rahman, CSO, Bangladesh Atomic Energy Commission (2024)

the attractive force present between nucleons. Neutrons are important for stabilising the nucleus. If the
attractive force between nucleons is less than the electrostatic repulsion then it makes the nucleus unstable
and results in decay.

It defines the stability of an isotope of the elements. Nucleons with high binding energy are more
stable. Stability of an isotope can be determined by calculating the ratio of neutrons to protons present in a
nucleus (N/Z). Elements having atomic number less than 20, mostly have proton and neutron ratio
1:1. The number of neutrons increases as the atomic number increases. Most of the stable nuclei have
neutrons to protons ratio more than 1. Only 1H and 3He have neutrons to protons ratio less than one but
are stable.

The first 80 elements of the periodic table have stable isotopes. All the elements with the atomic
number more than 82 are unstable and radioactive, irrespective of the number of neutrons.

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