Physics

By: Dr. Engy Ragaei Abdelmaksoud

E-mail: [email protected]
Contents
Mechanics Electricity & Magnetism
1. Physics and measurements 1. Electric Force
2. Motion in one dimension 2. Electric Field
3. Vectors 3. Capacitance
4. Motion in two dimensions 4. Voltage, Current, Resistance
5. Laws of motion 5. Magnetic Fields, Induction
6. Work and Energy

Oscillations & Waves

1. Oscillatory Motion
2. Wave Motion
Lecture 4
 Objectives
4. Motion in two dimensions [Chapter 4]
 The position, velocity, and acceleration vector
 Kinematic Equations for Two-Dimensional Motion
 A particle under constant acceleration in two-dimensions
 Projectile Motion
 Uniform Circular Motion
 Non Uniform Circular Motion
1D motion vs 2D motion
 The position, velocity, and acceleration vector
We will explore the kinematics of a particle moving
in two dimensions.
Position and Displacement
 The position of an object is described by its
position vector 𝒓 drawn from the origin of some
coordinate system to the location of the particle in
the xy plane.
 The displacement of the object is defined as the
change in its position.
∆𝒓 = 𝒓𝒇 − 𝒓𝒊
 The magnitude of ∆𝑟 is less than the distance
traveled along the curved path followed by the
particle.
 The position, velocity, and acceleration vector
Average Velocity
 The average velocity is the ratio of the
displacement to the time interval for the
displacement.
∆𝒓
𝒗𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
∆𝒕
 The direction of the average velocity is the
direction of the displacement vector.
 The average velocity between points is
independent of the path taken.
 The position, velocity, and acceleration vector
Instantaneous Velocity
 The instantaneous velocity is the limit of the average velocity as Δt
approaches zero.

∆𝒓 𝒅𝒓
𝒗 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕

 The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity vector is the speed.

 The position, velocity, and acceleration vector
Average Acceleration
The average acceleration of a particle as it moves is
defined as the change in the instantaneous velocity
vector divided by the time interval during which that
change occurs.
∆𝒗 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊
𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒈 = =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
Instantaneous Acceleration
The instantaneous acceleration is the limit of the
average velocity as Δt approaches zero.
∆𝒗 𝒅𝒗
𝒂 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 The position, velocity, and acceleration vector
Producing an Acceleration

Various changes in a particle’s motion may produce an acceleration.

 The magnitude of the velocity vector may change.

 The direction of the velocity vector may change.

• Even if the magnitude remains constant

 Both may change simultaneously

 Kinematic Equations for Two-Dimensional Motion
Motion in two dimensions can be modeled as two independent motions in each
of the two perpendicular directions associated with the x and y axes.

 Any influence in the y direction does not affect the motion in the x direction.
 The position vector in two-dimension

𝒓 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒚𝒋

 The velocity vector in two-dimension

𝒅𝒓 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
𝒗= = 𝒊+ 𝒋 = 𝒗𝒙 𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚 𝒋
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
 A particle under constant acceleration in two-dimensions
 Because the acceleration of the particle is constant, its components 𝒂𝒙 and 𝒂𝒚
also are constants.
 Therefore, apply the equations of kinematics separately to the x and y
components of the velocity vector.
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕
𝒗𝒙𝒇 = 𝒗𝒙𝒊 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 𝒗𝒚𝒇 = 𝒗𝒚𝒊 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕

𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒙𝒊 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚𝒊 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕 𝒋

= 𝒗𝒙𝒊 𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚𝒊 𝒋 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒊 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒋 𝒕
 A particle under constant acceleration in two-dimensions
 The x and y coordinates of a particle moving with constant acceleration are
𝟏 𝟐
𝒓𝒇 = 𝒓𝒊 + 𝒗𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒙 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕𝟐 𝒚𝒇 = 𝒚𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
𝒓𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒙 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒕 𝒊 + 𝒚𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒕𝟐 𝒋
𝟐
𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
𝒓𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 𝒊 + 𝒚𝒊 𝒋 + 𝒗𝒙 𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚 𝒋 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒙 𝒊 + 𝒂𝒚 𝒋 𝒕𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
 Projectile Motion
A projectile is simply an object that moves in two dimensions and only under the
influence of gravity.
 Projectile Motion
Two Golf Balls
 One simply released and the other shot horizontally
by a spring.

 The golf balls have the same vertical motion.

 both falling through the same vertical distance in the

same interval of time.

 The fact that one ball is moving horizontally while it is

falling has no effect on its vertical motion; that is, the
horizontal and vertical motions are independent of
each other.
 Projectile Motion
 The free-fall acceleration is constant over the range of motion, it is directed
downward.
 This is the same as assuming a flat Earth over the range of the motion.
 The effect of air friction is negligible.
 With these assumptions, an object in projectile motion will follow a parabolic
path.
 This path is called the trajectory.
 Projectile Motion
Projectile Motion Diagram
 Projectile Motion
Projectile Motion Diagram
 The actual position at any time is given by:
𝟏 𝟐
𝒓𝒇 = 𝒓𝒊 + 𝒗𝒊 𝐭 + 𝒂𝐭
𝟐

 The projectile motion is made up of two independent motions:

The x-direction has constant velocity: 𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎

The y-direction is free fall: 𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈

 Projectile Motion
Vertical Motion (𝒂𝒚 = −𝒈) Horizontal Motion (𝒂𝒙 = 𝟎)

𝟏 𝟐 𝒙𝒊 = 𝒙𝒇 + 𝒗𝒙𝒊 𝐭
𝒚𝒇 = 𝒚𝒊 + 𝒗𝒚𝒊 𝐭 − 𝒈𝐭
𝟐
𝒗𝒚𝒇 = 𝒗𝒚𝒊 − 𝒈𝒕 𝒗𝒙𝒇 = 𝒗𝒙𝒊

𝟐 𝟐
𝒗𝒚𝒇 = 𝒗𝒚𝒊 − 𝟐𝒈 (𝒚𝒇 − 𝒚𝒊 ) 𝒗𝒙𝒇 𝟐 = 𝒗𝒙𝒊 𝟐
 Projectile Motion
 The initial velocity can be expressed in terms of its components:

𝒗𝒙𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽𝒊 𝒗𝒚𝒊 = 𝒗𝒊 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒊

 Projectile Motion
 The projectile is launched from the origin at 𝒕𝒊 = 𝟎
with a positive 𝒗𝒚𝒊 component and returns to the
same horizontal level.
 Two points in this motion are especially interesting
to analyze: the peak point A, which has Cartesian
coordinates (R/2, h), and the point B, which has
coordinates (R, 0).
 The distance R is called the horizontal range of the
projectile,
 The distance h is its maximum height.
 Projectile Motion
The time it takes the projectile to reach its maximum height,
point A.
𝒗𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒊
𝒕𝑨 =
𝒈
The time it takes the projectile to reach its range, point B.

𝒕𝑩 = 𝟐𝒕𝑨

Maximum Height of a Projectile (h)

𝒗𝒊 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽𝒊
𝒉=
𝟐𝒈
 Projectile Motion
Horizontal Range (R)
The range, R, is the horizontal distance of the
projectile.

𝒗𝒊 𝟐 sin 𝟐𝜽𝒊
𝑹=
𝒈

This equation is valid only for symmetric motion.

 Projectile Motion
Horizontal Range (R)
The maximum range occurs at 𝜽𝒊 = 𝟒𝟓° . 𝒗𝒊 𝟐
𝑹𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
Complementary angles will produce the same range. 𝒈
The maximum height will be different for the two angles.
The times of the flight will be different for the two angles.
Projectile Motion
 Projectile Motion
Example:
The catapult used by the marauders hurls a stone of mass 32.0 kg with a velocity of
50.0 m/s at a 30.0° angle of elevation.
(a) What is the maximum height reached by the stone?
(b) What is its range (defined as the horizontal distance traveled when the stone
returns to its original height)?
(c) How long has the stone been in the air when it returns to its original height?
 Projectile Motion
Soultion:
(a) What is the maximum height reached by the stone?
m = 32.0 kg
Vi = 50.0 m/s
θ = 30.0˚
𝒗𝒊 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽𝒊 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎. 𝟎° 𝟐
𝒉= = = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟗 𝒎
𝟐𝒈 𝟐 𝑿 𝟗. 𝟖
 Projectile Motion
Soultion:
(b) What is its range (defined as the horizontal distance traveled when the stone
returns to its original height)?
m = 32.0 kg
𝒗𝒊 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝜽 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝑿 𝟑𝟎. 𝟎° Vi = 50.0 m/s
𝒊
𝑹= = = 𝟐𝟐𝟏 𝒎 θ = 30.0˚
𝒈 𝟗. 𝟖
 Projectile Motion
Soultion:
(c) How long has the stone been in the air when it returns to its original height?

𝒗𝒊 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒊 𝟐 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎. 𝟎° m = 32.0 kg

𝒕𝒇 = 𝟐 = = 𝟓. 𝟏𝟎 𝒔
𝒈 𝟗. 𝟖 𝒎/𝒔 Vi = 50.0 m/s
θ = 30.0˚
 Uniform Circular Motion
Uniform circular motion occurs when an object moves in a circular path with
a constant speed.
 Uniform Circular Motion
 An acceleration exists since the direction of the
motion is changing.

 The constant-magnitude velocity vector is

always tangent to the path of the object.

 The change in the velocity vector is due to the

change in direction.

 The direction of the change in velocity is toward

the center of the circle.
 Uniform Circular Motion
 The angle ∆𝜽 between the two position vectors in
Figure a is the same as the angle between the velocity
vectors in the given Figure because the velocity vector 𝐯 is
always perpendicular to the position vector 𝒓

The magnitude of the average acceleration

𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒂𝒗𝒈 =
𝒓
 Uniform Circular Motion
Centripetal Acceleration
 The acceleration is always perpendicular to the path of the motion.
 The acceleration always points toward the center of the circle of motion.
 This acceleration is called the centripetal acceleration.
 The centripetal acceleration vector is given by

𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒄 = −
𝒓
The direction of the centripetal acceleration vector is always changing, to stay
directed toward the center of the circle of motion.
 Uniform Circular Motion
Period
 The period, T, is the time required for one complete revolution.
 The speed of the particle would be the circumference of the circle of motion
divided by the period.
 Therefore, the period is defined as

𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑻=
𝒗
 Uniform Circular Motion
Example:
A particle moves in a circular path 0.4 m in radius with constant speed. If the
particle makes five revolutions in each second of its motion,
(A) What is the speed of the particle?
(B) What is the acceleration of the particle?
 Uniform Circular Motion
Solution:
(A) What is the speed of the particle?
The particle travels a distance of 𝟐𝝅𝒓 in each revolution
𝟐𝝅𝒓 = 𝟐 𝐱 𝟑. 𝟏𝟒 𝐱 𝟎. 𝟒 𝐦 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 𝐦
It travels 5 revolutions in one second

𝟐. 𝟓𝟏 𝒎 𝑿 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟔 𝒎

𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟔
𝒗= = 12.56 𝒎 𝒔
𝟏
 Uniform Circular Motion
Solution:
(B) What is the acceleration of the particle?

𝒗𝟐 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓𝟔 𝒎 𝒔 𝟐
𝒂𝒄 = = = 397 𝒎 𝒔𝟐
𝒓 𝟎. 𝟒 𝒎
 Non uniform Circular Motion
 A particle moves to the right along a curved path, and its velocity changes both
in direction and in magnitude.
 So in this situation, the acceleration has two components: a radial component
𝑎𝑟 along the radius of the circle and a tangential component 𝑎𝑡 perpendicular to
this radius.
 Non uniform Circular Motion
Tangential and radial acceleration
The tangential acceleration causes the change in the speed of the particle.
𝒅𝒗
𝒂𝒕 =
𝒅𝒕
The radial acceleration comes from a change in the direction of the velocity
vector.
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒓 = −𝒂𝒄 = −
𝒓

The total acceleration vector is given by

𝒂 = 𝒂𝒓 + 𝒂𝒕
 Non uniform Circular Motion
Example:
A car leaves a stop sign and exhibits a constant
acceleration of 0.300 m/s2 parallel to the roadway.
The car passes over a rise in the roadway such that
the top of the rise is shaped like an arc of a circle of
radius 500 m. At the moment the car is at the top
of the rise, its velocity vector is horizontal and has a
magnitude of 6.00 m/s.
What are the magnitude and direction of the total
acceleration vector for the car at this instant?
 Non uniform Circular Motion
Solution:
𝒎 𝟐
𝒗 𝟐 𝟔. 𝟎𝟎
𝒂𝒓 = − =− 𝒔 = −𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝒎 𝒔
𝒓 𝟓𝟎𝟎 𝒎

𝒂𝒕 𝟐 + 𝒂𝒓 𝟐
= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒎 𝒔𝟐 𝟐 + −𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝒎 𝒔𝟐 𝟐

= 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟗 𝒎 𝒔𝟐

𝟐
𝒂 𝒓 −𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟐𝟎 𝒎 𝒔
∅ = tan−𝟏 = tan−𝟏 𝟐
= −𝟏𝟑. 𝟓°
𝒂𝒕 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒎 𝒔