CLINA

Vol. 9-1, 135-158

June 2023
eISSN: 2444-1961
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14201/clina202391135158

When Terms Become Neologisms:

A Contribution to the Study of
Neology from the Perspective of
Determinologisation
Cuando los términos se convierten en neologismos: una
contribución al estudio de la neología desde la perspectiva
de la determinologización
Julie Humbert-Droz
Centre de recherche en linguistique appliquée
Université Lumière Lyon 2
[email protected]

Abstract: This paper deals with the issues of determinologisation and neology.
Even though many existing studies focus on the description of the many aspects of
neology, few studies address the relation between determinologisation and neology.
For this reason, this paper proposes a different perspective on neological processes,
based on an analysis of terms in a corpus that represents different stages of the
determinologisation process in particle physics, in French. First, the main semantic
phenomena occurring in the determinologisation process are described; then, the terms
that acquire new metaphorical meanings in general press are discussed in more detail.
Results show that a finer description of the semantic phenomena at stake can lead to
a better understanding of the mechanisms allowing for the creation of neologisms in
general language.

Keywords: neology; neological processes; determinologisation; corpus linguistics;

semantic shifts.

Julie Humbert-Droz CLINA

When terms become neologisms: vol. 9-1, June 2023, 135-158
A contribution to the study of neology from the eISSN: 2444-1961
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135
 Resumen: Este artículo examina las cuestiones de la desterminologización y la
neología. Aunque son numerosos los estudios que, desde múltiples perspectivas, se
han dedicado a la descripción de la neología, pocos han analizado la relación entre los
citados fenómenos. Por esta razón, este artículo adopta un enfoque diferente de los
procesos neológicos, basado en el análisis de los términos del ámbito de la Física de
partículas a partir de un corpus francés que representa diversas etapas del proceso
de desterminologización. En primer lugar, se describen los principales fenómenos
semánticos que tienen lugar cuando los términos se desterminologizan; a continuación,
se analizan con mayor detalle los términos que adquieren un significado metafórico en
la prensa generalista. Los resultados muestran que una descripción más precisa de los
fenómenos semánticos que caracterizan la desterminologización permite comprender
mejor los mecanismos que subyacen a la creación de neologismos en lengua general.

Palabras clave: neología; procesos neológicos; desterminologización; lingüística de

corpus; cambio semántico.

1. INTRODUCTION

The field of neology is characterised by a wide range of studies that focus on its
numerous aspects, such as automatic detection of neologisms (e.g. Sablayrolles, 2012;
Renouf, 2014; Cartier, 2016; Gérard et al., 2016; Torres Rivera, 2019; Drouin, 2021),
neological intuition or neological perception of new lexical units (e.g. Vega Moreno and
Llopart-Saumell, 2017; Bernal et al., 2020; Lombard et al., 2021; Sánchez Ibáñez and
Maroto, 2021), classification of neologisms and neological processes (Sablayrolles,
2011; Renouf, 2012; Reutenauer, 2012b; Díaz Hormigo, 2020; Cabré et al., 2021). How-
ever, neologisms created from terms are not always described in these classifications.
In most cases, they are considered from the perspective of semantic neology, as lexical
units that acquire a new, often metaphorical meaning (Reutenauer, 2012b; Sablayrolles,
2018; Lombard et al., 2021), and their terminological status is rarely taken into account.
At the same time, the process by which terms enter general language and the
changes that result from this are addressed in studies of determinologisation (e.g. Mey-
er and Mackintosh, 2000; Ungureanu, 2006; Dury, 2008; Renouf, 2017). These studies
mostly focus on the semantic changes that are likely to occur when terms are used by
laypeople and on their consequences for terminology and specialised language, e.g.
for the description of terms in terminological resources as in Meyer (2000) or L’Homme
(2020: 80-118). In this case, while terms are indeed recognised as new lexical units in
general language, few studies specifically focus on the relation between neology and
determinologisation (e.g. Renouf, 2017).
For this reason, this paper deals with both determinologisation and neology. In
particular, it aims to show how studying determinologisation as a process can give
new insights into the field of neology, especially when it comes to semantic neologisms

Julie Humbert-Droz CLINA

When terms become neologisms: vol. 9-1, June 2023, 135-158
A contribution to the study of neology from the eISSN: 2444-1961
perspective of determinologisation Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca - cc by-nc-sa

136
created from terms. It will show that a finer description of the semantic phenomena
at stake in the determinologisation process can lead to a better understanding of the
semantic mechanisms allowing for the creation of neologisms in general language.
Following the works of Sablayrolles (2018) or Díaz Hormigo (2020) for example, this
paper aims to take part in a discussion on the role of determinologisation in neological
processes. The discussion is based on an analysis of terms from the domain of particle
physics in a corpus composed of texts from different genres and levels of specialisa-
tion, which were assembled in a view to representing different stages of determinolo-
gisation in French.
This paper is structured as follows: section 2 provides some theoretical background
by defining the concept of determinologisation and by reviewing the main points of view
on the neologicity of terms in general language. Section 3 describes the corpus exploit-
ed for this study and the tool-based methodology that was adopted. Section 4 focuses
on the main results: section 4.1 addresses the different types of semantic phenomena
that result from determinologisation and that are observed in the corpus. Section 4.2
discusses the metaphorical uses of terms in more detail and specifically focuses on the
role of determinologisation in the emergence of semantic neologisms based on such
metaphorical uses. Finally, section 5 outlines some concluding remarks and proposes
some perspectives.

2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

2.1. Determinologisation
Determinologisation designates the movement of terms from specialised language
to general language (Guilbert, 1975; Meyer and Mackintosh, 2000; Ungureanu, 2006)1.
More precisely, it refers to two aspects of this movement: the process by which terms
reach general language and the result of this process, i.e. the use of terms in general
language (Humbert-Droz, 2021).
The process is characterised by two dimensions. The first one refers to the fact that
terms do not enter general language from specialised language directly. On the con-
trary, they are progressively transferred from specialists to laypeople through various
means, which I call intermediaries. There are different types of intermediaries, the most

1. Determinologisation is closely related to another phenomenon, conceptualised by Ga-

lisson (1978, 1979) and called banalisation lexicale in French. Though banalisation tends to be
used now to designate the movement of terms from specialised language to general language,
this usage differs to some extent from the way the concept was first introduced by Galisson.
One major difference between banalisation and determinologisation stems from the fact that the
former characterises a set of lexical items used by semi-expert speakers, whereas the latter con-
cerns terms used by non-expert speakers. See Humbert-Droz (2021: 53-56) for further details
on the distinction.

Julie Humbert-Droz CLINA

When terms become neologisms: vol. 9-1, June 2023, 135-158
A contribution to the study of neology from the eISSN: 2444-1961
perspective of determinologisation Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca - cc by-nc-sa

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common (and the most well-known) being popularisation2 and general media (e.g.
Cabré, 1994; Pearson, 1998; Moirand, 2007). However, other semi-specialised genres,
such as reports and press releases, can be relevant, as they contribute to knowledge
transfer (e.g. Beacco et al., 2002; Nicolae and Delavigne, 2013; Condamines and Pic-
ton, 2014). In fact, many more intermediaries can play a role in determinologisation, as
long as they participate in term circulation: social media, fictional works such as movies
and novels, podcasts, etc. The second dimension refers to the fact that determinologi-
sation takes place over time (Dury, 2008; Renouf, 2017).
When terms enter general language, different types of semantic changes are likely
to occur. Three main types of such changes are usually described: the appearance of a
shallower meaning in general language, the emergence of metaphorical and metonym-
ic uses of terms, and the creation of word play (Meyer and Mackintosh, 2000; Con-
damines and Picton, 2014; Renouf, 2017). That being said, subtler and more diverse
changes can also be observed in the use of terms in non-specialised texts (see 4.1).
At the same time, determinologisation raises issues concerning the neological sta-
tus of terms in general language. This is reviewed in section 2.2.

2.2. Neologicity of terms in general language

When terms appear in general language, they may be perceived by laypeople as
new lexical items. As a result, they behave like any other neologisms (e.g. Sablayrolles,
2018; Díaz Hormigo, 2020). Three main points of view on the neologicity of terms in
general language can be identified and will be detailed here. Neologicity is broadly
defined as the neological nature of a lexical unit, or its perceived novelty. It is a variable
and quantifiable feature of any neologism, which highly depends on the communicative
setting (Bernal et al., 2020: 47).

2.2.1. Neologicity of terms from a formal and semantic perspective

A first point of view on terms and their use in general language consists in con-
sidering them as neologisms both from a formal and from a semantic perspective. In

2. At this point, the status of science popularisation should be clarified. Though both deter-
minologisation and popularisation describe processes related to the transfer of terms and knowle-
dge into general language, one main feature differences them. As defined by Jacobi (1986: 71),
Mortureux (1988: 118-120) or Delavigne (2001: 81), among others, the popularisation of scientific
discourse aims not only at transferring knowledge but also at ensuring knowledge appropriation by
non-experts. This is achieved by using many reformulation and explanation mechanisms. Populari-
sation is therefore a conscious process, whereas determinologisation is a rather unconscious pro-
cess (Condamines and Picton, 2014: 168). Nevertheless, popularisation text genres do play a role
in the determinologisation process, as they contribute to making terms accessible to non-expert
speakers. This is why popularisation texts are considered as intermediaries in the determinologisa-
tion process. See Humbert-Droz (2021: 296-298) for a thorough discussion of these aspects.

Julie Humbert-Droz CLINA

When terms become neologisms: vol. 9-1, June 2023, 135-158
A contribution to the study of neology from the eISSN: 2444-1961
perspective of determinologisation Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca - cc by-nc-sa

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this case, the appearance of a term in general language is thought to be similar to the
appearance of a new lexical unit in a language. In particular, it is argued that both a
new lexical unit and a term recently integrated in general language create a comparable
sense of novelty, or as it is sometimes called, neological intuition (Lombard et al., 2021),
or sentiment néologique in French (Gardin et al., 1974).
Different authors agree on these similarities. For example, Guilbert explains that
when a term enters general language, «a change of neological nature is produced in
the general vocabulary» (Guilbert, 1975: 80; my translation). For Sablayrolles, it is clear
that the «migration [of a term] from a specialised domain to general language» gives
this term «a neological status» (Sablayrolles, 2018: 35; my translation). This idea is
also widely shared by Spanish-speaking researchers, who consider that the transfer of
terms in general language takes part in lexical renewal (e.g. Adelstein, 1996; Cañete et
al., 2016; Vega Moreno and Llopart-Saumell, 2017; Díaz Hormigo, 2020).
These authors also agree that the media, and particularly the general interest press,
largely contribute to the spread of neologisms – including terms – in a language. For
instance, Reutenauer explains that «journalistic discourse tends to reflect neologisms
that are being disseminated or to contribute to their rather widespread dissemination»
(Reutenauer, 2012b: 47; my translation).
Besides, terms – like any other neologism – are not always perceived as new lexical
units in general language to the same extent. Indeed, the neologicity of a term highly
depends on the degree of expertise of speakers in a given domain (Estopà, 2016: 115).
Nevertheless, the fact that a term that used to be confined to a specialised language
enters general language perfectly corresponds to the definition of neologism, as a «new
linguistic sign with simultaneous appearance of a new signifier and a new signified»
(Sablayrolles, 2012: 38; my translation).
This point of view appears to be the most consensual in the literature. However,
two other complementary points of view exist; they are described in the next section.

2.2.2. Terms as semantic neologisms in general language

The second and third points of view on the neologicity of terms in general language
concern semantic aspects. When terms are used in general language by non-experts,
their meanings always differ to some extent from the meanings they convey in spe-
cialised contexts (e.g. Adelstein, 1996; Pearson, 1998; Meyer and Mackintosh, 2000;
Ungureanu, 2006; Delavigne, 2020). For instance, Béjoint (1988: 362) explains that
«when scientific and technical words have become fairly common in non-specialized
use (i.e. when they have moved down our scale), they tend to be used with slightly
different meanings all the time».
The second point of view comprises rather slight differences whereas the third one
encompasses deeper differences, often associated with the emergence of entirely new
metaphorical or metonymic meanings. In the former case, researchers consider even

Julie Humbert-Droz CLINA

When terms become neologisms: vol. 9-1, June 2023, 135-158
A contribution to the study of neology from the eISSN: 2444-1961
perspective of determinologisation Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca - cc by-nc-sa

139
the slightest changes as neological. In fact, according to Guilbert (1973: 22-23), given
that these changes occur when terms reach a more diversified speech community with
a lower level of expertise, they correspond to a sociological type of semantic neology.
However, this point of view is not the most widespread in studies of neology, by
far. When it comes to semantic neology and terms in general language, deeper shifts
(mostly metaphorical) are addressed much more frequently (e.g. Meyer and Mackin-
tosh, 2000: 130; Renouf, 2017: 26). They constitute the third point of view that I would
like to describe in this section.
Figures of speech are productive semantic processes, whether the neologisms
are created from terms that have migrated into general language or from other lexical
units (e.g. Sablayrolles, 2011; Renouf, 2012; Lombard et al., 2021). For instance, Sa-
blayrolles (2011) proposes a detailed classification of semantic processes based on
figures of speech, which not only includes metaphor and metonymy but also paradox,
understatement or even antonomasia. That being said, it seems that semantic neol-
ogisms based on metaphors are still one of the most well-known types of semantic
neologisms, especially when they derive from terms. This is illustrated for example by
the Dictionnaire de linguistique, which states that «metaphors play a great role in lexical
innovation […]. In particular, metaphorical shifts are common in the evolution resulting
from the transfer of terms to the general vocabulary […]» (Dubois et al., 2002: 302; my
translation).
Therefore, it seems that when neological studies focus on metaphorical uses of
terms in general language, they most often concentrate on stabilised or well-estab-
lished metaphorical shifts. For instance, Renouf (2017) investigates semantic shifts that
are stable enough to be detected in a large journalistic corpus. She gives the examples
of the verb to downsize, which appears numerous times in her corpus between 1999
and 2013 with the same metaphorical meaning, namely «to move to a smaller house
once retired» (Renouf, 2017: 36). However, as section 4.2.2 will show, some research-
ers focus on the early phase of emergence of semantic neologisms (e.g. Reutenauer
2012a), even though much less frequently.

3. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

As mentioned in the introduction, this paper relies on a corpus-based analysis of

terms in the field of particle physics in French. The corpus and the methodology that I
adopted are described in this section.

3.1. Description of the corpus

The corpus used for this study was compiled in the context of a broader research
project with the aim of providing a dataset to observe the behaviour of terms in the
determinologisation process in the field of particle physics (Humbert-Droz et al., 2019).

Julie Humbert-Droz CLINA

When terms become neologisms: vol. 9-1, June 2023, 135-158
A contribution to the study of neology from the eISSN: 2444-1961
perspective of determinologisation Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca - cc by-nc-sa

140
It is composed of five sub-corpora that are meant to represent different stages of de-
terminologisation. This is achieved by selecting data that account for the diversity of
genres and levels of specialisation of the texts involved in the process. More precisely,
the corpus is composed of:
– a Specialised sub-corpus, which contains articles published in the French research
journal Reflets de la physique and doctoral theses from French universities that are
freely accessible online;
– a Press releases (abbreviated PR) sub-corpus, which comprises press releases
from two major actors of particle physics research in French-speaking countries,
i.e. CNRS3 in France and CERN4 in Switzerland;
– a Reports sub-corpus, which contains annual reports from different laboratories
undertaking research in particle physics (CERN, LPSC5 and LAL6);
– a Science popularisation (abbreviated SPop) sub-corpus, which contains articles
published in science popularisation journals (Élémentaire, La Recherche, Pour la
Science) and websites (CERN for the general public and LHC-France);
– a Press sub-corpus, which comprises general press articles taken from French and
Swiss newspapers (Le Temps, Le Monde, Les Échos, Le Figaro).

The progression from specialised (Specialised sub-corpus) to semi-specialised

(PR, Reports and SPop sub-corpora) and to non-specialised (Press sub-corpus) is
meant for the corpus to reflect the continuum between specialised language and gen-
eral language. The period covered by the corpus extends from 2003 to 2016. This pe-
riod was selected so that it would include two major events that occurred in the field of
particle physics in recent years: the launch of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in 2008
at CERN and the discovery of the Higgs boson in 2012, also at CERN. The underlying
hypothesis states that, since these events are likely to be extensively covered by the
media (as any important scientific event (Moirand, 2007: 64)), the terms used to relate
them are likely to be spread by the media as well. As a result, linguistic changes due
to the spread of these terms are likely to appear in texts published after the events
occurred. For comparison purposes, texts published before the events occurred were
also considered.
The total word count of the corpus is slightly above 4 million words. Table 3.1 illus-
trates the size of each sub-corpus.

3. Centre national de la recherche scientifique (https://www.cnrs.fr/fr/page-daccueil, last

access: 5 June 2022).
4. Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire https://home.cern/fr, last access:
5 June 2022).
5. Laboratoire de Physique Subatomique & Cosmologie (https://lpsc.in2p3.fr/index.php/
fr/, last access: 5 June 2022).
6. Laboratoire de l’Accélérateur linéraire (https://www.lal.in2p3.fr/, last access: 5 June
2022).

Julie Humbert-Droz CLINA

When terms become neologisms: vol. 9-1, June 2023, 135-158
A contribution to the study of neology from the eISSN: 2444-1961
perspective of determinologisation Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca - cc by-nc-sa

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 Sub-corpus Number of occurrences
Specialised 994,875
Press releases 210,320
Reports 1,141,873
Science popularisation 620,045
Press 1,098,708
Total 4,065,821

Table 3.1: Size of the corpus

3.2. Tools and methodology

The methodology is based on Textual Terminology (Bourigault and Slodzian, 1999;
Picton, 2011; Condamines, 2018), and adheres to four main principles7:
– the analysis is performed on a corpus whose compilation is determined by the
research purpose;
– terms are the starting points for the analysis, and the observation of their distribu-
tional contexts is central to the approach;
– the analysis relies on the results provided by corpus-processing tools, whose use
is conditioned by their relevance for the research purpose;
– domain experts are involved at every stage of the analysis.

A contrastive point of view is usually adopted and the analysis is most often per-
formed by comparing corpora or sub-corpora. Several tools are used to ensure that the
analysis is systematic and reproducible, e.g. concordancers, term extractors, morpho-
syntactic taggers. For this study, I mainly relied on AntConc (Anthony, 2018) to observe
the distributional contexts of terms and to identify significant differences between the
sub-corpora. Terms were automatically extracted with TermoStat (Drouin, 2003), and a
relevant sample was selected in collaboration with domain experts.
The analysis was carried out in two main steps. First, the Specialised and Press
sub-corpora were compared to identify distributional differences that can be interpret-
ed in relation to determinologisation. Second, these differences were explored in the
PR, Reports and SPop sub-corpora to focus more particularly on the intermediate
stages of the process. These aspects will be detailed in section 4.1.

7. See Condamines and Picton (2022) for further details.

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4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this section, I first present an overview of the main changes that occur in the use
of terms in the determinologisation process. Then, I focus on the mechanisms that lead
to new metaphorical meanings and on how the analysis of determinologisation as a
process allows for a better grasp on these mechanisms.

4.1. Overview of semantic phenomena occurring in the

determinologisation process
The analysis reveals a broad range of phenomena concerning the uses of terms
and the ways in which they differ in the Press sub-corpus when compared to the
Specialised sub-corpus. These phenomena appear to be much more diverse than the
ones usually described in the literature on determinologisation (see 2.1) and refer to
considerably less clear-cut semantic distinctions. In addition, only a minority of these
phenomena originate in the Press sub-corpus. The vast majority of them are indeed
attested in at least one of the intermediate sub-corpora.

4.1.1. Coexistence of different points of view

The first category of phenomena relates to the coexistence of different points of
view regarding terms and concepts. This category was identified through the obser-
vation of the recurring co-occurrence of particle physics terms with terms from other
subject fields, such as astronomy and medicine. Evidence from the corpus suggests at
least three types of contexts and possible interpretations.

Contexts showing research interdisciplinarity

In this type of context, the co-occurrence of particle physics terms with terms that
refer to other domains highlights the fact that research in one domain usually requires
expertise from other domains, or that researchers from different domains collaborate
on certain projects. The examples below offer evidence of such interdisciplinarity in the
Press sub-corpus (the terms under study are in bold and the terms from other domains
are in italics).

1. Le but premier d’OGLE, dont le télescope est installé à l’observatoire de Las Cam-
panas au Chili, est la recherche de matière noire (Press sub-corpus)

2. un volumineux détecteur d’antimatière, qui attend son tour depuis des années, va
enfin prendre place dans le dernier vol de navette. (Press sub-corpus)

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When terms become neologisms: vol. 9-1, June 2023, 135-158
A contribution to the study of neology from the eISSN: 2444-1961
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 These two examples show that the terms matière noire (dark matter) and anti-
matière (antimatter) occur in contexts that imply the field of astronomy. Terms such
as observatoire (observatory), télescope (telescope) and navette (shuttle) are indeed
associated with this field. These contexts also suggest that searching for dark matter
(example 1) and studying antimatter (example 2) require instruments that are usually
associated with research in astronomy.
Nuclear power and medicine were identified in similar contexts in the Press sub-cor-
pus, and the strong interdisciplinarity of research in particle physics and these three
fields was confirmed by domain experts.

Contexts showing the benefits of research in particle physics for other fields
The second type of context illustrates the many ways in which research in particle
physics may benefit other fields. While this type of contexts appears to be similar to the
first one, the main difference concerns the fact that the relationship between particle
physics and the other domains is made explicit by the use of markers8 such as utiliser
(to use, examples 3 and 5), faire appel à (to call for, to require, example 3), and dédié à
(dedicated to, example 4). Markers are underlined in the examples.

3. La radiothérapie classique utilise des photons (des «particules» de lumière), alors

que la protonthérapie fait appel à des protons, autrement dit des noyaux d’hydro-
gène. (Press sub-corpus)

4. Mais que va devenir l’accélérateur de particules du Louvre, Aglae, dédié à la

recherche sur les œuvres d’art (Press sub-corpus)

5. Cette technologie très innovante consiste à utiliser un accélérateur de particules

pour produire les neutrons qui déclenchent les réactions de fission dans le com-
bustible nucléaire. (Press sub-corpus)

In example 3, the markers indicate the usefulness of certain concepts of particle

physics (photons and protons, which are two types of particles) for two medical im-
aging techniques, namely radiotherapy and proton therapy. In example 4, the marker
indicates the use of one specific particle accelerator to perform research on works of
art, which is highlighted by the units Louvre (the famous museum in Paris) and œuvre
d’art (work of art). Example 5 illustrates the use of a particle accelerator in the field of
nuclear power.

8. Following the works of Meyer on knowledge-rich contexts, markers can be defined as

linguistic elements that signal «items of domain knowledge that could be useful for conceptual
analysis» (Meyer, 2001: 281) in corpora. Even though markers can indicate any type of informa-
tion that is relevant given one research purpose, in this section, I focus on markers of usefulness.
See Condamines et al. (2021) for further details.

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When terms become neologisms: vol. 9-1, June 2023, 135-158
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 At this point, it should be emphasised that, while the examples above were all
taken from the Press sub-corpus, this does not mean that the phenomena in question
are not observable in the intermediate sub-corpora. In fact, evidence of interdisciplina-
rity and usefulness is also found in the Reports and SPop sub-corpora. For example,
in the former, such evidence is observed in contexts that highlight the contribution of
particle physics to medical imaging or that show explicit collaboration. The elements
allowing this interpretation are underlined in the examples below. Example 6 focuses on
applications in medical imaging and example 7 shows interdisciplinary collaboration in
a research team that brings together experts in physics and in medicine.

6. Des détecteurs conçus pour la physique des hautes énergies ont été adaptés
pour des applications en imagerie médicale, notamment en tomographie par émis-
sion de positons (TEP). (Reports sub-corpus)

7. Ainsi, la tomographie par émission de positons (TEP) fait l’objet depuis six ans de
recherches au sein de l’équipe Interface Physique-Médecine. (Reports sub-corpus)

The observation of the phenomena identified in the Press sub-corpus in at least

one of the intermediate sub-corpora highlights the fact that when terms are trans-
ferred to general language, they experience progressive changes in their uses. In other
words, terms reach general language through various types of intermediaries, such as
those represented in the intermediate sub-corpora. Their uses begin to change in the
intermediaries and continue to change, first in the general press and later in everyday
language.

Contexts showing the centrality of a term in different fields

The third type concerns contexts that refer to other domains, such as astronomy
or nuclear power. However, because no evidence of interdisciplinarity or markers of
usefulness are observed, these contexts point to the fact that different fields can focus
on the same research objects. In other words, certain terms can be central to different
domains. In this case, example 8 refers to astronomy and example 9 refers to nuclear
power, with no explicit reference to particle physics in either context.

8. Dans le Soleil, photons et neutrinos sont créés au cours des réactions nucléaires
qui ont lieu au cœur de notre astre. (Press sub-corpus)

9. En permanence, la fission d’un noyau d’uranium dégage un neutron qui part

lui-même casser un autre noyau de combustible. (Press sub-corpus)

To sum up, these three types of contexts suggest that certain terms from the field
of particle physics are likely to be used in other fields as well (e.g. astronomy, medicine,
nuclear power, arts/museums) and thus to appear in texts produced by experts of
these fields. In this case, each field tends to have its own point of view on terms and

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concepts (L’Homme, 2004: 43-44). As a result, the uses of these terms in the Press
sub-corpus are likely to reflect the different points of view associated with each field
– and not only the points of view of particle physics. In the data, they translate into
distributional differences that are identified when the sub-corpora are compared to the
Specialised sub-corpus.
For instance, in the case of the term proton, example 3 highlights the perspective
of medical imaging. It is reasonable to assume that this perspective can differ to some
extent from the perspective of particle physics, given that in medical imaging protons
are exploited in cancer treatment whereas in particle physics they are used to create
collisions and disintegrations to study other types of particles. These points of view are
obviously not incompatible, but they correspond to two different research fields, which
focus on different sets of characteristics for the same concept. That being said, their
coexistence in non-specialised texts can be responsible for some of the differences in
meaning that result from determinologisation. In other words, it seems that the mean-
ing of a term that is conveyed in general language (or in non-specialised texts as is the
case in this study) is not necessarily constructed from one domain that is taken as the
«starting point» of determinologisation, but most likely from all the domains in which
these terms are used.

4.1.2. Influence of contexts dealing with fictional works

Another important distributional difference between the Press and Specialised
sub-corpora is the repeated occurrence of terms in contexts that refer to fictional
works, especially those that fall under the notion of fiction à substrat professionnel
(FASP), i.e. those with a strong professional component, in this case scientific (Petit,
1999; Fries and Nallet, 2022). Unlike the previous phenomenon, it is only observed in
the Press sub-corpus and not in the intermediate sub-corpora. In the examples below,
the references to fictional works are evidenced by the units roman (novel), méchant
(villain) (example 10) and scène (scene), tourner (to shoot), film (movie) (example 11),
which suggest that the contexts are about a novel and a movie respectively.

10. Le méchant du roman veut voler de l’antimatière pour fabriquer une bombe.
(Press sub-corpus)

11. A découvrir les premières scènes, précisément tournées au CERN avec la bén-
édiction de sa direction, on ne donne pourtant pas cher du film. (Press sub-corpus)

These contexts reflect the diversity of the topics addressed in general interest
newspaper. Yet, because such uses of terms are attested, they also contribute to the
meanings of terms that are conveyed in non-specialised situations and ultimately to
more permanent changes resulting from determinologisation. For instance, example 10
highlights the possibility of making a bomb with antimatter, though in a fictional context.

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If such contexts are recurrent, they may contribute to a common representation or
understanding of antimatter being dangerous. Indeed, several contexts hinting at such
representations are observed in the Press sub-corpus, as examples 12 and 13 show.
Example 12 makes the idea of danger explicit with the phrase bombe à antimatière
(antimatter bomb) and example 13 with the phrase explosion d’antimatière (antimatter
explosion), in which bomb is implied.

12. Et, dès le 22 décembre 2012, il faudra affronter de nouvelle menaces: l’astéroïde
censé percuter la Terre en 2036, la fusion de l’homme et de la machine (estimation:
2045), la bombe à antimatière. (Press sub-corpus)

13. Vous imaginez vous retrouver au cœur d’une explosion d’antimatière? (Press
sub-corpus)

4.1.3. Contexts suggesting the notion of sensationalism

One important feature that characterises terms’ distributional contexts in the Press
sub-corpus is the recurrence of lexical units that refer to the notion of sensationalism.
Sensationalism can be defined here as a set of journalistic practices that tend to exploit
the spectacular or gruesome aspects of certain pieces of information to capture the
readers’ attention (Tannenbaum and Lynch, 1960; Villedieu, 1996; Labasse, 2012). It
can be observed in many ways. For instance, some news – especially scientific news
– is reported in a style that makes extensive use of lexical units and phrases to elicit an
emotional response. In the Press sub-corpus, two groups of such units that frequently
co-occur with particle physics terms are identified:
– units that evoke extraordinary or incredible aspects of certain concepts of particle
physics,
– units that evoke mysterious, enigmatic or secret aspects of these concepts.

Examples 14 and 15 illustrate the first group; examples 16 and 17 the second. As
for the previous examples, the terms under study are in bold and the units are in italics.

14. En juillet, dans l’anneau de 27 km du LHC, les scientifiques ont lancé les uns contre
les autres des paquets de particules (protons) et avec une énergie faramineuse
(3,5 TeV). (Press sub-corpus)

15. Elles auront lieu quatre fois par tour, au sein d’énormes détecteurs capables de re-
connaître chacune des particules élémentaires ainsi libérées. (Press sub-corpus)

16. En brisant des particules, les physiciens espèrent enfin capter l’empreinte du fan-
tomatique boson de Higgs. (Press sub-corpus)

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17. Le secret de la matière noire sera peut-être levé cet été, grâce à un instrument lan-
cé par un des derniers vols d’une navette spatiale américaine. (Press sub-corpus)

Two remarks can be made. On the one hand, this recurring co-occurrence con-
tributes to the addition of connotations to the meanings of terms that are conveyed in
the Press sub-corpus. For example, the term matière noire is regularly modified by the
adjectives secret, mystérieux (mysterious), inconnu (unknown). As these collocations
become common in general language, or at least in general interest newspaper, the
meaning of matière noire can become associated with an idea of mystery or of some-
thing that is unknown. These aspects will be further elaborated below.
On the other hand, although sensationalism is usually associated with newswriting
and the media in general, this feature can be observed in non-journalistic genres as
well. For instance, contexts that are similar to those observed in the Press sub-corpus
were also found in the intermediate sub-corpora. What is more, some contexts attest-
ed in newspaper articles were faithfully reproduced from press releases, which appears
to be standard practice, as Dempster et al. (2022) point out. This is illustrated by the
following identical excerpts.

18. «C’est une formidable nouvelle, le début d’une ère fantastique de physique et, es-
pérons-le de découvertes, après 20 ans d’efforts de la communauté internationale
[…] (Press sub-corpus)

19. «C’est une formidable nouvelle, le début d’une ère fantastique de physique et, es-
pérons-le de découvertes, après 20 ans d’efforts de la communauté internationale
[…] (PR sub-corpus)

Once again, it can be noted that these contexts highlight the interest of considering
determinologisation as a process rather than as a result, especially when it comes to
meaning change. Indeed, based on the contexts illustrated in examples 18 and 19, it
can be argued that the connotations associated with units evoking the notion of sen-
sationalism do not systematically appear in general press. Rather, they might be trans-
ferred to the press by way of press releases, as in the case illustrated in this section, or
by other intermediaries. I will come back to this aspect in section 4.2.

4.1.4. Metaphorical uses of terms

The last phenomenon addressed in this section concerns metaphorical uses of
terms. As in the case of contexts dealing with fictional works, this type of contexts is
only attested in the Press sub-corpus. Examples below illustrate some of the meta-
phors encountered in this sub-corpus.

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20. En outre, on ne répétera jamais assez que le métal jaune est «l’antimatière» de la
planche à billets. (Press sub-corpus)

21. La «matière noire» du génome, pas si mystérieuse (Press sub-corpus)

22. Aujourd’hui, on vit dans un accélérateur de particules avec toutes ces informa-
tions, ces distances raccourcies par les avions et les trains. (Press sub-corpus)

23. l’état-major d’Obama reste sur le qui-vive quand Bill Clinton, un électron libre,
donne son avis. (Press sub-corpus)

24. Marielle de Sarnez la particule élémentaire des centristes (Press sub-corpus)

The use of terms as metaphors in non-specialised texts, and particularly in the me-
dia, is one of the most well-known consequences of the determinologisation process.
In fact, it is extensively described in most of the existing studies of determinologisation
as well as in more general studies about the use of terms in general language (e.g.
Guilbert, 1975; Meyer, 2000; Estopà, 2016; Renouf, 2017). However, the semantic
processes leading to the creation of the metaphors have received less attention in the
context of determinologisation studies, and the same goes for the relationship between
determinologisation and neology. These issues will be addressed in section 4.2. Spe-
cifically, I will discuss the evolution from metaphorical occurrences of terms used for
stylistic purposes towards more permanent meaning shifts considered as semantic
neologisms.

4.2. Creation of metaphorical new meanings

This section is divided into two sub-sections. The first one focuses on the mecha-
nisms that lead to the metaphorical uses of terms observed in the Press sub-corpus,
and several examples will be discussed to illustrate them. In the second sub-section,
I will show how the analysis of determinologisation can give new insights into the se-
mantic processes that lead to certain meaning shifts in general language and, in doing
so, I will insist on the necessity of acknowledging the role of determinologisation in
semantic neology.

4.2.1. Defining the metaphorical potential of terms

As said above, metaphorical uses of terms are already described by many authors,
although their identification still poses significant problems. Indeed, when it comes to
the detection of metaphors in corpora, researchers agree that metaphorical uses of
lexical units can only be confirmed by a human analysis of the contexts in which they
appear (Deignan, 2005: 92-93; Philip, 2010: 191; Semino, 2017: 465-466; Mpouli,

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2019: 98; Stefanowitsch, 2020: 397). For instance, Deignan shows that, depending
on the context, two occurrences of the same lexical unit, which appear in the same
collocation, can refer either to a metaphorical or to a literal meaning (Deignan, 2005:
83). Moreover, according to Stefanowitsch, «there is nothing in the word itself that dis-
tinguishes its literal and metaphorical uses» (Stefanowitsch, 2020: 397). Therefore, ob-
serving the contexts remains the most efficient method to confirm that an occurrence
is indeed metaphorical.
This is the principle that was have adopted in this study and five terms were identi-
fied with a metaphorical meaning in the Press sub-corpus (see examples 20-24 above).
These terms share two interesting characteristics. First, they are composed of lexical
units that also exist in general language, e.g. accélérateur (accelerator) and particule
(particle) in accélérateur de particules (particle accelerator); matière (matter) and noir
(black, dark) in matière noire (dark matter); particule and élémentaire (elementary) in
particule élémentaire (elementary particle); matière in antimatière or anti-matière (anti-
matter); and libre (free) in électron libre (free electron). Second, they regularly appear in
contexts described as sensationalist, whether in the Press sub-corpus or in the three
intermediate sub-corpora (see 4.1.3). For example, accélérateur de particules is often
modified by adjectives such as immense (huge) and gigantesque (gigantic). It also ap-
pears in phrases that emphasise the extraordinary aspects of this type of instruments,
and especially of the LHC, which is described in the Press sub-corpus as the world’s
most powerful and biggest particle accelerator.
Through the analysis, a correlation was established between these two character-
istics and the metaphorical uses of terms observed in this sub-corpus. I propose to
refer to it as the metaphorical potential of terms. This means that any term that shares
the same characteristics is likely to appear as a metaphor in general press. Let me
take an example: when accélérateur de particules is used as a metaphor, it most often
designates:
– someone who achieves high performance; it is illustrated in example 25, which
highlights the impressive performance of a football player;
– someone who is particularly fast. This is illustrated in example 26, which highlights
the speed of a rugby player;
– something or someone who contributes to the success of someone else, illustrated
in example 27.

25. Accélérateur de particules, animateur sur le terrain et en coulisses, Ribéry s’im-

pose de plus en plus comme le véritable leader de l’équipe de France (Press
sub-corpus)

26. Barrett, l’accélérateur de particules All Blacks ; Successeur désigné de Dan

Carter, l’ouvreur néo-zélandais impressionne par sa vitesse d’exécution. (Press
sub-corpus)

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27. «Les Arts déco sont un accélérateur de particules», se félicite cet ancien élève
des Beaux-Arts d’Angoulême, qui est resté à Strasbourg à la fin de ses études, en
2015. (Press sub-corpus)

In the first case, the metaphor seems to be created from the contexts in which the
term accélérateur de particules co-occurs with lexical units evoking extraordinary and
outstanding aspects of this concept. In fact, the recurrence of contexts conveying the
idea that particle accelerators are highly performant makes the metaphor possible.
Semantic features such as /performant/ and /powerful/ are activated in this type of
contexts and in contexts in which the term is used metaphorically. For this reason, it
can be argued that this metaphorical meaning is based on the features /performant/
and /powerful/.
The second case is different, though. Example 26 shows a metaphorical use of
accélérateur de particules which describes someone who is particularly fast. Here, the
metaphor is created on the basis of semantic features such as /speed/. This feature is
also activated when lexical units such as accélérateur (accelerator), accélérer (accele-
rate) and accélération (acceleration) are used in general language. According to Oliveira
(2009: 93), when metaphorical terms enter general language, the units that compose
them and that coexist in general language are likely to have some influence on – or even
to interfere with – the meaning of the terms observed in general language.
For the term souffle au cœur (heart murmur in English) in the field of cardiology,
Oliveira explains that non-experts usually understand the first meaning of souffle only
(which literally translates into breath) and that they are not necessarily aware of the ana-
logy behind the term. What is more, their understanding of the term is largely influenced
by the meaning of the lexical unit s’essouffler (to be short of breath) in general langua-
ge, which is derived from souffle. As a consequence, the idea that «when one has a
heart murmur, one cannot play any sport because he or she might be short of breath
very quickly» (Oliveira, 2009: 102; my translation) is widespread. In this case, having a
heart murmur is considered a serious condition, whereas most people who have one
live a perfectly normal life.
Therefore, according to Oliveira, both the meanings of souffle and s’essouffler in-
fluence the meaning of souffle au cœur in general language. In the case of particle
physics, a parallel can be drawn between Oliveira’s conclusion and my observations,
even though accélérateur de particules is not a metaphorical term. Indeed, when this
term is used to describe someone who is very fast, it can be assumed that the meta-
phor is created both from the meaning of accélérateur in general language and from the
meaning of other units that belong to the same derivational family (e.g. accélérer and
accélération, as said above). In the case of accélérateur, and following the hypothesis
of Meyer and Mackintosh on the terms mega, virtual and to delete (2000: 130-131),
a general and a specialised meanings are likely to coexist in general language and to
interfere with non-experts’ understanding of the term.

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 The third case is similar. In example 27, the term designates the ability of something
to accelerate someone’s career, the metaphor being once again based on the semantic
feature /speed/, which is activated in accélérer in general language.
For the other terms, similar observations are made:
– in the metaphorical uses of matière noire, the semantic features /mystery/ and /
unknown/ are activated, so are they in contexts in which matière noire co-occurs
with lexical units such as mystère (mystery), mystérieux (mysterious), secret, énig-
matique (enigmatic);
– metaphorical uses of antimatière are likely to be created either from contexts in
which the concept is described as mysterious (example 28 below), or from con-
texts that highlight the opposition between antimatter and matter (example 29 be-
low). In the latter case, antimatière is used metaphorically in order to designate the
opposite of something, as in example 20 above;
– particule élémentaire, when used metaphorically, refers to the essential, fundamen-
tal or elementary role of something or someone, which is conveyed by the meaning
of élémentaire in general language9;
– électron libre is used metaphorically to designate someone who stands out or who
acts independently from the majority. In this case, though, it should be emphasised
that the metaphor is not new in French. For instance, according to the Grand Ro-
bert, it is attested at least since 199410.

28. Les chercheurs n’ont pas fini pour autant d’expliquer tous les mystères qui entou-
rent l’antimatière. (Press sub-corpus)

29. Une question tourmente les cosmologues depuis plusieurs décennies: si antima-
tière et matière ont les mêmes propriétés (inversées), pourquoi l’univers n’en con-
tient pas des quantités égales ? (Press sub-corpus)

4.2.2. Towards the emergence and stabilisation of semantic

neologisms in the press
The previous section discussed the ways in which metaphorical uses of terms are
likely to be created in the press, and the notion of metaphorical potential was intro-
duced to describe them. This section focuses more specifically on the relation between
these uses and semantic neology.

9. It can also be influenced by the meaning of fondamental in particule fondamentale (fun-

damental particle), which is a terminological variant of particule élémentaire.
10. Le Grand Robert en ligne (https://grandrobert.lerobert.com/robert.asp, last access: 27
June 2022).

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 With the exception of électron libre, the metaphors illustrated in the previous sec-
tion are subject to several modulations and do not seem to be stabilised in general
language. For each term, different nuances are observed in the Press sub-corpus. For
instance, the term antimatière is used as a metaphor either to designate something that
is mysterious or to insist on an opposition between two concepts. These metaphors
are created on the basis of two distinct sets of semantic features, which are activated
in different types of contexts in the corpus. Similarly, accélérateur de particules is used
in three different metaphorical meanings, as explained in section 4.2.1.
These observations refer to the relative instability of neologisms (e.g. Reutenauer,
2012a; Sánchez Ibáñez and Maroto, 2021: 359). For example, Reutenauer shows that
the emergence of a new general meaning for a term can be observed through the di-
versification of its uses in the press (Reutenauer, 2012a: 1940). In this case, the new
general meaning is usually metaphorical.
From this perspective, the examples of metaphors given above can be interpreted
as emerging semantic neologisms, which are still in a stabilisation phase. This means
that the apparent instability that was observed in the Press sub-corpus actually reflects
the diversification which characterises the early phase of an emerging new meaning.
Indeed, Reutenauer explains that this process of diversification corresponds to a «tran-
sitory phase» in discourse, or to an «evolution in progress», which precedes the estab-
lishment of a new stable meaning in language (Reutenauer, 2012b: 61). Thus, it can
be assumed that the metaphorical meanings identified in the Press sub-corpus might
stabilise in the near future and be recognised as neologisms.
I believe that these observations lead to a better understanding of the role of deter-
minologisation in neology, and particularly in semantic neology. It can be argued that,
since the metaphorical uses of terms can be interpreted as consequences of determi-
nologisation, and since these metaphorical uses can lead to the emergence and sta-
bilisation of new meanings for those terms, then determinologisation must indeed be
considered as contributing to neological processes. In addition, it was shown in section
4.1 that certain uses at the origin of metaphors (i.e. the appearance of new connota-
tions through co-occurrence with certain types of lexical units, and especially those that
refer to sensationalism) are attested in the intermediate sub-corpora. This observation
allows for a better understanding of the ways in which the determinologisation process
works, particularly through the intermediate stages of the process. It also provides a
better understanding of the semantic mechanisms leading to the emergence of new
metaphorical meanings of terms in general language.

5. CONCLUDING REMARKS AND FUTURE WORK

In this paper, I proposed a discussion about the relation between determinologi-

sation and neology. To this end, I based my study on an analysis of particle physics

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153
terms in French in a corpus that represents different stages of the determinologisation
process, between highly specialised and non-specialised language. This perspective
on determinologisation proved relevant in different ways:
– it highlighted the fact that the semantic phenomena associated with determinolo-
gisation do not necessarily appear in non-specialised contexts, but they might also
be attested in some intermediaries, which allows for a more complete understan-
ding of determinologisation as a process;
– it brought to light the fact that some of these changes (especially the appearance of
new connotations) might explain the mechanisms that lead to the use of terms as
metaphors, though they are not the only factor. As detailed in 4.2.1, the coexisten-
ce in general language of some components of the terms and of other lexical units
that belong to the same derivational family might also influence the metaphorical
meanings of terms;
– it allowed me to argue that the metaphorical uses of terms, which were observed
in the Press sub-corpus for the terms accélérateur de particules, matière noire, an-
timatière and particule élémentaire (as discussed above, the case of électron libre
is a little different), can in reality be considered as evidence of the emergence of se-
mantic neologisms. This observation exemplifies another point of view on semantic
neology and acknowledges the role of determinologisation in neological processes.

While the discussion is largely based on a close examination of the behaviours of

five terms of the domain of particle physics in a corpus of French texts, future work is
necessary to confirm these conclusions. In particular, more terms that share the two
characteristics described above must be analysed to further explore the correlation be-
tween these characteristics, the metaphorical uses of terms in the Press sub-corpus,
and the emergence of semantic neologisms in general press.
In addition, as mentioned in 3.1, the corpus explored in this study was compiled in
the context of a broader project, and it covers the period from 2003 to 2016. However,
because some changes can occur rather quickly, it seems necessary to observe more
recent texts. This will provide more evidence concerning the evolution of the metapho-
rical uses of terms described in this paper, particularly concerning their status of neolo-
gisms in general language. For instance, with more recent data it will be seen whether
the new metaphorical meanings actually stabilise over time, as was hypothesised here.
In this way, I aim at deepening the reflection on semantic neology and on the mecha-
nisms highlighted in this first study.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my thanks and gratitude to Aurélie Picton and Anne
Condamines for the many discussions we had on terminology, corpora and

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determinologisation, among other topics, to Nicolás González Granado for his careful
review of an earlier draft of this paper, and to the anonymous reviewers for their valuable
and very relevant comments.

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