UNIT-I

SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Introduction: -
 The word Electronics is originated from word "Electron". Electronics is study
of flow and control of Electrons.
 The electronics is the field of science deals with motion of electrons under
the influence of Electric and Magnetic field.
 The branch of electronics engineering is to study the behavior of an electron
when they flow through various materials or devices like resistor, capacitor,
semiconductor devices etc. under different conditions of applied electric field
 The device which controls flow of electrons is called electronic devices.
Ex: semiconductor devices.

Evolution of Electronics from Vacuum tubes to Nano electronics: -

The field of Electronics has under gone significant
changes over the year with advancement in technology leading to the
development of smaller, faster and more Efficient devices.

Vacuum tubes → Transistors → Integrated circuits⟶ Nano

electronics

Vacuum tube: -
 Vacuum tube is an electronic device that controls the flow of electrons in a
vacuum. It is used as a Switch, Amplifier etc.… The basic working principle
of vacuum tube is thermionic emission means when we heat up metal,
electrons are loosened.
 The vacuum tube consists of two electrodes an anode and a cathode placed
on either side of tube.
 When cathode is heated UP due to thermionic emission, electrons are
loosened. The anode will attract these electrons (negative charge), if anode is
more at positive charge.

Vacuum tubes
 By removing the gas in vacuum tube, can create vacuum in vacuum tube.
Then the electrons can move easily from cathode to anode, then the current
flows. It allows the current only in one direction.
 Vacuum tubes are large in size, consumes high power.
 Uses: Vacuum tubes was used in early computers as switch or amplifier.

Transistor: -
 Transistor is a 3-terminal semiconductor device (Base, Emitter, and
Collector). It is used to amplify (or) regulates current (or) voltage flow.
 Transistor acts as switch (or) gate for electronic signals.
 If voltage (or) current applied to one pair of transistor terminals controls the
current through another pair of transistor terminals and it can amplify the
signal also.
 Transistors are smaller in size and consumes less power compared to vacuum
tubes.

Transistors

Integrated Circuits: -
 Integrated circuit is a set of electronic circuits one single chip (silicon).
 An integrated circuit can hold transistors. resistors and capacitors.
 It performs calculations and store data using either digital (or) analog
technology.
 IC'S are of various scales are SSI, MSI, LSI VLSI and ULSI etc...
 Out of these VLSI is very Important. It plays a crucial role in communication
system, wireless networks etc.
 It enables signal processing, data transmission and reception.
Ex: Cameras, Chips in Cell phones, Automobiles etc.

Applications: - Cars (Automotive control), TV's, Computers etc...

Advantages: - High speed, Low power, Higher Reliability

Integrated Circuits
Evolution of Integrated Circuit:
SSI- Small Scale Integration (Tens of transistors-1950s)
MSI- Medium Scale Integration (Hundreds of transistors-1960s)
LSI-Large scale integration (Thousands of transistors-1970s)
VLSI- Very Large-scale Integration (Tens of thousands of transistors-1980s)

4. Very Large-Scale integration (VLSI):

 VLSI began in the 1970s. Before the introduction of VLSI technology most
ICs had a limited set of functions.
 VLSI involves packing more and more logic devices into smaller and smaller
areas. In other words it’s the process of combining millions of components
into a single chip.

Uses: Used in digital camera, cellphones, computers, automated machines etc.

Very large-scale integrated circuits

The advantages of VLSI design are:

*High speed
*Low power
*Physically smaller
*Higher reliability
*More functionality

Nano Electronics: -
 The term Nano Electronics refers to the electronic components that allows
integration of purely electronic devices, electronic chips and circuits.
 In which, semiconductor components have critical features such as logic
transistors and memory measure well under 100 nanometers.
 These components are few nanometers in size.
 It reduces the size of transistors in Integrated circuits.
 Developing memory chip with a projected density of terabyte memory square
inch.

Nano electronics
 PN Junction Diode: -

 PN Junction Diode is a two terminal semiconductor device.

 It consists of PN Junction and two metallic contacts at their ends
 The PN junction is formed when both the n-type and p-type materials are
simply joined together.
 A diode controls the flow of current in one direction (forward bias) and blocks
the current from passing in the other direction (reverse bias). It has less
resistance (zero in the ideal case) in the conducting direction and very high
resistance (almost infinite) in the non-conducting direction. Applying external
voltage to the diode is called bias.
 It has a two-terminals. They are:
1. Anode A (positive terminal).
2. Cathode K (negative terminal).

Symbol of Diode.

Structure of PN Junction Diode: -

Structure of PN Junction Diode

 The structure of semiconductor diode can be bilayered. [ 𝑝-type and 𝑛-type]
 The 𝑝-type layer has majority carriers as holes and minority carriers as
electrons. Then large concentration of holes in 𝑝-type material.
 The n-type layer has majority carriers as electrons and minority carriers as
holes. Then large concentration of electrons in 𝑛-type material.
 There is a tendency for electrons to diffuse over to the p-side and holes to
the n-side is called Diffusion.
 Initially, there is a diffusion of holes from p-type to 𝑛-type, results in negative
immobile ions (acceptor ions) at p-side junction and diffusion of electrons
from 𝑛-type to 𝑝-type, results in positive immobile ions (donor ions) at n- side
junction.
 Hence, more positive charge immobile ions get formed in 𝑛-region near the
junction while more negative charge immobile ions get formed in 𝑃-region
near the Junction.
 PN Junction under no bias.

 Due to charge immobile ions at the junction, after short time the diffusion
process stops.
 Hence, near a junction there exists a layer of positive and negative immobile
ions.
 When movement gets initiated then charge carriers crosses barrier and forms
a thick layer called “Depletion layer: A region near junction has positive and
negative immobile ions without any free electrons (or) holes is called"
Depletion region "(or) "Space charge region".
 The existence of positive and negative Immobile ions on opposite side of
junction creates an electric field across the junction has fixed polarity is
called “Potential Barrier” or “Junction” potential or cut in voltage (𝑉𝑜 ).
 Hence, like this PN Junction is formed when no external voltage is applied.

VI characteristics of PN-Junction Diode: -

Biasing of semiconductor: - Biasing is a technique used to turn on the

electronic devices such as Diode, Transistor, MOSFET etc. To turn ON or turn
OFF the device the AC or DC supply is given.

Biasing of semiconductor is of two types: They are

1. Forward bias.
2. Reverse bias.

PN Junction under forward bias: -

 In forward bias, positive terminal is connected to the 𝑝-type and negative
terminal is connected to the N-type of the PN Junction diode.
 Under forward bias, the applied positive terminal repels holes in p-type
region. So, holes move towards the junction and the applied negative
terminal repels electrons in n-type region and the electrons moves towards
the junction.

PN Junction under forward bias

 Under forward bias, when we applied potential (𝑉𝐹 ) is more than internal
barrier potential (𝑉𝑜) the depletion region and internal potential barrier
disappear.
 If the forward voltage (𝑉𝐹 ) is less than (𝑉𝐹 < 𝑉0 ) barrier voltage (Vo), the
forward current ( 𝐼𝐹 ) is almost zero, because the potential barrier prevents
the holes from 𝑃-region and electrons from 𝑁-region to flow across the
depletion region in the opposite direction.
 If 𝑉𝐹 approaches the value of barrier potential (𝑉𝐹 = 𝑉0 ), the width of
depletion region decreases.
 If forward voltage is greater than (𝑉𝐹 > 𝑉0 ) barrier voltage (𝑉0 ), the potential
barrier at the junction completely disappears. Hence, the holes cross the
junction from p- type to n-type and electrons cross the junction from n type
to p-type, resulting forward current flow increases rapidly in the external
circuit.
 If certain voltage greater than the barrier potential, then current increases
rapidly. The voltage at which diode starts current increases rapidly is called
Cut in voltage or threshold voltage(𝑉0 ).

VI characteristics under forward bias condition.

 Cut in voltage for Germanium = 0.3𝑣.

  Cut in voltage for silicon = 0.6 V or 0.7V.

PN Junction under Reverse bias: -

 In reverse bias, when negative terminal of battery is connected to the 𝑃-type

and positive terminal is connected to the n type of PN Junction.

PN Junction under Reverse bias

 When diode connected in reverse bias, negative terminal of the battery
attracts p-region majority carriers (hole s) and positive terminal of the battery
attracts n-region majority carriers (electrons). Hence, Width of the depletion
region increases, No current flows.
 Due to minority carriers, electrons in p-region and holes in 𝑛-region moves
towards the junction, then there will be small reverse current. This is called
reverse saturation current (𝐼𝑜 ). The magnitude of reverse saturation current
depends on the Junction temperature.
 For large applied reverse bias, the free Electrons from 𝑛-type moving towards
the positive terminal of the battery acquire sufficient energy to move with
high velocity, then large number of free Electrons are formed by removing
valence electrons from their bonds, this leads to the breakdown of Junction
and leading to very large reverse current (𝐼𝑅 ).
 The reverse voltage at junction breakdown occurs called Reverse Breakdown
voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐷𝑅 ).

VI characteristics under Reverse bias condition

VI characteristics under forward bias condition and Reverse bias condition:

 The relationship between the current flowing through the diode and the
voltage due to the applied voltage in forward bias and reverse bias is shown
by a graph. Thus, showing the voltage and diode current through the graph
is called VI characteristics of the diode.
If = forward bias current, Vf = forward bias voltage, VR= reverse bias
voltage

Applications of PN Diode: -
It is useful
1. As Switch.
2. In Rectifier circuits.
3. In Clipping, Clamping, Modulator, Demodulator and Bias Stabilization
Circuits.
4. As Variable Capacitance.
5. In Amplifiers.

Types of Semiconductor Diode with different Doping Concentration:

1. Zener diode Voltage Regulator.

2. Varactor diode in tuning sections of radio and TV Receivers.
3. Tunnel diode as a Relaxation Oscillator at microwave frequencies.
4. Light Emitting diode in digital displays.
5. Laser diode in Optical communications.
6. Photo diode as detectors in Optical communication circuits.
Zener Effect:

 The Zener effect is a type of electrical breakdown that occurs in a reverse-

biased PN junction when the electric field enables tunnelling of electrons from
the valence to the conduction band of a semiconductor, leading to a large
number of free minority carriers which suddenly increase the reverse current.
The Zener effect is best-known for its use in the appropriately-named Zener
diode.
 There is a gradual increase of reverse current due to minority carriers with
increase of reverse bias around the surface of Junction.
 Also, there is sudden increase in reverse current due to sort of Breakdown.
 when the reverse bias voltage approaches to breakdown value is called Reverse
Breakdown voltage 𝑉𝐵𝐷𝑅 . Then Diode is no longer blocking current.
 This Breakdown occurs due to avalanche Effect in which thermally generated
minority carriers cross the depletion region and acquire Sufficient Kinetic
Energy from the applied Potential to produce new carriers by removing valence
electrons from their bonds These new Carriers will in turn collide with other
atoms and will increase the no of Electrons and holes available for conduction.
This happens as avalanche multiplication Effect. This is Zener Effect

1
Multiplication Effect (M)= 𝑉𝑟 𝑛
1−( )
𝑉𝐵𝐷𝑅

Where n= 4 for n-type, n=2 for p-type

𝑉𝑟 = applied reverse voltage.
𝑉𝐵𝐷𝑅 = Reverse Breakdown voltage.

𝐼𝑅 = 𝑀𝐼𝑜

 The Cumulative increase in carrier density, after each Collision is called

avalanche Breakdown.
 Breakdown occurs through a direct rupture of bonds because of existing
strong electric field is called Zener Breakdown.

Zener Diode:
 Zener diode is a PN Junction semiconductor diode with high doping
concentration.
 Zener diodes are can be designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities
to operate in the breakdown region under reverse bias. Such a diode is Zener
diode. So, Zener diode is heavily doped than ordinary diode.
 In simpler terms, it conducts electricity when the current flows in the opposite
direction of a regular diode.

Symbol of Zener Diode

VI Characteristics of Zener Diode:

 Under forward bias, Zener diode is same as PN Junction diode.

 Under Reverse bias, breakdown of Junction occurs. The breakdown voltage
depends on amount of doping.
 If diode is heavily doped, depletion layer will be thin and consequently
breakdown occurs at lower reverse voltage.
 If diode is lightly doped, breakdown occurs at higher reverse voltage.
 The sharp increasing current under breakdown Conditions are due to
following two mechanisms.
1.Avalanche Break down.
2.Zener Breakdown.

Avalanche Breakdown: -
Under reverse bias, when applied reverse bias Increases, the field
or potential across the Junction increases. From this field, the carriers acquire
a large amount of kinetic Energy while traversing the Junction. The Electrons
disrupt valence bonds by colliding with immobile ions and create new electron
hole pairs(carriers). These new Carriers again acquire sufficient energy from
the field & collide with immobile ions, thereby generating further election hole
pairs. This process is Continuous with in a short time. This mechanism of
carrier generation is Called Avalanche multiplication. This process results in
flow of large reverse current at reverse bias voltage, then breakdown occurs.
This breakdown is called Avalanche breakdown.
Zener Breakdown: -
When P and N regions are heavily doped, direct rupture of Covalent
bonds takes place because of strong electric fields at Junction, some of the
valence electrons in the p-type material can tunnel through the depletion
region and into the conduction band of the n-type material. This tunneling of
electrons causes a sudden increase the flow of reverse current at constant
value of reverse bias. For heavily doped, the depletion region width becomes
very small, then field across depletion region becomes high, then breakdown
occurs for lower reverse voltage. This breakdown is called Zener breakdown.
For lightly doped diode, Breakdown voltage becomes high. This
breakdown voltage is predominantly by Avalanche breakdown. So, Avalanche
breakdown occurs at higher reverse voltage.

VI characteristics of Zener Diode

Applications of Zener Diode: - Zener diodes to be widely used as voltage
reference devices in power supply circuits. The devices are also valuable as
voltage limiters, preventing spikes from reaching and damaging electronic
equipment.

1. As a voltage regulator.
2. In transistor biasing circuits as a fixed reference voltage.
3. As peak clippers (or) limiters in wave shaping circuits.
4. For meter protection against damage from accidental applications.

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):

W. Shockley, J. Barden & W. Brattain invented. the transistor in 1947.

The tom Transistor is derived from the words 'transfer' and 'resistor'. These
words describe the operation of a BJT which is the transfer of an input signal
from a low resistance Circuit to high resistance Circuit.

 Bipolar Junction Transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor device that

consists of two PN Junctions (PN & NP). In which operation depends on
interaction of majority and minority carriers.
 It is a current controlled device.
 It is used as amplifier and switch in Digital circuits.
 Applications are computers, Satellites and Modern Communication Systems.

Construction of BJT: -

BJT consists of Silicon or Germanium crystal in which a thin layer of N-type

silicon (lightly doped) is sandwiched between two layers of P-type silicon
(heavily doped & moderately doped) is called PNP Transistor. In which thin
layer of P-type silicon (lightly doped) is sandwiched between two layers of 𝑁-
type silicon (heavily doped & moderately doped) is called NPN Transistor.

Symbol of PNP Transistor Symbol of NPN Transistor

 BJT has three regions i.e. Emitter(E), Base(B) and Collector(C).
 Arrow on Emitter specifies direction of current when EB junction is reverse
biased.
 Emitter is Heavily doped it can inject a large no of charge carriers to base.
 Base is lightly doped & very thin. It passes most no of injected carriers from
emitter to collector.
 Collector is moderately doped.

 Operation of PNP Transistor:

Circuit Diagram of PNP Transistor

In PNP transistor, when forward bias applied to the EB Junction
& Revere bias at CB Junction, In emitter region, lot of holes crossover to the
base region. Base is lightly doped with N-type impurity, then no of electrons
is very small in Base region. Then holes combined with electrons also small.
So, few holes combined with electrons, to constitute base current (𝐼𝐵 ).
Remaining holes (95%) crossover to the collector region to constitute a
collector current (𝐼𝐶 ).
So, Emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ), ⸫ (𝐼𝐸 )=(𝐼𝐶 )+(𝐼𝐵 )
Operation of NPN Transistor-
For NPN Transistor, when EB is forward biased & CB Junction is
reverse biased. In Emitter region, lot of electrons cross over to the base
region. Base is lightly doped with p-type Impurity, then no of holes is very
small in base region. The few electrons from emitter combined with holes
also small. so, these few electron hole pair constitute base current (𝐼𝐵 ).
Remaining 95% electrons crossover to the collector region to constitute
collector current (𝐼𝐶 ).
So, Emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ), ⸫ (𝐼𝐸 )=(𝐼𝐶 )+(𝐼𝐵 )

Circuit diagram of NPN Transistor

 Operation of BJT: -

There are three operating regions in Bipolar Junction Transistor. They are:
1. Active region: - In this region, Transistor operates as an Amplifier.
2. Saturation region: - In this region, transistor is fully ON & OFF operates as
a Switch.
3. Cut-off region: - In this region, transistor is fully off. It acts as open in cutoff
region.

BJT Configurations and Characteristics: -

 BJT is three-terminal device, when transistor is connected in a circuit, one

terminal is Input, other terminal is Output and third terminal is common
to the input and output.
 Based on input, output and common terminal, transistor can be connected
in 3 configurations. They are

1. Common Base (CB) configuration.

2. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration.

3. Common collector (CC) configuration.

Common Base Configuration and its Characteristics:

This is also called Grounded Base configuration. In this emitter is input

terminal, Collector is the output terminal and Base is the common terminal.

NPN PNP

Common Base configuration.

Input Characteristics: -

To determine the input characteristics, the collector-base voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐵 )

is kept as constant and the Emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ) is increased from zero by
increasing 𝑉𝐸𝐵 in suitable equal steps. This is repeated for higher fixed values
of 𝑉𝐶𝐵 . A curve is drawn between 𝐼𝐸 and 𝑉𝐸𝐵 at constant 𝑉𝐶𝐵 .
 When 𝑉𝐶𝐵 =0V, Emitter Base junction is forward biased. It is same as forward
biased diode. So, that 𝐼𝐸 increases rapidly with small increase in emitter base
voltage (𝑉𝐸𝐵 )[Cut in voltage].
 When 𝑉𝐶𝐵 >1V or increases, width of base region will decreases, then emitter
current (𝐼𝐸 ) increases. To get same value of 𝐼𝐸 decrease the 𝑉𝐸𝐵 . So, curve
shifted left towards the left.

Input Characteristics
Output Characteristics: -

To determine output characteristics, the Emitter current is kept

as constant value by adjusting emitter base voltage (𝑉𝐸𝐵 )and then increase
𝑉𝐶𝐵 in suitable equal steps, the collector current 𝐼𝐶 is approximately equal to
𝐼𝐸 . 𝐼𝐶 is independent of 𝑉𝐶𝐵 . This is repeated for higher fixed values of Emitter
current 𝐼𝐸 (mA). A curve is drawn between 𝑉𝐶𝐵 (V) & 𝐼𝐶 (mA) at constant 𝐼𝐸
(mA).

Output Characteristics
Active Region: -
 In Active Region, the Base - Emitter Junction is forward biased and Collector-
base Junction is reverse biased.
 The collector current (𝐼𝐶 ) is equal to emitter current (𝐼𝐸 ). So, input current
(𝐼𝐸 ) increases then output current 𝐼𝐶 also increases ( 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐸 ). It is
independent of 𝑉𝐶𝐵 voltage.
 Saturation Region: -

 In saturation region, the Base-emitter junction 𝑉𝐵𝐸 is forward biased and

collector-base junction is forward biased.
 Both junctions are forward biased, then no collector current (𝐼𝑐 ) flows. So,
𝐼𝐶 = 0mA
∴ 𝑉𝐶𝐵 = −𝑉𝐶𝐵
 Saturation region lies towards left of 𝑉𝐶𝐵 = 𝑂𝑉.
Cut off Region: -
 In this region, both Junctions are reverse biased. Width of depletion region
increases. So, transistor is off condition.
 No current flows, then 𝐼𝐶 = 0𝑚𝐴 and 𝐼𝐸 = 0𝑚𝐴.

Transistor Parameters for CB configuration:

 The slope of the CB configuration will give the following four transistor
parameters. Since, these parameters have different dimensions, they are
commonly known as common base hybrid parameters or h-Parameters.
 a) Input Impedance (𝒉𝐢𝐛 ): It is defined as the ratio of the change in emitter
voltage (input) to the change in emitter current (input) with the collector
voltage (output) kept constant.
△𝐕
 𝒉𝐢𝐛 = △𝐈𝐄𝐁 , 𝐕𝐂𝐁 constant
𝐄
 b) Output Admittance (𝒉𝐨𝐛 ): It is defined as the ratio of the change in
collector current (output) to the corresponding change in collector voltage
(output) with the emitter current (input) kept constant.
△𝐈
 𝒉𝐨𝐛 = △𝐕 𝐂 , 𝐈𝐄 constant
𝐂𝐁
 c) Forward Current Gain (𝒉𝐟𝐛 ): It is defined as the ratio of the change in
collector current (output) to the corresponding change in emitter current
(input) with the collector voltage (output) kept constant.
△𝐈
 𝒉𝐟𝐛 = △𝐈𝐂 , 𝐕𝐂𝐁 constant
𝐄
 d) Reverse Voltage Gain (𝒉𝐫𝐛 ): It is defined as the ratio of the change in
emitter voltage (input) to the corresponding change in collector voltage
(output) with the emitter current (input) kept constant.
△𝐕
 𝒉𝐫𝐛 = △𝐕𝐄𝐁 , 𝐈𝐄 constant
𝐂𝐁
Common - Emitter Junction Configuration:

This is also called Grounded Emitter configuration. In this,

Base is input terminal, Collector is output terminal and Emitter is common
terminal.

Circuit diagram of Common emitter configuration.

Input Characteristics:-

To determine input characteristics, the collector emitter voltage ( 𝑉𝐶𝐸 )

is kept constant, the base current (𝐼𝐵 ) is increased from zero for suitable
equal steps by increasing 𝑉𝐵𝐸 . This procedure is repeated for higher fixed
values of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 . A curve is drawn between 𝑉𝐵𝐸 (V) & 𝐼𝐵 (µA) at constant 𝑉𝐶𝐸 (V).

 Kept 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0V constant, the emitter base junction is forward biased. Hence
the input characteristic is similar to that of a forward-biased diode. Hence 𝐼𝐵
increases rapidly when 𝑉𝐵𝐸 increases in equal steps.
 Kept 𝑉𝐶𝐸 > 0V constant, the width the depletion region at the collector-base
junction will increases Hence the effective width of the base will decrease.
Then base current (𝐼𝐵 )decreases. To get same value of 𝐼𝐵 , at 𝑉𝐶𝐸 = 0V, then
𝑉𝐵𝐸 increases. Therefore, the curve shifts towards the right.

I/P characteristics.
 Output Characteristics:-

To determine output characteristics, the base current (𝐼𝐵 ) is kept

constant by adjusting 𝑉𝐵𝐸 (𝑉). Then the collector emitter voltage (𝑉𝐶𝐸 ) is
increased in equal steps from zero, then collector current ( 𝐼𝐶 ) also increases.
This is repeated for fixed values of (𝐼𝐵 ). A curve is drawn between 𝑉𝐶𝐸 (V) &
𝐼𝐶 (mA) at constant 𝐼𝐵 (µA).

Output characteristics

Active region: -

 The Emitter and Base junction are forward biased and collector base
Junction is reverse biased. When Base current (𝐼𝐵 ) increases, the collector
current ( (𝐼𝐶 ) also increases. (𝐼𝑐 ≅ 𝐼𝐸 )
 With this region, transistor is used to be linear amplifier. It can also be
employed for voltage, current or power amplification.
Saturation Region: -
In this region, both the Base-Emitter and Emitter- Collector
Junctions are forward biased. then (Base current) is increased does not
cause on large change in 𝐼𝐶 (mA). The ratio of 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑠𝑎𝑡 to 𝐼𝐶 in this region is
called Saturation resistance. If the base current is driven large and positive,
the transistor switches into saturation region via active region. In this ON
condition large collector current flows and collector voltage falls to low value,
called 𝑉𝐶𝐸 𝑠𝑎𝑡 . Then transistor is short circuit in this region.

Cut-off Region: -
In this region, both junctions are reverse biased, then the transistor
enters in to cut-off region, the transistor is OFF, means transistor is open
circuit between Emitter and Collector.
Transistor Parameters for CE configuration:

The slope of the CB configuration will give the following four transistor
parameters. Since, these parameters have different dimensions, they are
commonly known as common base hybrid parameters or h-Parameters.
a) Input Impedance (𝒉𝐢𝐞 ): It is defined as the ratio of the change in base voltage
(input) to the change in base current (input) with the collector voltage
(output) kept constant.
△ 𝐕𝐁𝐄
𝒉𝐢𝐞 = , 𝐕 constant
△ 𝐈𝐁 𝐂𝐄
b) Output Admittance (𝒉𝐨𝐞 ): It is defined as the ratio of the change in collector
current (output) to the corresponding change in collector voltage (output)
with the base current (input) kept constant.
△ 𝐈𝐂
𝒉𝐨𝐞 = , 𝐈 constant
△ 𝐕𝐂𝐄 𝐁
c) Forward Current Gain (𝒉𝐟𝐞 ): It is defined as the ratio of the change in
collector current (output) to the corresponding change in base current (input)
with the collector voltage (output) kept constant.
△ 𝐈𝐂
𝒉𝐟𝐞 = , 𝐕 constant
△ 𝐈𝐁 𝐂𝐄
d) Reverse Voltage Gain (𝒉𝐫𝐞 ): It is defined as the ratio of the change in base
voltage (input) to the corresponding change in collector voltage (output) with
the base current (input) kept constant.
△ 𝐕𝐁𝐄
𝒉𝐫𝐞 = , 𝐈 constant
△ 𝐕𝐂𝐄 𝐁

Common Collector (CC) Configuration:

This is grounded collector configuration. In this Base is input
terminal, Emitter is Output terminal and Collector is common terminal.
 It is used for impedance matching purposes as it has high input impedance
and low output impedance.

Common Collector Configuration circuit diagram

Input Characteristics: -

To determine input characteristics,(𝑉𝐸𝐶 ) is kept constant. The

base collector voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐶 ) is changes corresponding to increase in base
current (𝐼𝐵 ). This is repeated for different values of (𝑉𝐸𝐶 ).

Input characteristics of CC configuration

Output characteristics:
The Common Collector characteristics are same as Common
Emitter output characteristics. It is the graph between outputs Current IE to
output Voltage VCE for a range values of input current IB. The Emitter current
is taken along Y-axis and Collector- Emitter voltage is taken along X- the
axis.
To determine the output characteristics, the Base current IB is kept
constant at a suitable value. The Emitter Collector Voltage is increased in
suitable equal steps and the corresponding increasing in IE noted. This is
repeated for different fixed values of IB. The output characteristics of
Common Collector BJT configuration is thus obtained as shown in fig.

Output Characteristics of CC configuration

Comparison of CB, CE and CC configuration:

Characteristics of transistor configurations: -

Characteristics CB CE CC
Power gain Low Very high Medium
Current gain Low Medium High.
Voltage gain High Medium Low
Phase angle. 0 180∘ 0
o/p Impedance. Very high High Low.
I/p Impedance. Low Medium High.

Applications of BJT:

1. BJT is used as switch,

2. BJT is used as amplifier.
3. BJT is used as filter.
4. BJT is used as oscillator
5. BJT used as detector called as demodulator
6. BJT is used in clipping circuits so, that waves can be shaped
7. BJT is used as logic Circuits & Switching circuits

Operating point:
 The operating point is a point where the transistor can be operated
efficiently.
 A line that is drawn with the values VCC (when IC = 0) & IC (when VCE = 0) is
called as dc load line.
 The dc load line superimposed on the output characteristic of a transistor is
used to learn the Operating point of the transistor as shown fig. 1.
 Points P, Q, R in the above figure are called Q point or quiescent points which
determines the "operating point" (d) the working point of transistor.

Fig. 1 Output characteristics of a transistor in CE mode with dc load line

 If the Operating point chosen at the middle of the dc load line (point Q), the
transistor can effectively work as an amplifier.
 The operating point determines the maximum signal that can be obtained
without being distorted.
 For a transistor to work as a open Switch, the Q point can be chosen at the
cut off region.
 To work as closed switch, Q point can be chosen in saturation region.

Small Signal CE Amplifier:

The term small signal refers to relatively small excursions about
the DC operating point Q. The common emitter amplifier circuit is shown in
figure. It consists of voltage divider biasing, used to supply the base bias
voltage as per the necessity. The voltage divider biasing has a potential
divider with two resistors are connected in a way that the midpoint is used
for supplying base bias voltage. There are different types of electronic
components in the common emitter amplifier which are R1 resistor is used
for the forward bias, the R2 resistor is used for the development of bias, the
RL resistor is used at the output it is called the load resistance.

Circuit for Common emitter small signal amplifier.

 The RE resistor is used for thermal stability. The C1 capacitor is used to
separate the AC signals from the DC biasing voltage and the capacitor is
known as the coupling capacitor. The above figure shows that the bias
VS gain common emitter amplifier transistor characteristics if the R2 resistor
increases then there is an increase in the forward bias and R1 & bias are
inversely proportional to each other. The alternating current is applied to the
base of the transistor of the common emitter amplifier circuit then there is a
flow of small base current. Hence there is a large amount of current flow
through the collector with the help of the RC resistance. The voltage near the
resistance RC will change because the value is very high and the values are
from 4 to 10kohm. Hence there is a huge amount of current present in the
collector circuit which amplified from the weak signal, therefore common
emitter transistors work as an amplifier circuit.

Voltage Gain of Common Emitter Amplifier

The current gain of the common emitter amplifier is defined
as the ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current. The
voltage gain is defined as the product of the current gain and the ratio of the
output resistance of the collector to the input resistance of the base circuits.
The following equations show the mathematical expression of the voltage
gain and the current gain.

Circuit Elements and their Functions

The common emitter amplifier circuit elements and their
functions are discussed below.

Biasing Circuit/ Voltage Divider:

The resistances R1, R2, and RE used to form the voltage
biasing and stabilization circuit. The biasing circuit needs to establish a
proper operating Q-point otherwise; a part of the negative half cycle of the
signal may be cut-off in the output.

Input Capacitor (C1):

The capacitor C1 is used to couple the signal to the base
terminal of the BJT. If it is not there, the signal source resistance, Rs will
come across R2, and hence, it will change the bias. C1 allows only the AC
signal to flow but isolates the signal source from R2

Emitter Bypass Capacitor (CE):

An Emitter bypass capacitor CE is used parallel with R E to
provide a low reactance path to the amplified AC signal. If it is not used, then
the amplified AC signal following through RE will cause a voltage drop across
it, thereby dropping the output voltage.

Coupling Capacitor (C2):

The coupling capacitor C2 couples one stage of amplification
to the next stage. This technique used to isolate the DC bias settings of the
two coupled circuits.