of squamous epithelium resting on a basement A.

Breathing :
membrane of connective tissue. There are It is a physical process by which gaseous
about 700 million alveoli in the lungs and exchange takes place between the atmosphere
they provide the surface area for exchange of and the lungs. It involves inspiration and
gases. expiration (see fig. 8.5). Both these steps
involved parts of the thoracic cage, the ribs,
Internet my friend sternum and the intercostal muscles and
muscles of the diaphragm.
1. What is the importance of pleural fluid?
2. Find the total surface covered by the Inspiration : During inspiration, the
alveoli. atmospheric air is taken in to the lungs. It
Diaphragm : It is a muscular septum that occurs due to the pressure gradient formed
separates the thoracic and abdominal cavity. It between the lungs and the atmosphere. It is
is dome shaped and on contraction it becomes an active process in which the diaphragm
flattened. becomes flat and goes downward, the external
intercostal muscles contract so the ribs and
8.3 Mechanism of respiration : sternum move upward and outward. This leads
Respiration is a biological process to an increase in the thoracic volume and a
involving exchange of gases between the decrease in pressure of thorax and the lungs.
atmosphere and the lungs and it results in the
To equalize the low pressure inside the lungs,
formation of ATP. It includes the following
air from the atmosphere rushes into lungs. This
processes:
is inspiration.
A. Breathing
B. External respiration Expiration : During expiration, the thorax
C. Internal respiration contracts causing air to be exhaled. The
D. Cellular respiration diaphragm relaxes and is pushed upwards. It
becomes dome shaped. The intercostal muscles
Try This also relax pulling the rib cage inward and
Count the number of breaths you take downward. This causes a decrease in thoracic
in the following situations (a). After a good volume and leads to increase in pressure in
night’s sleep (b). During a vigorous activity the thorax and the lungs as compared to the
(running, climbing stairs etc) (c). After the atmospheric pressure. So air from the lungs
vigorous activity. Do you find any difference rushes out. This is expiration.
in the count? One inspiration and one expiration is one
breath.
a. Inspiration Air Air b. Expiration
(Breathing in) (Breathing out)
Rib cage moves
up and forward Rib cage
moves down
and inward

Pressure in lungs
decreases and air
comes rushing in.
Diaphragm contracts and moves down Diaphragm relaxes and moves up
Fig. 8.5 : Breathing
156
B. External respiration/ Exchange of gases at
Pulmonary volumes and capacities
the alveolar level :
(Normal values)
An alveolus consists of a layer of simple
Lung Volumes :
squamous epithelium resting on a basement
Tidal volume (T.V.) : It is the volume of air
membrane. It is intimately associated with a
inspired or expired during normal breathing.
dense network of capillaries. The capillary wall It is 500 ml.
is also made up of simple squamous epithelium Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) : The
resting on a thin basement membrane. Both maximum volume of air, or the extra volume
the layers have similar structure and are thin of air, that is inspired during forced breathing
walled. Together they make up the respiratory in addition to T.V. Its value is 2000 to 3000ml.
membrane through which gaseous exchange Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) : The
occurs i.e. between the alveolar air and the maximum volume of air that is expired during
blood. forced breathing after normal expiration. Its
Diffusion of gases will take place from an value is 1000 to 1100ml.
area of higher partial pressure (pp) to an area of Dead space (DS) : The volume of air that is
lower partial pressure until the partial pressure present in the respiratory tract (from nose to
in the two regions reaches equilibrium. the terminal bronchioles), but not involved in
The partial pressure of carbon-dioxide gaseous exchange. It is 150 ml.
(pCO2) of blood entering the pulmonary Residual volume (RV) : The volume of air
capillaries is 45 mmHg while partial pressure that remains in the lungs and the dead space
of carbon-dioxide in alveolar air is 40 mmHg. even after maximum expiration. It is 1100 to
Due to this difference, carbon dioxide diffuses 1200ml.
from the capillaries into the alveolus. Lung capacities :
Similarly, partial pressure of oxygen (pO2) Total Lung capacity : The maximum amount
of blood in pulmonary capillaries is 40 mmHg of air that the lungs can hold after a maximum
while in alveolar air it is 104 mmHg. Due to forceful inspiration (5200 to 5800ml).
this difference oxygen diffuses from alveoli to Vital capacity (VC) : The maximum amount
the capillaries. of air that can be breathed out after a
blood goes maximum inspiration. It is the some total of
blood from to pulmonary
vein TV, IRV and ERV and is 4100 to 4600ml.
pulmonary
artery Alveolus

Use your brain power

Capillary
Why gas exchange in the alveolar region
Alveolar is very rapid?
membrane
(Air) CO2 C. Internal respiration :
Respiratory
membrane
O2 The two main components of blood
involved in transport of the respiratory gases-
Surface CO2 and O2, are the RBCs and the plasma.
fluid
i. Transport of oxygen :
Of the total oxygen transported only
Oxygen diffuses into Carbon dioxide diffuses
red blood cells into alveolus 3% is transported in a dissolved state by the
Fig. 8.6 : Exchange of gases between plasma. The remaining 97% is bound to
alveolus and capillary the haemoglobin (Hb) present in the RBCs.

157
Haemoglobin acts as the respiratory carrier. It
has a high affinity for O2 and combines with
it to form oxyhaemoglobin. Theoretically, one
molecule of Hb has 4 Fe++, each of which can
pick up a molecule of oxygen (O2).
Hb + 4O2 Hb (4O2)
CO2
Oxyhaemoglobin is transported from lungs
to the tissues where it readily dissociates to CO2
release O2. CO2

Hb (4O2) Hb + 4O2
However, the degree of saturation of Hb
with O2 depends upon the O2 tension i.e. ppO2.
• 100% saturation is rare. Oxygen tension ppO2 of blood (mm Hg)
• Maximum saturation of 95 to 97% is at Graph 8.7 : Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation
ppO2 in alveoli (100 mmHg). curve (pp = partial pressure)
• Degree of saturation decreases with the
Carbon monoxide poisoning :
drop in ppO2. This begins the dissociation
Affinity of haemoglobin for carbon
of HbO2.
monoxide is about 250 times more, than for
• At 30 mmHg of ppO2, only 50% saturation oxygen. In the presence of carbon monoxide,
can be maintained. haemoglobin readily combines to form a
• The relationship between HbO2 saturation stable compound carboxyhaemoglobin. The
and oxygen tension (ppO2) is called haemoglobin is blocked by carbon monoxide,
oxygen dissociation curve. This oxygen - thus preventing oxygen from binding with it as
haemoglobin dissociation curve is a sigmoid a result haemoglobin. Thus, less haemoglobin
curve and it shifts towards the right due to is available for oxygen transport depriving
- increase in H+ concentration, increase in the cells of oxygen. This is carbon monoxide
ppCO2 and rise in tempreature and rise in poisoning.
DPG (2, 3 diphosphoglycerate), formed in
the RBCs during glycolysis. It lowers the Use your brain power
affinity of haemoglobin for oxygen.
While working with the car engine in
Bohr effect : It is the shift of oxyhaemoglobin a closed garage, John suddenly felt dizzy and
dissociation curve due to change in partial fainted. What is the possible reason?
pressure of CO2 in blood.
ii. Transport of CO2 :
Haldane effect : Oxyhaemoglobin functions Carbon dioxide is readily soluble in water
as an acid. It decreases pH of blood. Due to and is transported by RBCs and plasma in three
increase in the number of H+ ions, HCO-3 different forms.
changes into H2O and CO2.
a. By plasma in solution form (7%) : Only
In the alveoli where ppO2 is high and ppCO2 7% of CO2 is transported in a dissolved form as
is low, oxygen binds with haemoglobin, but in carbonic acid (which can breakdown into CO2
the tissues, where ppO2 is lower and ppCO2 is and H2O).
high, haemoglobin does not hold as much O2. CO2 + H2O H2CO3
It releases O2 for diffusion into the tissue cells.

158
b. By bicarbonate ions (70%) : Nearly 70% the RBCs. To maintain the ionic balance
of carbondioxide released by the tissue cells between the RBCs and the plasma, Cl-
diffuses into the plasma and then into the RBCs. diffuses into the RBCs. This movement of
• In the RBCs, CO2 combines with water in chloride ions is known as chloride shift or
the presence of a Zn containing enzyme, Hamburger’s phenomenon.
carbonic anhydrase to form carbonic acid. • HCO3- that comes into the plasma joins
• Carbonic anhydrase enzyme is found in the to Na+ / K+ forming NaHCO3 / KHCO3 (to
RBCs and not in the plasma. maintain pH of blood).
• The rate of formation of carbonic acid HCO-3 + Na+ NaHCO3
inside the RBC is very high as compared to Sodium bicarbonate
its formation in the plasma. • H+ is taken up by protein (haemoglobin).
• Carbonic acid being unstable almost Hb + H+ HHb
immediately dissociates into HCO-3 (Reduced Hb)
+
and H+ in the presence of the enzyme These H ions might be expected to lower
carbonic anhydrase (CA) leading to large blood pH, but they are buffered by haemoglobin
accumulation of HCO-3 inside the RBCs. by the formation of deoxyhaemoglobin
(reduced haemoglobin).
CA CA
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 H+ + HCO-3 • At the level of the lungs in response to
• It thus moves out of the RBCs. This would the low partial pressure of carbon dioxide
bring about imbalance of the charge inside (ppCO2) of the alveolar air, hydrogen ion

Tissue cell
CO2 Binds to plasms
CO2 CO2+H2O slow H2CO3 -
HCO3 + H + proteins
CO2
Interstitial HCO3-
Chloride (In)
fluid Cl- Cl- shift via
CO2 CO2+H2O fast H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
Carbonic transport
CO2 protein
anhydrase HHb
CO2 CO2+ Hb HbCO2
HbO2 O2 + Hb RBC
Red blood cell
CO2
O2
O2 O2 (dissolved in plasma) Blood plasma

Fig. 8.8 : Oxygen release and carbon dioxide pickup at the tissue
Alveolus Fused basement membranes
CO2 CO2 (dissolved in plasma)
CO2 slow
CO2+ H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
HCO3- Chloride (Out)
Cl- shift via
fast -
CO2 CO2+H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+ Cl transport
Carbonic
anhydrase protein
CO2 CO2+ Hb HbCO2
Red blood cell O2+ HHb HbO2 + H+ RBC

O2
O2 Blood plasma
O2 (dissolved in plasma)

Fig. 8.9 : Oxygen pickup and carbon dioxide release in the lungs
159
 and bicarbonate ions recombine to form neurons in the medulla (inspiratory center),
carbonic acid and under the influence of ventro lateral group of neurons in medulla
carbonic anhydrase yields carbon dioxide (inspiratory and expiratory center) and
and water. pneumotaxic center located in pons (primarily
- CA CA limits inspiration, slow wave sleep and rapid
H+ + HCO 3 H2CO3 CO2 + H2O
eye movement sleep). Apneustic center in the
c. By red blood cells (23%) : Carbon dioxide medulla is antagonistic to the neumotaxic
binds with the amino group of the haemoglobin center. It controls non rapid eye movement,
and form a loosely bound compound sleep and wakefulness.
carbaminohaemoglobin. This molecule readily
Brain
decomposes in region where the partial pressure
of carbon dioxide (ppCO2) is low (alveolar Breathing
control centers
region), releasing the carbon dioxide.
Hb + CO2 HbCO2 Breathing
Pons control centers
Use your brain power Medulla stimulated by :

1. What is the role of haemoglobin in the Nerve impulses a. CO2 increase in

trigger blood (acts directly)
transport of oxygen in the blood?
contraction of
2. Write a note on chloride shift. muscles b. Nerve impulse
from O2 sensor
D. Cellular Respiration : Intercostal
indicating O2
nerves
It is the last step taking place inside the cell decrease
where food is oxidized and ATP is generated. It
can be shown by two steps:
Phrenic
a. Oxidation : Breaking down of complex nerves
organic molecules into simple inorganic
molecules with release of heat energy.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 686 Kcal
b. Phosphorylation : It involves trapping the O2 sensors
Diaphragm in artery
heat energy in the form of high energy bond of (aortic arch)
ATP molecule. ATP is used to carry out vital life Intercostal muscles

processes and so is called as energy currency of

Fig. 8.10 : Regulation of Breathing
the cell.
During inspiration when the lungs expand
ADP + iP + 7.3 Kcal ATP to a critical point, the stretch receptors are
8.4 Regulation of Breathing : stimulated and impulses are sent along the
Respiration is under dual control : nervous vagus nerves to the expiratory centre. It then
and chemical. Human adults breathe about 12 sends out inhibitory impulses to the inspiratory
times/minute while a new born about 44 times/ center.
minute. Normal breathing is an involuntary The inspiratory muscles relax and
process. Steady rate of respiration is controlled expiration follows. As air leaves the lungs
by neurons located in the pons and medulla during expiration, the lungs are deflated and
and are known as the respiratory centres. It the stretch receptors are no longer stimulated.
regulates the rate and depth of breathing. It Thus, the inspiratory centre is no longer
is divided into three groups : dorsal group of inhibited and a new respiration begins. These
160