WELDING COURSE

Introdution
Processes

Prof. Leonel D. Abreu

PUC Minas
 WELDING PROCESSES

CLASSIFICATION OF WELD PROCESSES APPLICABLE TO

METALS AND METALLIC ALLOYS
In the processes of welding they present intensities of thermal
sources and varied levels of application of pressure that are adapted
to several situations of union:
* Fusion welding;
* Fusion welding + pressure;
* Pressure welding.
 WELDING PROCESSES

1) FUSION WELDING PROCESSES

A) Electric Arc Welding
B) Flame Welding
C) Laser Welding
D) Plasma Welding
E) Aluminothermic Welding
 WELDING PROCESSES

2) Welding by PRESSURE IN THE SOLID STATE:

Use mechanical sources with or without heating and without addition
metal, obtaining the union by plastic deformation in the solid state:
A) Resistance Welding
B) Explosion Welding
C) Friction Welding
D) Ultrasonic Welding
E) Pressure Welding
 WELDING PROCESSES

3) WELDING PROCESSES BY FUSION + PRESSURE

A) Resistance Welding
By Projection
By Sewing
By Resistance
By High Frequency
B) Welding stud bolt or pin
 WELDING PROCESSES

AS TO THE PROTECTION OF THE WELDED JOINT:

The solid state melt and pressure welding processes can be classified
according to the medium or protective agent to the welding system:
 WELDING PROCESSES

1) Welding in atmospheric environment

* Gas: provided by chemically inert or active gases or mixtures
(oxidizing or reducing)
* Solid / liquid: made with powdered flux and molten slag generated
by the welding process.
* Gaseous / slag: partially made with gas and slag from the welding
process
* Physical: made by the constituent materials of the joint to be
welded, depending on its configuration
 WELDING PROCESSES

2) Welding in underwater environment: H2O  "villain"

It has two types of process: Dry and wett welding process.

Note: By means of a device in the welding torch, a water or gas protection

curtain expels water from the region around the joint, so that the wet welding is
performed by the welding process.
 WELDING PROCESSES

3) Vacuum welding: The welding process is operated in an environment

or chamber free or rarefied of air or gas atmosphere

Power

Elstron
beam

Vacuun
chamber
 WELDING PROCESSES

HOW TO MAKE WELDING SOLUTIONS:

* Autogenous processes (without addition metal): The thermal source
is independent of the addition metal.
Ex: TIG Processes, Plasma, Oxyacetylene, Laser, Electron Beam,
Resistance
* Processes with addition metal: The thermal source is supported by
the electrode which is also the addition metal.
Ex: Coated Electrode, MIG / MAG, Tubular Wire, Submerged Arc
 WELDING PROCESSES

AS TO THE FUSION WELDING TECHNIQUE:

* Key-hole: allows autogenous (self-welding) welds of top seams of

sheets 8 to 10mm thick, without chamfer preparation or with "I"
chamfer, without opening. Ex: High-intensity processes such as
Plasma, Laser and Electron Beam.
 WELDING PROCESSES

* Melt-in: Conduction technique: fusion welding, where heat is

conducted through the base materials, generating a molten pool that
solidifies as the joint is filled or performed.
Ex: Coated Electrode, MIG/MAG, Submerged Arc Welding and TIG.
 WELDING PROCESSES

THE TYPES OF WELDING PROCESS IN RALATION TO THE

FUSION MODE:

* Simple process: welding the joint with only one process at a time

* Hybrid process: welding with 2 processes at the same time, in a

single joint.
 WELDING PROCESSES

HOW MUCH THE INTENSITY OF THE THERMAL SOURCE IN

FUSION PROCESSES:
It considers the relative amount of energy contributed to the joint
over a period of time by a particular welding process.
A) high intensity
B) medium intensity
C) low intensity
 WELDING PROCESSES

HOW MUCH THE INTENSITY OF THE THERMAL SOURCE IN

FUSION PROCESSES:
They allow to artificially focus the thermal source, through:
* Lenses (LASER) or constriction nozzle (Plasma). In order to further
concentrate the heat in a spot area, greatly enhance the temperature
and melt efficiency.

Specific Power [W/m2] =  x power dissipated

area of incidence of the thermal source

Area of incidence
Thermal of thermal source
source
 WELDING PROCESSES

HOW MUCH THE INTENSITY OF THE THERMAL SOURCE IN

FUSION PROCESSES:
Small area of ​incidence of the thermal source in the joint

High Specific Power

Concentrated Heat

Increased Efficiency in Joint Fusion

 WELDING PROCESSES

Consequences in welding with high intensity processes:

* Lower volume of molten pool: lower solidification contraction >

lower level of residual stresses and distortion and/or warp;

* Higher welding speed: relatively low welding power;

* Narrow HAZ: with less affected granulation (the grain size) and
high cooling rate of the joint, with consequences for the
microstructure and properties of the weld and HAZ.
 WELDING PROCESSES

Welding Process Specific Power(watts/m2)

LASER and Electron Bean 108

TIG, Plasma e MIG/MAG 105

Coated Electrode 104

Submerged Arc 103

COATED
ELECTRODE LASER Beam

Lense
Electric
Arc
Focu

WELDING PROCESSES
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

DEFINITION: category of processes that use the heat of an electric

arc as a thermal source to promote fusion necessary to the union.
Electric arc for welding consists of "an electric discharge, sustained
by means of a plasma (*), established in such a way that it
produces sufficient thermal energy to be useful in the joining of
metals." C. Jackson - written.
(*) plasma = ionized gas at high temperature and conducting electric
current, supported by an electric arc -> 4th state of matter.
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRIC WELDING ARC:

* High efficiency in transforming electrical energy into heat: Arc
temperatures in the order of up to 10,000 ºC;
* Relatively high specific power: concentrated heat in a small area;
* "Flexible" electric conductor: subject to external magnetic field
interference;
* Subsists in any gaseous atmosphere;
* Emits high intensity non-ionizing radiation: between the wavelengths
of the spectrum Non-visible ultraviolet and infrared visible
electromagnetic;
* Safety precautions: skin protection and Human eyes → observation
with adequate filters and / or protection;
ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Voltage (V)

Cathodic Plasma Anodic

Region Column Region

Electric Arc Profile

 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

* Cathodic Region
• Extremely important region for the existence of the arch;
• It is in this region that is generated the majority of the electrons
responsible for the conduction of electric current in the electric
arc;
• The stability of the arch depends greatly on this region;
• It is the most problematic region, being responsible for complicated
mechanisms, not all completely understood.
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

* Cathodic Region
Characterized by a state far removed from equilibrium Subdivided into
03 regions:
* Load area => cathodic drop
* Luminescence zone
* Zone of contraction
Load area

Luminescence zone
Zone of contraction

Plasma
Column
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

* Plasma Column
• It comprises almost the entire volume of the arch;
• It consists of neutral particles, ions and free electrons, which are
responsible for the passage of electric current between the
electrode and piece;
• For ionization to occur, arc gas is heated to elevated
temperatures, as a result of its thermal agitation, shocks between
the constituents of the gas lead to a partial ionization of the same
and to the formation of the plasma.
• Electrical neutrality occurs: in each unit of volume the number of
positive and negative charges is practically the same.
• Reactions occurring in the plasma column: dissociation and
ionization.
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

* Anodic Region
• It is not as important as the cathode region.
• There is no emission of positive ions.
• There is a concentration of electrons (negative charges): anodic
drop.
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Welding parameters using electric arc:

* Current intensity: measured in Amperes (A);
Influences the melting of the consumable electrode and the
penetration into the base metal (welding with addition or welding
metal):

nozzle
current / polarity
of the
torch

electrode

arc
arc protection
and welding arc voltage
(arc length)

weld
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Welding parameters using electric arc

* Current intensity: measured in Amperes (A);

High current
Low current intensity
intensity

200 300 400 500 600A

 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
Welding parameters using electric arc

* Polarity: defines the direction of current in the DC welding

circuit:
• DC- = indicates DC direct current  Current has electrode /
joint sense
• DC+ = indicates DC current reverse or indirect polarity 
Current has sense joint / electrode
• In alternating current, the polarity alternates as a function of
the signal frequency.
DC- DC+

e-
e-
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Welding parameters using electric arc

* Arc voltage: potential difference (ddp) between the electrode and the
joint / piece surface, being associated with the arc length, measured in
Volts (V).
• Influence the shape of the weld bead;
• In the mode of metallic transfer of the drop to the joint through
the electric arc (in some processes, for example MIG/MAG)

torch

Gas protection electrode

area de incidence
of the arc Arc length ddp
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Welding parameters using electric arc

* Welding speed: determines the rate of weld deposition for
processes with consumable electrode and the interaction time of the
arc with the joint in the autogenous processes:
• Influencing weld penetration, width and depth.
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Welding parameters using electric arc

* Welding direction: Determines the penetration and reinforcement
of the weld;
• In "pushing" mode, facilitates viewing of the joint by the welder

PULL PUSH
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

* Heat imput: It is the energy transfered between thermal source

and workpiece/piece, that is, it measures the degree of thermal
"aggression" to the joint.

H.I. = Current Intensity (A) x Arc voltage (V) x 60 x  [Joule / cm]

Welding Speed (cm / min)
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Power dissipated in the arc (P = V x I) is not fully introduced into

the joint due to thermal losses during the welding operation:
 E liquid =  E, where  = thermal yield of the welding process

  
Process Process Process Process  (%) Process  (%)
(%) (%) (%)

~ ~ 70 a GMAW- 70 a 30 a
SAW SMAW GMAW GTAW
90 90 80 tube 80 60
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTRIC WELDING ARC:

The electric arc, of fixed length, has an electric behavior that can
be described as a function of the voltage and the current of
welding, through the static characteristic:
at where:
V = Arc Voltage (welding voltage, in Volts);
I = Current Intensity (welding current, in Amperes);
L = Length of electric arc (in mm)
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Arc Voltage (V)

Work area

Operation regulator 1:
V1 Voltage and Current

Area under the curve: dissipated power  P = V x i

A1
Current intensity (A)

V = Arc Voltage (welding voltage, in Volts);

I = Current Intensity (welding current, in Amperes);
L = Length of electric arc (in mm)
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

Arc Voltage (V)

? Length of
electric arc

Current intensity (A)

i minimun

displacement of
Arc Voltage (V) curves
for lengths of
larger arch

i minimun Current intensity (A)

 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

TYPES OF ELECTRIC CURRENT AND POLARITY IN ELECTRIC ARC

WELDING: Alternating current (AC) and Directly current (DC)

* Alternating Current (AC): It has a sine wave or square wave, which

changes direction at the same frequency as the voltage, ie, polarity
alternates with each cycle.
Current Current
(A) (A)

Time Time
(s) (s)
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

* Directly Current (DC) It presents a continuous signal of constant

intensity of the same direction, according to direct polarity DC- or
inverse DC +

Current (A) DC+

Time (s)

DC-
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

* Pulsed Current (DCP)

It is characterized by high current (peak) to promote electrode
fusion and relatively low base current, but in order to maintain arc
stability between pulses during operation.
Current
intensity (A)

Pulsed current Directly current(iDc)

Avarage current (imedium)

Base current

Time (s)

Note: The pulsing of the current intensity, in the pulsed mode, provides a relatively
lower energy input, with less aggression to the welded joint, compared to the constant
direct current
 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

WELDING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ARC FUNCTION OF THE

CURRENT TYPE:
Non-Consumable Electrode Processes: The arc generated is
independent of the addition metal: TIG and Plasma processes.

Type of
DIRECTLY ALTERNATE
current
Directly (DC) Pulsada (DP) AC
According with
Polatrity Direct DC - Inverse DC + Direct DP - Inverse DP + frequency
Direction
of
electrons
and
penetrati
on profile e- e-
e- e-
the weld e-
shallower
deep penetration shallow preservation of
penetration with penetration
+ penetration + Width + cleaning
Goals preservation of surface oxide
moderate energy with moderate
effect every half
Width + cleaning effect energy
cleaning effect cycle
+ cleaning effect
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

The electric arc and the molten metal drop behave as flexible
conductors, susceptible to actions due to magnetic fields and / or
physical effects.

Drag Force Droplet Magnetic Effect of oxides

strangulation deflection cleaning

Constriction of Magnetic Blow Electrical Accidental spark

the plasma arc extension of the
electrode
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

1) Drag Force

Due to radial forces (Lorentz forces) associated with the

magnetic field induced by the welding current, compression
pressures arise along the arc column, generating a pressure
gradient and, consequently, a drag or plasma jet towards the
piece.
 Electrode
F1 > F2
I(A)
P1 > P2
F1 P F1
1
Plasma Jet
F2 F2
P
2
Note: Physics Right hand rule

workpiece
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

* This effect:
• It is independent of the polarity and the medium in which
welding occurs (atmospheric, underwater or without gravity);
• Explains the regular deposition of bead weld towards the
joint in any welding position;
• Influence on weld penetration and transfer mode of the
metal to the molten pool.
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
2) Arc-Plasma Constriction Effect
• Electromagnetic Constriction: due to radial forces (Lorentz
forces), associated with the magnetic field induced by the welding
current;
• Mechanical Constriction: The plasma is mechanically focused
through a constricting nozzle at the end of the welding torch.
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
3) Strangler Effect of Weld Drop (Pinch Effect)
Due to radial forces (Lorentz forces), the metal drop forming at
the end of the electrode suffers a choke, causing it to tear and
facilitating its transfer to the part.
This effect non-depends on the polarity and explains the tear of
the weld drop from the end of the electrode and the metal
transfer in small drops, with relatively high current

Electrode

Radial forces

Drop Strangler effect of weld drop
Arch

Weld
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

4) Magnetic Blow
• Nature: deviation that the arc may suffer during welding, due to
interference in the magnetic field induced by the welding current,
making it not homogeneous around it. The arc will seek another
position, depending on the new configuration of the magnetic field
around it. This results in uneven weld deposits and / or excessive
spattering.
Electrode
Current
Magnetic field Electrode

concentration of magnetic arc to the opposite side to the

field lines due to the change concentration of magnetic field
in current direction lines
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

This phenomenon can be caused by asymmetric distribution of

ferromagnetic material around the arc (mass effect), joint end and
different base materials.
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

* Forced:
• can be caused by nearby arcs, in welding with 2 or more heads
(attraction or repulsion between arcs).
• When the part to be welded presents residual magnetism due to
previous processing (handling of sheets by electromagnet) or when
the work place is magnetized due to the operation of electrical /
magnetic devices, which induce magnetic fields in the environment.

Electrode
welding current in
the 2 electrodes

attraction between
the arches
Joint
Attraction Repulsion
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

5) Deflection or Magnetic Turn of the Arc

The effect of deviation or movement of the arc by the action of an
intentionally induced magnetic field through an electromagnet
coupled to the end of the welding torch or a solenoid / coil positioned
around the joint. This magnetic field interacts with the arc (and also
with its magnetic field), deflecting it or impelling it in a desired
direction, according to the arrangement of the electromagnet and
direction of the field lines.
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

6) Electrical extension of the electrode ("Stick-out")

Free length of the energized electrode after passing through the
electric contact of the welding torch: distance between the electric
contact tip on the torch and the tip of the electrode (theoretical)
or the surface of the joint (practical).
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

It determines the Joule heating in this extension of the electrode =

facilitates the fusion of the electrode with less intensity of
current, but with less penetration of the weld.
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

7) Rust Cleaning ("Electronic Pickling")

Effect of removal of the joint oxide surface during welding by the
action of the electrons in DC + and DP + or AC (every half cycle), when
these are emitted and directed from the negative pole (piece) towards
the positive pole ( electrode).

Example: Welding of aluminum

bocal
da tocha eletrodo
and magnesium, whose surface
oxides are stable and have a high
melting point and therefore must
arco
proteção gasosa
efeito limpeza da
camada de óxido camada de óxido
be removed during welding, for
metal regular and continuous occurrence
of melting of the material in the
base
solda fluxo de elétrons

joint.
 PHENOMENA IN ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

8) Accidental blinking
Unplanned arc opening at another location of the part or equipment
due to welding circuit grounding wire.
• Example, in the maintenance welding of a worn shaft, at the end of
which has a bearing or in the weld repair of a part fixed in a
machining vice.
“ We must forget the past, believe in the future and live the present
this eternal now that is the human way of approaching the infinite”