Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs the

exchange of data between two entities.

Syntax: data format.
Semantics: control info & error handling.
Timing: speed matching & sequencing.

OSI model: The OSI (Open Systems

Interconnection) model is a conceptual framework
used to understand how different networking
protocols communicate over a network. It defines a
series of layers, each responsible for specific
functions in the process of data communication.
Physical Layer : encoding/decoding of signals,
preamble generation/removal, bit transmission/
reception, transmission medium and topology
Data Link layer >
Logical Link Control-/ interface to higher levels, flow
and error control,
Media Access Control-/ on transmit assemble data
into frame, on receive disassemble frame, govern
access to transmission medium
Network layer : Non reliable, Best Effort delivery,
Provide logical addressing (IP address), No error
correction, Host-to-host Connectivity, Routing
Transport Layer: encapsulation, Segmentation
and reassembly, connection control,, ordered
delivery, flow control, error control
Session layer: Dialogue Discipline-/ Simplex, Half
Duplex , Full Duplex. Establish, manage & maintain
session between applications
Presentation layer: Compress/Decompress, Data
Structure , Ensure readable/usable format, Data
format
Application layer: provide support for user
applications

The TCP/IP model is a conceptual framework used

for understanding how network communication
works.
Application Layer: This is the highest layer in the
TCP/IP model. It deals with the protocols and
methods that application programs use to
communicate over the network.
Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for
end-to-end communication and reliability. It ensures
that data is delivered error-free, in the correct order,
and without any loss or duplication.
Internet Layer: This layer is responsible for routing
packets of data between different networks. It deals
with logical addressing and forwarding packets from
the source to the destination across multiple
networks
Link Layer: Also known as the Network Interface
Layer or Network Access Layer, this layer deals with
the physical connection between devices on the
same network.

Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP model

/similarities/Both have layers. Both have application
layers, though they include very different services.
Both have comparable transport and network layers.
Both models need to be known by networking
professionals../dissimilarities/TCP/IP combines the
presentation and session layer issues into its
application layer. TCP/IP combines the OSI data
link and physical layers into the network access
layer. TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer
layers.
Noise:refers to any unwanted signals or interference
that disrupts the transmission and reception of the
intended data signal.
Crosstalk noise: This happens when signals from
adjacent wires or channels interfere with each other.
Impulse Noise: Sudden and short-lived bursts of
interference, often caused by events like lightning
strikes or power surges.
Thermal Noise:It is a type of noise generated by the
random motion of electrons in a conductor. It is
present in all electronic circuits.
Intermodulation Noise: This happens when signals
at different frequencies interact and produce
additional frequencies.

Circuit switching is a communication method

where a dedicated communication path, or circuit, is
established between two devices before data
transmission begins. 1. In-circuit switching has 3
phases: i) Connection Establishment. ii) Data
Transfer. iii) Connection Released. 2. In-circuit
switching, each data unit knows the entire path
address which is provided by the source. 3.
In-Circuit switching, data is processed at the source
system only.

Packet switching is a communication method

where data is divided into smaller units called
packets and transmitted over the network. 1. In
Packet switching directly data transfer takes place.
2. In Packet switching, each data unit just knows the
final destination address intermediate path is
decided by the routers. 3. In Packet switching, data
is processed at all intermediate nodes including the
source system.

The Shannon Capacity Formula provides an upper

limit on the achievable data rate (capacity) of a noisy
communication channel. The formula is expressed
as: SNRdb = 10 log10 (signal/noise) || Capacity: C
= B log2 (1+SNR) The formula tells us that the
maximum achievable data rate(C) for a given
channel with a certain bandwidth (B) and
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) is proportional to the
logarithm of1+N/S.
Channel capacity refers to the maximum rate at
which information can be reliably transmitted over a
communication channel, given the available
bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio. In a noise-free
channel, where there is no noise, the channel
capacity is theoretically infinite. This is because, in
the absence of noise, there is no limit on the amount
of information that can be reliably transmitted.
Mathematically, in the Shannon Capacity Formula: C
= B log2 (1+SNR) || If there is no noise(N=0) then
the term (s/n)becomes infinite, resulting in: C = B
log2 (∞) || In practical terms, a noise-free channel is
an idealized concept and doesn't exist in real-world
communication systems.
In data communications, Hamming distance and
minimum distance are fundamental concepts used in
error detection and correction techniques. They help
quantify the level of error and assess the
error-correcting capabilities of a code or
transmission system.

Hamming distance : In data communications, the

Hamming distance is used to measure the difference
between two data sequences. It calculates the
number of bits that differ between two strings of
equal length. Hamming distance is crucial for error
detection. It helps identify errors in received data by
comparing it with the expected data.

The minimum distance is a critical parameter in

determining the error-correcting capabilities of a
code. A higher minimum distance implies better error
correction. A code with a larger minimum distance
can detect and correct a greater number of errors.
For instance, a code with a minimum distance of 3
can correct up to one-bit errors.

(SMF), (SI-MMF), (GI-MMF) are three types of

optical fibers used for data transmission in fiber optic
communication systems.
Single-Mode Fiber: Core Diameter: Typically has a
very narrow core (approximately 8-10 micrometers).
Light Propagation: Allows only one mode (path) of
light to propagate through the core. This means that
light travels along a single path, resulting in minimal
dispersion (spreading) of light pulses. Bandwidth
and Distance: Offers high bandwidth and long
transmission distances, making it suitable for
long-haul communication systems.
Multi-Mode Fiber: Core Diameter: Has a larger
core. Light Propagation: Supports multiple modes of
light propagation. Bandwidth and Distance:
Generally has lower bandwidth and shorter
transmission distances compared to single-mode
fiber.Types: Step-Index MMF: Has a uniform
refractive index in the core. Graded-Index MMF:
Features a core with a refractive index that
decreases gradually from the center outward,
allowing for curved light paths and reduced modal
dispersion.

Optical fiber cable is a network cable made up of

one or more optical fibers. Each fiber is a thin,
flexible strand of glass or plastic capable of
transmitting information in the form of light signals.
Physical Characteristics: Core Diameter: Defines
the size of the central part through which light
propagates. Single-mode fibers have a narrow core,
while multi-mode fibers have a larger core. Cladding:
Surrounds the core and helps guide light by total
internal reflection. Has a lower refractive index than
the core. Coating: Protective layer outside the
cladding. Guards against physical damage and
environmental factors. Numerical Aperture (NA):
Indicates light-gathering ability. Higher NA allows for
more light capture and guidance. Attenuation:
Measures signal loss as light travels through the
fiber. Lower attenuation means higher quality.
Electrical Characteristics: Bandwidth:Reflects
data-carrying capacity. Higher bandwidth allows for
greater data rates. Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR):
Determines signal quality. Higher SNR indicates a
cleaner and more reliable signal. Signal
Strength:Measures transmitted light power. Ensuring
sufficient strength is vital for reliable data
transmission.

An antenna in data transmission is a specialized

device designed to radiate or receive
electromagnetic waves. It plays a crucial role in the
wireless communication process, allowing
information to be transmitted wirelessly between
electronic devices.
Antenna gain is a measure of the directionality of
an antenna. Antenna gain is defined as the power
output, in a particular direction, compared to that
produced in any direction by a perfect
omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna).

Synchronous Data Transmission: Synchronous

transmission involves sending data in a continuous
stream, with the sender and receiver synchronized in
time. Synchronous transmission does not use start
and stop bits to frame the data. Instead, the sender
and receiver rely on the shared clock signal to know
when to send and receive bits. Generally more
efficient in terms of bandwidth usage, as there is no
need for extra bits to frame the data.

Asynchronous Data Transmission: Asynchronous

transmission involves sending data one byte (or
character) at a time, with the sender and receiver not
necessarily synchronized in time. Asynchronous
transmission uses start and stop bits to frame the
data, allowing the receiver to identify the boundaries
of each character. Less efficient in terms of
bandwidth usage, as additional bits (start and stop
bits) are needed for each character.
Coaxial cable is a type of electrical cable used for
transmitting high-frequency signals. It consists of a
central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic
shield, and an outer insulating layer.
Physical Characteristics: Conductor: A solid or
stranded wire at the core of the cable, typically made
of copper or aluminum. It carries the signal. Shield:
Surrounds the dielectric insulation. It is typically
made of woven wire strands or metal foil, and it
provides electromagnetic shielding, reducing
interference from external sources. Outer Insulation
(Jacket): Surrounds the shield and provides
protection for the cable. It is usually made of plastic
or rubber. Diameter and Thickness: Coaxial cables
come in various diameters and thicknesses,
depending on the specific application. Thicker cables
typically have better shielding properties
Electrical Characteristics: Impedance:Defines the
resistance to the flow of electrical signals in the
cable. It's important for matching the cable to the
system's impedance. Attenuation: Refers to the
reduction in signal strength as it travels along the
cable. Lower attenuation values indicate less signal
loss. Velocity of Propagation: Indicates the speed at
which electrical signals travel through the cable,
typically expressed as a percentage of the speed of
light. Frequency Range: Specifies the range of
frequencies over which the cable can effectively
transmit signals. Higher frequency ranges allow for
greater data transmission rates. Voltage Rating:
Indicates the maximum voltage the cable can handle
without experiencing breakdown or insulation failure.

Multiplexing is a technique used in

telecommunications and data transmission to
combine multiple signals or information streams into
a single transmission medium, such as a cable or a
wireless channel, and then separate them back at
the receiving end. This allows for more efficient use
of the available resources.
Multiplexing is a technique used in
telecommunications and data transmission to
combine multiple signals or information streams into
a single transmission medium, such as a cable or a
wireless channel, and then separate them back at
the receiving end. This allows for more efficient use
of the available resources.
Why Do We Need Multiplexing? Efficient Use of
Resources: Multiplexing allows multiple signals to
share a common communication channel. This is
crucial when resources (like cables or frequencies)
are limited or costly. Increased Capacity: By
multiplexing, we can transmit more data
simultaneously, increasing the overall capacity of the
communication system. Cost-Efficiency: Using
multiplexing can reduce the cost of infrastructure, as
it allows multiple signals to be carried over a single
physical medium. Flexibility: Multiplexing provides
flexibility in managing and allocating resources
dynamically, depending on the demand for different
types of data. Example: Imagine you have a single
telephone line that needs to serve multiple users.
Without multiplexing, only one person can use the
line at a time. With Time-Division Multiplexing
(TDM), the available time on the line is divided into
small time slots. Each user is allocated a specific
time slot during which they can send or receive data.
The signals from each user are interleaved in time
and transmitted over the same line.