EXT 304 : Social Mobilization And

Community Development
B.Sc. Ag (Sixth Semester)

Ghanshyam Kandel
Asst. Professor
CNRM, Purunchaur
AFU
Division of Course:

• Development, Poverty
• Social Mobilization
• Gender
Unit 1: Concept of Development, Sustainable development, rural and community
development, brief overview of efforts of rural and community development in Nepal in
last decades
Concept and definition of development:
• Development is a process that creates growth, progress, positive change or
the addition of physical, economic, environmental, social and demographic
components.
• The purpose of development is a rise in the level and quality of life of the
population, and the creation or expansion of local regional income and
employment opportunities, without damaging the resources of the
environment.
• Development is visible and useful, not necessarily immediately, and
includes an aspect of quality change and the creation of conditions for a
continuation of that change.
• The term development may mean different things to the different people.

• In strictly economic terms, development has traditionally meant the capacity of a national
economy, whose initial economic condition has been more or less static for a long time, to
generate and sustain an annual increase in its gross national income (GNI) at rates of 5% to 7%
or more.

• Economic development in the past has also been typically seen in terms of the planned
alteration of the structure of production and employment so that agriculture’s share of
both declines and that of manufacturing and service industries increases.

• Development strategies have therefore usually focused on the rapid industrialization, often at the
expense of agriculture and rural development.
 New Economic view of development

The experience of the 1950s and 1960s , when many developing nations did
reach their economic growth targets but the levels of living of the masses of
people remained for the most part unchanged, signaled that something was very
wrong with this narrow definition of development .

• During 1970s economic development came to be redefined in terms of the

reduction or elimination of poverty, inequality and unemployment within the
context of a growing economy.

• Dudley seers (british economist) posed three basic question about the meaning of
development
• They are:
• What has been happening to poverty?
• What has been happening to unemployment?
• What has been happening to inequality?

So for development of a country all there need to be

declined from high level to low level. If one of two of
these central problems have been growing worse,
especially if all three have, it would be strange to call
the result “development” even if per capita income
doubled.
• National income –it refers to the market values of all
good and services which produce in financial year
within the country

• Average income / per capita income – it’s the ratio of

total national income of a country with respect to total
population
• PCI = Total income /Total population
• The three objectives of development:
• Development in all societies must have at least the following three
objectives:
To increase availability and improve the distribution of life sustaining good
like food, clothes, shelter, health and security
To raise per capita purchasing power and improve equitable distribution
of wealth
To expand range of social and economic choice to individual by freeing
them from social servitude and dependence
 Some of the definition of development
• According to Micheal P Todaro (American economist)
• Development is not purely an economic phenomenon but rather a multi-
dimensional process involving reorganization and reorientation of entire economic
and social system.
• Development is process of improving the quality of all human lives with three
equally important aspects. These are:
Raising peoples’ living levels, i.e. incomes and consumption, levels of food,
medical services, education through relevant growth processes
 Creating conditions conducive to the growth of peoples’ self-esteem through the
establishment of social, political and economic systems and institutions which
promote human dignity and respect
Increasing peoples’ freedom to choose by enlarging the range of their choice
variables, e.g. varieties of goods and services
• The United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) describes development as “the three
essentials of development which include the ability to
lead a long and healthy life, to acquire knowledge, and
to have a decent standard of life”.
• Generally, development is defined as a state in which things are
improving. In the socio-economic context, development means
the improvement of people’s lifestyles through improved
education, incomes, skills development and employment.
• Development consists of more than improvements in the well-
being of citizens. it also conveys something about the capacity
of economic, political and social systems to provide the
circumstances for that well-being on a sustainable, long-term
basis.
Social Development
• Social development involves the enhancement of social well-being and quality of life. This
includes improvements in healthcare, education, access to clean water, sanitation, and social
services. It also addresses issues like poverty reduction, gender equality, and social justice.
• Social development includes improvement in the quality of life of people, equitable
distribution of resources, equal participation of people in decision making, freedom to
participate in every event in their life world.
 Economic development
• Economic development is the development of economic wealth of
countries or regions for the well-being of their inhabitants.
• Economic growth is often assumed to indicate the level of economic
development. The term “economic growth” refers to the increase (or
growth) of a specific measures such as real national income, gross
domestic product, or per capita income.
• The term economic development on the other hand, implies much more.
It is the process by which a nation improves the economic, political, and
social wellbeing of its people.
Economic Growth Vs. Economic Development
• Economic Growth: A term borrowed from life sciences growth in
economics means economic growth. An increase in economic
variables over a period of time is economic growth.
• Quantifiability is an important feature of growth. We can measure
industrial production, road length, food production, educated persons,
or per capita income of people to measure growth.
• Growth rates can be calculated annually in percentage across various
sectors. It can be positive or negative. It is measured over a short
period
• Economic development is broader in nature. It not only includes the
quantitative change but also includes certain qualitative changes in the
economy.
• Economic development means not just increase in the real per capita
income but also reduction in economic-divide, poverty, illiteracy and
unemployment.
• Thus, economic development includes both economic growth as well as
social welfare. Development is a qualitative concept and relates to human
development index (HDI) Gender Development Index (GDI) Human
Poverty Index (HPI).
Economic growth without development? It is possible to have economic growth
without development. i.e. an increase in GDP, but most people don’t see any actual
improvements in living standards.
• Economic growth may only benefit a small % of the population. For example,
if a country produces more oil, it will see an increase in GDP. However, it is
possible, that this oil is only owned by one firm, and therefore, the average worker
doesn’t really benefit.
• Corruption. A country may see higher GDP, but the benefits of growth may be
siphoned into the bank accounts of politicians
• Environmental problems. Producing toxic chemicals will lead to an increase in
real GDP. However, without proper regulation it can also lead to environmental
and health problems. This is an example of where growth leads to a decline in
living standards for many.
• Production not consumed. If a state owned industry increases output, this is
reflected in an increase in GDP. However, if the output is not used by anyone then
it causes no actual increase in living standards. e.g. medicine , clothes , motors
• Military Spending. A country may increase GDP through spending more on
military goods. However, if this is at the expense of health care and education it
can lead to lower living standards.
Human Development
• Human development refers to the process of improving people's well-being and
expanding their choices and opportunities for a better life. It is a
multidimensional concept that goes beyond economic growth and encompasses
various aspects of human life.
• The concept of human development was popularized by the United Nations
Development Programme (UNDP), and it emphasizes that people should be at
the center of development efforts.
Key elements of Human Development:
Health , education, economic well being, gender equality, social inclusion etc
Nepal HDI value 0.602 (UNDP 2021)
• Human Development Index (HDI) developed as a means of measuring
human development. The basic use of HDI is to measure a country’s
level of development.
 Sustainable development
• As we all observe and feel, we are using natural resources almost
carelessly to meet our needs. It is said that a number of minerals like,
coal, petrol and many more will last only for a few decades, if we go
on using them at the present rate.
• Future generations will not have the facility of using these resources.
Is it fair for our generation to deprive the future generations of these
resources? The concept of sustainable development has emerged in
this context.
• After release of book 'Silent Spring' in 1962 by Rachel Carson scientist started thinking
about human being and animal health hazard.
• However, use of term sustainable development was started in World Conservation
Strategy released by International Union for Conservation of Nature.
• World Commission for Environment and Development (WCED) in Brundtland Report
(Our Common Future) weaves together social, economic, cultural and environmental
issues and global solutions which popularize the term sustainable development.
• It is a broad concept that is defined as ‘development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs’.

• Although many think that it is relevant only in the environmental context, it

actually does not focus solely on environmental issues. As shown in the figure
below, it includes economic development, social development, individual
development and environmental development.
• It is a pattern of social and economic transformation, i.e. development that
optimizes the economic and societal benefits available in the present, without
adversely affecting the likely potential for similar benefits in the future.
• A primary goal of sustainable development is to achieve a reasonable and equitably
distributed level of economic and social wellbeing that can be perpetuated
continually for many human generations.
• It takes care of the needs and requirements of all sections of the society including
the disadvantaged groups.
Concept of SD
• 3 pillars of sustainable development
• There are 3 pillars of sustainable development:
• Economic sustainability: which aims to reduce extreme poverty and guarantee
fair paid employment for all.
• Environmental sustainability: which aims to protect the natural balance of the
planet, while limiting the impact of human activities on the environment.
• Social sustainability: which aims to guarantee access to basic resources and
services for all.

The sustainable development definition is, therefore, a development that is

economically efficient, ecologically sustainable and socially equitable.
 Objectives of SD
• Economic objectives
Growth
Efficiency
stability
• Social objectives
• Equity
• Social cohesion
• Social mobility
• Participation
• Cultural identity
• Environmental objectives
• Healthy environment for human
• Rational use of renewable resources
• Conservation of non renewable resources
• Principle of SD
• Holistic Development
• Development within the boundary of environment
• Development within sociocultural and traditional knowledge base
• Enhance quality of life
• Promote collectiveness…(collective decision )
• Need of the future generation
• Global diversity
• Peoples' participation and empowering to manage their surrounding and
natural resources
• Based on national policy and needs
• Least energy and judicious use of resources
• Indicators of Non Sustainable Development
• Land Degradation
• Degradation and depletion of water resources
• Degradation and depletion of forest resources
• Depletion of conventional sources of energy
• Loss of biodiversity
• Climate change
• Ozone layer depletion
 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

 The United Nations Millennium Development Goals are eight

goals that all 191 UN member states have agreed to try to achieve
by the year 2015.
 The United Nations Millennium Declaration, signed in September
2000 commits world leaders to combat poverty, hunger, disease,
illiteracy, environmental degradation, and discrimination against
women.
 The MDGs are derived from this Declaration, and all have specific
targets and indicators.
 The Eight Millennium Development Goals are:

a. to eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;

b. to achieve universal primary education;
c. to promote gender equality and empower women;
d. to reduce child mortality;
e. to improve maternal health;
f. to combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases;
g. to ensure environmental sustainability; and
h. to develop a global partnership for development.
Key MDG achievements
•More than 1 billion people have been lifted out of extreme poverty (since
1990)
•Child mortality dropped by more than half (since 1990)
•The number of out of school children has dropped by more than half
(since 1990)
•HIV/AIDS infections fell by almost 40 percent (since 2000)
Sustainable development goals (2015-2030)
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), otherwise known as the
Global Goals, are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the
planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity.

• The SDGs replace the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs),

which started a global effort in 2000 to tackle the indignity of poverty.
The MDGs established measurable, universally-agreed objectives for
tackling extreme poverty and hunger, preventing deadly diseases, and
expanding primary education to all children, among other
development priorities.
• These 17 Goals build on the successes of the Millennium
Development Goals, while including new areas such as climate
change, economic inequality, innovation, sustainable
consumption, peace and justice, among other priorities.
• The goals are interconnected – often the key to success on one will
involve tackling issues more commonly associated with another.
• The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were born at the United
Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in Rio de Janeiro in
2012
 Historical perspectives of development
• The ideas of development has began in 1950s after the second world
war (1939-1945)
• 1950s –Modernization – industrialization and sociopolitical
modernization
• 1960s- dependency -Southern poverty is because of northern
exploitation
• 1970s- alternative to development- Basic need, local development,
Women in development
• 1980s-Neo-liberalism-Market Based Development, Privatization,
Decentralization, Gender and Development, trade liberalization
• 1990s- Human Development, Quality of Life, Globalization/WTO, trade
liberalization
• 2000s- Sustainable development-Post development, MDGs,
International agenda for poverty reduction
• 2012: SDG (Sustainable development goals)
• Rural Development
Concept
Rural is a society or community outside urban areas dominated by agrarian
economics with less social differentiation, social mobility and slow rate of social
change.
 Rural society was first defined in USA as society having less than 20 thousand
population. Simply rural is outside urban. Thus rural development connotes
development of rural areas with a view to improve the quality of life of rural people.
 Definition of rural development
• Rural development is an improvement in the living standard of the masses of
low income population residing in rural areas and making process of self
sustaining (Lele, 1975).
• According to Chambers (1983), Rural development is a strategy to enables a
specific group of people, poor rural women and men, to gain for themselves
and their children more of what they want and need.
• It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural
areas to demand and control more of the benefits of rural development. The
group includes small scale farmers, tenants and the landless.
• Rural development encompasses a wide range of activities, including
agriculture, infrastructure development, education, healthcare, and community
empowerment
Major objectives of rural development
• to achieve enhances production and productivity in rural areas
• to bring about a greater socio economic equity
• to bring about spatial balance in social and economic development
• to bring about improvement in the ecological environment so that it may be
conducive to growth and happiness
• to develop broad based community participation in the process of development
• Why rural development is important ?
• The importance of the rural sector in Nepal can be clarified from
the fact that approximately 80 percent (over 19 million) people
reside in the villages. Agriculture is the major source of livelihood
in rural areas.
• The rural sector is disadvantaged compared to its urban
counterpart. Poverty incidence is widespread and has been
consistently higher in the rural areas. The inequality between the
urban and rural sectors has increased over time.
• Therefore, if the government wants rural development to succeed,
the problem of rural poverty must be given priority. A clear
understanding of the causes of poverty, therefore, is necessary.
• Characteristics of Nepalese rural sector
• Excessive dependence on nature
• Preponderance of small uneconomic land and livestock holding
• Low capital- labour ratio
• Low factor productivity
• High incidence of poverty
• Preponderance of illiterate and unskilled work force
• Lack of basic infrastructure
Strategy for rural development
• Considering multifaceted problems in rural sectors, there is an urgent need
to develop an effective and sustainable strategy for rural development (RD)
in Nepal.
• A strategy for rural development should have as its primary objective the
improvement of the quality of life (QoL) of people in the rural areas.
• The success of government efforts to achieve this objective must be guided
and evaluated by its ability to reduce the incidence and mitigate the severity
of poverty in these sectors through the following means.
 IMPROVED RURAL WELFARE

Employment Efficiency Sustainability Equity Empowerment

Rural Structural and Behavioral Changes

Rural Industralization Support services and Delivery Systems Human and Institutional Development Resource Management

Agro Industrial interphase Rural Credit and Education and training Environmental and natural
Agrarian Reform cooperatives Social services and resources management
Science and technology Marketing and nutrition Agro forestry conservation
assessment and transfer infrastructure Community Organization
Communication decentralization
• Contributing objectives of rural development
1. Increasing employment: As the labor force increases in size,
opportunities must be available to those seeking employment not only in
the rural sector but in the urban sector as well.
This will require not only the improvement of human resources but also
the mobilization of savings from income generated by the rural sector,
and investments in rural development projects.
2. Increasing efficiency: Increasing the efficiency of resource
utilization and consequently resources productivity through improved
technology is a prerequisite in dealing with poverty effectively.
However consideration of ecological harmony and the conservation of
scarce resources.
3. Maintaining sustainability: In order to sustain the gains from rural
development plans and programs, their design must stem from an
understanding of the environmental, social, political and economic
circumstances of the intended beneficiaries.

4. Promoting equity: rural development equity requires a broader

access to resources, employment opportunities government services and
infrastructure.
5. Enhancing empowerment: This may be achieved by increasing the
capacity of the rural population to help themselves through the
establishment of their own organizations.
 Community development
• Community
• A community is an organized group of people based on some criteria and
common values that are shared by different people.
• According to WHO (1998) community is defined as ' A specific group of
people, often living in a defined geographical area who share common
culture, values and norms, are arranged in a social structure according to
relationships which community has developed over a period of time.
• Members of community gain their personal and social identity by sharing
common beliefs, values and norms which have been developed by the
community in the past and may be modified in the future.
• They exhibit some awareness of their identity as a group, and share
common needs and a commitment of meeting them.'
 Concept of community development
• Community development can be viewed as self help approach to rural
development.
• Act of formulating and implementing development programs collectively by the
community members for the common benefit of all the members.
• Community development relates with the progress of all basic human services for
example food, cloth, shelter, health, education and entertainment etc. A community
may be urban or rural, so it means local development.
• Community development is a process where community members are supported by
agencies to identify and take collective action on issues which are important to
them. Community development empowers community members and creates
stronger and more connected communities.
• Community development is a holistic approach grounded in principles
of empowerment, human rights, inclusion, social justice, self-
determination and collective action (Kenny, 2007).
The process of community development can be understood as process, methods ,
program and procedure.
• Element of community development
Key ingredients or elements for the successful community development are as
follows:
• A slight level of dissatisfaction – motivation and enthusiasm based on a feeling that
“ things could be better”,
• Belief and expectation of self help – a belief in the future of the community and a
conviction that realising that future depends on the action of community members,
• Local Leadership – committed formal and informal leaders that can enthuse and
support others, foster “shared leadership”, accept criticism, and act as local
champions for community development efforts,
• Collaboration – a strong culture of cooperation and participation,
• Willingness to experiment and take advantage of opportunities,
• Cultivate Allies – actively seek, inform, and network with outside supporters,
• Work hard and stay with the process, especially when there is a setback,
• Focus on specific actions without losing sight of the “ weird and wonderful”.

(adapted from Shaffer, 1989)

• Characteristics of CD
• Benefits to be shared by all people
• No imposition from outside
• Local efforts based on the felt needs
• Assistance from outside
• An aspect of administration:- It means the works of government should
be supported by the community and the tasks of community can be
supported by the government
• Collective planning and action
• Capacity development
• Participation and inclusion
Principle of Community Development:
• 1. Community Participation
• Meaningful participation of community members is fundamental. Community
development initiatives should involve community members in decision-making
processes, program design, and implementation. This participation ensures that
interventions are responsive to local needs and preferences.
• 2. Community Ownership
• Communities should have ownership and control over development projects and
initiatives. This principle promotes sustainability and ensures that interventions
align with the community's values and priorities.
• 3. Empowerment:
• Community development aims to empower community members to take an
active role in shaping their own future. This principle emphasizes that
individuals and communities have the capacity to identify and address their own
needs and challenges.
• 4. Life long learning: Learning is a lifelong and never-ending process. The
pursuit of knowledge and learning new skills is not only beneficial for personal
use but can impact an individual’s professional life as well. Community
development works on the principles of learning new skills and gaining
knowledge actively. When community members gain new knowledge or skills,
they may be able to bring more effective campaigns and results
• 5. Inclusion:
• .Community development should be inclusive, ensuring that all community
members, including marginalized and vulnerable populations, have a voice and
access to opportunities and resources. It aims to reduce disparities and promote
equity.
• 6. Holistic Development:
• Community development takes a holistic view of well-being, addressing
various aspects of community life, including economic, social, cultural,
environmental, and health-related factors. It recognizes that these factors are
interconnected
• 7. Partnership and Collaboration: Collaboration among multiple
stakeholders, including community members, local government, nonprofits,
businesses, and other organizations, is essential. Partnerships help pool
resources, expertise, and support for community development efforts
• 8. Adaptability: Communities are dynamic and change over time.
Community development initiatives should be flexible and adaptable, able to
respond to evolving needs, circumstances, and opportunities.
• 9. Sustainability: Sustainable development is a core principle. Community
development projects and programs should aim to create lasting
improvements that can be maintained and built upon by the community
Principle of Community Development:
Efforts and approach of community
development in last decades (worldwide)
Overview of rural development program in Nepal
• Tribhuvan village development model
• 1959 after the end of Rana Regime, goal of this program was to make
people aware of self helf for their own community development.
• Especially it involves three elements:
To develop measures for people participation on a self helf basis and to
institutionalize the community development CD activities through local
leadership
To develop measure to adapt locally suited modern technologies for CD
To develop democratic means for peoples participation in their own CD
activities.
• For the implementation of the program, the country was divided into 150
blocks, each block covering 200 villages with 10,000 to 13,000 families
• There was a provision of Block development officer for each block. S/he was
responsible for the implementation of the program within his block. There
were also Village Development Workers and technical staffs who were
responsible for assisting Block Development officer at the village level.
Panchayat development model 1960
• This program came into existence with the introduction of the
partyless political system of Panchayat. Under this program,
Panchayat Development Workers were required to work with the
Village Panchayats and to help them in plan formulation and program
implementation
• Three goals :
Institutional development
Social mobilization
Attitude change
Local people were trained and various projects were implemented at the
local level with the objectives of community development. Lack of
human resources for implementation and coordination of projects were
seen as a major problems.
Integrated Panchayat Development Design (IPDD 1976)
• Concept emerged due to the lack of coordination between the ministries and
among departments within ministries.
• IPDD was developed based on following principles:
Local bodies such as village and district panchayat should be empowered
for program formulation
Felt needs of the people should be considered
Planning should be done through the peoples participation
Plan should be formulated and executed in integrated manner
Decentralization should be done at all levels
Development workers should be accountable to rural people
IRDP ( integrated rural development program) 1975-1990

• 12 IRDP covering 34 districts

• Lesson from the past , It was realized that if various program were
conducted in integrated way, it would be more effective and could
yield more benefits to the rural people and lead to rural development.
• First project with concept of IRD is Rasuwa –Nuwakot Intergrated
Rural Development Project (RNIRDP-1976/77)
Development efforts in five year plan
First plan 1956-61 AD
• Productivity enhancement, village development, agricultural
development etc
Second plan 1962-1965 AD
• Economic resource management, economic stability, population
management, employment opportunity etc
Third plan 1965-1970
• Agricultural productivity, education health and employment, economic
and industrial development
Fourth plan (197- 1975)
• Productivity, international trade, economic stability, human resource
etc
Fifth plan:(1975-1980)
• People oriented production, Human resource use, regional
development etc
Sixth five year plan (1980-1985)
• Productive employment, Basic need program, Higher productivity etc
Seventh five year plan (1985-1990)
• Higher productivity, productive employment
• Eighth Plan (1992-1997)
• Sustainable economic development , poverty reduction , regional
disparity reduction etc
Ninth plan (1997-2002)
• Poverty reduction , local development, APP suggested
objectives/strategies
• Tenth plan (2002-2007)
• Poverty reduction program, local self governance program, rural
infrastructure, development
11th plan (2007-2010)
• Poverty reduction, unemployment reduction, disparities reduction
12th plan (2010-2013)
• Profitable and dignified employment, reducing economic disparity,
enhance regional balance, reducing poverty below 21%
13th plan (2013-2016)
• Reducing economic and poverty
14th plan (2017-2019)
• Productive employment, high profitable economic growth, economic-
social transformation
15th plan (2019-2024)
Sustainable employment based economic growth
Socio economic equitable justifiable society
Public service strengthening and state balance
Thank you
Factors and goal of development, cultural and social heritage and
dilemma in the rural development of Nepal

• There are two types of factors:

• Economic factors:
• Non Economic factors:
• Economic
a. Capital formation • Non Economic
b. Natural resources a. Human resources
c. Marketable surplus of b. Technical knowhow and general
agriculture education
d. Condition of foreign trade c. Political freedom
e. Economic system d. Social organization
f. Size of the market e. Corruption
g. Foreign trade f. Desire to develop
• 1. Natural Resource: The principal factor affecting the development of an
economy is the availability of natural resources. The existence of natural
resources in abundance is essential for development.
• A country deficient in natural resources may not be in a position to develop
rapidly. But a country like Japan lacking natural resources imports them and
achieve faster rate of economic development with the help of technology. India
with larger resources is poor.
• 2. Capital Formation: Capital formation is the main key to economic growth.
Capital formation refers to the net addition to the existing stock of capital goods
which are either tangible like plants and machinery or intangible like health,
education and research.
• Capital formation helps to increase productivity of labour and thereby
production and income. It facilitates adoption of advanced techniques of
production. It leads to better utilization of natural resources, industrialization
and expansion of markets which are essential for economic progress.
• 3. Size of the Market: Large size of the market would stimulate production, increase
employment and raise the National per capita income. That is why developed
countries expand their market to other countries through WTO
• 4. Structural Change: Structural change refers to change in the occupational
structure of the economy. Any economy of the country is generally divided into three
basic sectors: Primary sector such as agricultural, animal husbandry, forestry, etc;
Secondary sector such as industrial production, constructions and Tertiary sector such
as trade, banking and commerce. Any economy which is predominantly agricultural
tends to remain backward.
• 5. Financial System: Financial system implies the existence of an efficient and
organized banking system in the country. There should be an organized money market
to facilitate easy availability of capital.
• 6. Marketable Surplus: Marketable surplus refers to the total amount of farm
output cultivated by farmers over and above their family consumption needs.
This is a surplus that can be sold in the market for earning income. It raises the
purchasing power, employment and output in other sectors of the economy. The
country as a result will develop because of increase in national income
• 7. Foreign Trade: The country which enjoys favorable balance of
trade and terms of trade is always developed. It has huge forex
reserves and stable exchange rate.
• 8. Economic System: The countries which adopt free market
mechanism enjoy better growth rate compared to controlled
economies. It may be true for some countries, but not for every
country
Non- Economic Factors:
• 1. Human Resources: Human resource is named as human capital because of its
power to increase productivity and thereby national income. There is a circular
relationship between human development and economic growth. A healthy,
educated and skilled labour force is the most important productive asset.
• Human capital formation is the process of increasing knowledge, skills and the
productive capacity of people. It includes expenditure on health, education and
social services. If labour is efficient and skilled, its capacity to contribute to growth
will be high. For example Japan and China.
• 2. Technical Know-how: As the scientific and technological knowledge advances,
more and more sophisticated techniques steadily raise the productivity levels in all
sectors. Schumpeter attributed the cause for economic development to innovation.
• 3. Political Freedom: The process of development is linked with the
political freedom. Dadabhai Naoroji explained in his classic work ‘Poverty
and Un-British Rule in India’ that the drain of wealth from India under
the British rule was the major cause of the increase in poverty in India.
• 4. Social Organization: People show interest in the development activity
only when they feel that the fruits of development will be fairly distributed.
Mass participation in development programs is a pre-condition for
accelerating the development process.
• Whenever the defective social organization allows some groups to
appropriate the benefits of growth. Majority of the poor people do not
participate in the process of development.
• 5. Corruption free administration: Corruption is a negative factor in the
growth process. Unless the countries root-out corruption in their
administrative system, the crony capitalists and traders will continue to
exploit national resources. The tax evasion tends to breed corruption and
hamper economic progress.
• 6. Desire for development: The pace of economic growth in any country
depends to a great extent on people’s desire for development. If in some
country, the level of consciousness is low and the general mass of people
has accepted poverty as its fate, then there will be little scope for
development.
Goals of development

• Economic growth
• Equity
• Democracy and its establishment
• Political order
• Autonomy
• Improvement of quality of life
• …………………..Sustainable goals (17 goals of development we
have already discussed)
Indicators of Development:
• What is Indicator?
• Indicators are used to illustrate progress of a country in meeting a
range of economic, social and environmental goals.
• Development Indicators can also be defined as a numeric measure of
quality of life in a country(Wikipedia, 2017).
• Development Indicators show the progress that has been made in a
particular area such as health, education or gender equality

• An indicator is a piece of information which communicates certain

state, trend, warning, or progress to the audience

• An indicator is a thing that provides information( facts and figures)

indicating condition/status regarding a particular aspect/activity
Economic indicators:
1. GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
• Monetary value of all final goods and services produced in an
economy in an accounting year.
• GDP=Consumtion+Invesestment+Government spending +(Export-
Import)
• Most of the economic planners and forecasters have used GDP per
capita because it helps to acknowledge economic welfare.
• It plays a key role in developing policies and plans for development
due to the fact that GDP per capita illustrates whether an economy is
progressing or not in a more understandable manner.
• It is usually measured in US$ and calculated per capita. This makes
comparisons between different countries easier.

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2. Gross National Product (GNP):
It is normally calculated for a year.
An estimated value of total worth of production and services of a citizens
of a country on its land or on foreign land.
GNP=GDP+NR-NP (NR Asset inflow NP asset outflow)
It has application in business and economic forecasting.
Gross national product measures the total monetary values output that is
produced by a country's residents.
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3. Employment/ labor force
•The distribution of labor force across economic sectors and the
proportion of work seeking persons who are not employed
•Sector wise labor force engagement and rate of unemployment.
•For e.g. 65% labor force engaged in Agriculture in Nepal

4. Income:
The sum of all the wages, salaries, profits, interests payments, rents
and other forms of earning received
•Gross national income (GNI) is use to see country's financial status
• GNP And GNI
• Both of them are most familiar economic terms used by government
officials and economist
• They use these terms to evaluate how effective economic policies are,
and to monitor the progress of these policies.

GNP is an index which calculates the economic growth and measures

the market value of goods and services produced for the final uses.
• GNI measures income earned, including income from
investments, that flows back into the country.
• GNI per capita (total GNI/total population)
5. Poverty: Rate of poverty
•Typically, poverty is defined in an absolute sense: a family is poor if
the income falls below a certain level. The World Bank uses per capita
GNP of less than $480 as its criterion of poverty.
•Poverty is also a relative concept. Family income in relation to other
incomes in the country or region is important in determining whether or
not a family feels poor.
•International poverty line in 2015 earning less than $1.90/day
•In 2010 people below the poverty line 24.8%
•After the end of 13th plan it is 21.6 % (2069/70-71/72)
•At the end of 2018 18.7%
6. Landholdings: land ownership, average land
 • 7. National debt
National debt is the total outstanding borrowing of a country’s
government(usually including national and localgovernment).

It is often described as a burden, although public debt may have

economic benefits.

Certainly, debt incurred by one generation may become a heavy

burden for later generations, especially if the money borrowed is
notinvested wisely.

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8. Trade Balance:
• The balance of trade (or net exports, sometimes symbolized as NX) is
the difference between the monetary value of exports and imports of
output in an economy over a certain period.
• It is the relationship between a nation’s imports and exports.
• A positive or favorable balance of trade is known as a trade surplus if
it consists of exporting more than is imported; a negative or
unfavorable balance is referred to as a trade deficit or, informally, a
trade gap.

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•Strength of economic indicators
It helps to measure the economic situation
It is a good measure of growth of country
It provides essential inputs for economic planning

Weakness
Different opinion about the value of economic goods and services (as
used in calculation of GDP)
Difficult to calculate market price, value from subsistence production,
and goods that are not sold or bought...household consumption
Domestic work and community work are not all included in the GNP
Informal economy not included under estimation
• The GDP is a specific measure of economic welfare that does not take
into account important aspects such as leisure time, environmental
quality, freedom, socialjustice, or gender equality.

• Another indicator, the per capita income also does not indicate the
level of income equality among people.

• These indicators do not ensure that the benefits of development have

been equally distributed and have reached equally to all people

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 Social Indicators:
a. Health
Birth Rate :
number of babies born for every 1000 people in a population in a given year. Ex: 9/1000
•Life expectancy
•how long a person in a given country is expected to live
•Average number of years taken for males and females over an extended period of time
•Depends on factors such as health care, education and poverty
•Infant mortality rate: mortality of below 1 year child/1000
•Calorie consumption per capita
•Proportion of under nourished children
•Hospital beds
•Maternal mortality rate
 • Infant Mortality Rate is regarded as one of the most sensitive
indicators of socio-economic progress of a country. This is because it
is an important measure of health inequality (both between and
within countries).
• Studies have shown that infant mortality rates had fallen in many
developing countries of the world over the last few decades.
• It has been observed that there is still a considerable gap between the
richer and the poorerworld regions.
• Paul & Garrett (2014) note that the infant mortality rate in African
continent is more than thirteen times that of European continent

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• Life Expectancy is also considered as a very important measure of
development because it is the end result of all factors contributing
to the quality of life in a country.
• As to measure the inequalities of different countries,governments
should know about variations in life expectancy.

• The incidence of diseases (such as malaria),physical environmental

conditions (such as very low rainfall), human environmental
conditions (such as pollution), and personal life style (such as
smoking)influence the life expectancy (Paul & Garrett, 2014).

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b. Education
•Most important social factors indicating state of country's development
•Through education individual become expert in special area and can
better contribute for development
•Literacy rate
•percentage of people in a given country over the age of 15, with
understanding, can read and write at a basic level
• Enrollment rate in school:
c. Crime :
•An unlawful act punishable by a state. For example Murder, rape , theft
•crime rate......
d. Safety
•Sate of being safe or protected against physical, social , spiritual ,
financial , political , emotional, occupational , psychological factors
e. Expenditure on food:
f. Human right;:
g. Investment in medical care;
Weakness of social indicators
• It is relatively difficult to measure in quantitative terms (crime,
discrimination)
Strength of Social Indicator
• It informs about the quality of life directly
• It provides guidelines for improving the quality of life
• The data pertaining to social indicators are relatively more reliable
• It is less difficult to define or conceptualize social indicators
(understandable to all)
Physical Indicator
• A. Housing
Number of people with their own house to live
Average number of person per room
Proportion of houses with access to safe drinking water
Proportion of houses with access to clean houses and hygienic
condition
• B. Infrastructure Facilities:
Transport, road, irrigation system, electricity, communication
• Strength
• quantifiable road length, house number /type of house/ construction
materials
• easily seen even a laymen can tell the status of development

• Weakness
• reflect total community /country development in terms of
infrastructure
• can be uneven development
• as pace is not uniform everywhere so mis-understanding of
development
• infrastructure developemt at an expense of environment is not
sustainable
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Environmental indicators
• Water quality
• Air quality
• Natural resources availability
• Biodiversity
• Deforestation rate
• Waste generation
Comparisons of GDP,GNP And GNI

C for consumption, I for Business Investment, G for government spending, X export-

Import
For GNI =GDP + citizens/business earning abroad – earning remitted by foreigners to
their home country
GNP =GDP+ Net income inflows- Net income outflows
Cultural and social heritage and dilemma in the rural
development in Nepal
• Heritage: features belonging to the culture of a particular society, such
as traditions, languages, or buildings, that were created in the past and
still have historical importance
• Heritage includes, but is much more than preserving, excavating,
displaying, or restoring a collection of old things. It is both tangible and
intangible, in the sense that ideas and memories--of songs, recipes,
language, dances, and many other elements of who we are and how we
identify ourselves--are as important as historical buildings and
archaeological sites.
• It can be the platform for political recognition, a medium for intercultural
dialogue, a means of ethical reflection, and the potential basis for local
economic development. It is simultaneously local and particular, global and
shared
• The cultural heritages Nepal enlisted in the world heritage list are as follows:
1) Swyambhunath 2) Bhaktapur Durbar Square 3) Changu Narayan Temple
4) Kathmandu Durbar Square 5) Bauddhanath 6) Lumbini 7) Pashupatinath
Culture
• Culture is everything which is socially learned and shared by members of
a society.
• Culture is a broad term which include all languages, customs, tradition and
institution.
• It is the entire social heritage which the individual receives from the group
• The totalities of material and non material entities created by man in the
process of development of human society is called culture.
• Material culture includes home, weapon, machine, tools (tangible objects)
• Non material culture includes norms , values, tradition, language etc
• Cultural heritage: Culture includes language, dress, traditional
practice, literature, religion, dances, belief and others. These aspects
are the assets of the society. Cultural heritages are those things related
to culture which passed on from one generation to next.
• Culture is linked with the human and social development activities.
Nepal is blessed with a rich cultural heritage. Culture has been called
'the way of life for an entire society'.
• The culture of Nepal includes the codes of manners, dress, language,
rituals, norms of behavior and systems of belief. The culture of Nepal
is a unique combination of tradition and novelty
• Cultural heritage is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes
of a group or society that are inherited from past generations, maintained in
the present and bestowed for the benefit of future generations.

• Tangible culture heritage includes (such as buildings, monuments,

landscapes, books, works of art, and artifacts), Intangible culture (such as
folklore, traditions, language, and knowledge), and natural heritage
(including culturally significant landscapes, and biodiversity).
• Importance of cultural heritage
• a) Harmony in the society: Cultural heritages are closely related to people. If
people practice their religious principle properly they will be in discipline. It
helps to develop a harmony in the society.
• b) Integral parts of an environment: The components of cultural heritages
like ponds, rivers etc. are the part of natural environment and components such
as temples, statues are part of physical environment. Therefore cultural
heritages are integral parts of environment.
• c) Sources of information: Cultural heritages contain lots of ancient
civilization knowledge. People could study their ancient civilization.
• d) Various social activities, National festivals, ceremony, religious
places come under the cultural heritage.
• e) Development of religion and culture helps to develop
knowledge and skill related to it. It contributes to the development of
education skills and arts in the country.
• f) Each country has its own cultural heritage. It includes its
originality, specialty of tradition and other valuable aspects.
• g) It has accumulated the originality, characteristics and traditions of
the country. These are the precious properties of the nation.
• Dilemma of Rural Development in Nepal (a difficult situation or
problem)
• Dilemma in definition and concept: economic dev vs sustainable
• Dilemma in model of rural development: which model to follow for
balanced development of rural areas,
• Dilemma in policy: different policy need to formulate/ five year plan ,
separate plan
• Dilemma in indicators: economic growth, poverty, education,
infrastructure etc
• Dilemma in inclusions: inclusion of all caste group, religion, etc upto
when
• Dilemma in new concept of development: globally new concept
emerge sustainable development, human development their relevancy
in Nepal
Issues and problems of rural and community development
in Nepal:
• Inflation : 3.6% in 2021, purchasing power decreases,
• Corruption: Nepal is the 117 least corrupt nation out of 180
countries, according to the 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index
reported by Transparency International. Third most corrupt country in
South Asia.
• Rural dominancy:
• Diversified livelihood:
• Small holder farming:
• Use of technology
• Trade deficit: it is a state of a country where the value of country’s
import is more than the value of its exports. In simpler terms, trade
deficit happens when a country buys more and sells less from other
countries. In 2020 alone, the trade deficit of Nepal was amounted to $
9.86 billion. In Nepal, we have a huge dependency over India i.e. 60%
of our economic activities are with India.
• Mass Poverty
• Mass Poverty is clearly related to the position of workforce in a
country. Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) of Nepal for 2019 is
17.4 which is lower when compared to the MPI of 2014. Despite this,
Nepal is fighting with the economic disparity. A report by Oxfam in
2019 suggests that the richest 10% of the Nepal’s population have
more than 26 times the wealth of the poorest 40% of the population
• Unemployment:
• It is another challenge for economic development. Unemployment similar
to poverty increases the burden and reduces the working hands in an
economy. In 2020, the unemployment rate in Nepal was around 4.44
percent which low but is gradually increasing over the time.
Unemployment and underemployment are reflect the quality of workforce
in a country. Higher labor migration to abroad.
• Dependency in Agriculture and Remittance:
• 68 % of Nepalese population is dependent on agriculture and Agriculture
sector accounts for 23 percent of total GDP. Similarly, remittance
accounts for 24 percent of Nepalese GDP. Nepalese economy is heavily
dependent on these two sector. It clearly reflects the vulnerability of
Nepalese economy. Agriculture sector is also not independent, it is
heavily dependent on Indian market and scalability and success of
agriculture is totally upon Indian market forces
• Lack Of investment in capital projects:
• Around 47% of total GDP is agricultural and remittance. Fulfillment
of basic needs of the citizens, current expenditure and corruption
empties the national reserves. There is nothing left from the national
reserves that actually invest in capital projects.
• For the FY 2078/79, Rs. 347 billion has been allocated for capital
expenditure which is 21 percent of the total budget. Capital investment
promotes the productivity in the country and make a country march
towards self-reliant status
• Lack of Industries and Enterprises
• This is the outcome of lack of capital projects. Nepalese investments
are either fulfilling the basic needs or are investment in regular non-
risky projects. Only around 11% of Nepal’s GDP comes from industry
sector which is very low for a economy.
• Unequal access to productive assets such as land and credit critically
constrain equal access to economic opportunities
• Institutional capacity and governance
• Rural risks and vulnerability
• Private sector
• Inadequate physical infrastructure
• Stagnation of agriculture
• Economic dependency
• Less benefiting from globalization:
Thank You
 Poverty and Human Poverty, Relative
Deprivation, Poverty in SAARC Countries and
SAARC declaration in Poverty alleviation.

Ghanshyam Kandel
Asst. Professor
CNRM, Purunchaur
AFU
Relative deprivation and human poverty
• Relative deprivation, is the lack of resources to sustain the diet, lifestyle, activities and
amenities that an individual or group are familiarized to or that are widely encouraged or
approved in the society to which they belong.
• It is a term used in social sciences to describe feelings or measures of economic, political,
or social deprivation that are relative rather than absolute. For example marginalization in
education refers to educational deprivation
•The term is intimately linked to the similar terms poverty and social exclusion..
•Relative deprivation may also be defined as the experience of being deprived of something
to which one believes oneself to be entitled.
•This refers to the discontent people feel when they compare their positions to others and
realize that they have less of what they believe themselves to be entitled than those around
them
Theory of relative deprivation:(theory of social
movement)
• Relative deprivation theory is a concept developed by Stouffer(1949)
• This theory holds that social movement emerge when people feel
deprived or mistreated relatively either to how others are treated or to
how they feel they should be treated.
• Absolute deprivation does not cause social movement. In a country where
everyone is poor , there is great absolute deprivation, but no relative
deprivation.
• Gurr explains the term "relative deprivation," which is the discrepancy
between what people think they deserve, and what they actually think
they can get.
• Value expectations are understood as goods and life conditions individuals
think deserve
• value capabilities are goods and life conditions individuals can attain (or
maintain) with the means
Types of relative deprivation:
• Decremental Deprivation: value expectation remains same as
capabilities drop
• Progressive Deprivation: value expectations grow at same rate as
value capabilities, then value capabilities begin to drop…promise
unfulfilled.
• Aspirational Deprivation: increase in expected values while value
capabilities remain the same.
• Decremental deprivation appears when value expectations within a
group are constant (or vary only slightly) over a long period of time,
while value capabilities decline substantially. In this pattern of
deprivation, conflict is created because people are not capable of
achieving what they once were and what they would like to achieve.
Conflicts mostly emerge because of the creation of decremental
deprivation.
• In the case of aspirational deprivation, value expectations are
substantially increased without any increase in capabilities for their
fulfilment.
• Individuals or groups who are undergoing aspirational deprivation
have not experienced any loss, but frustration emerges because they
cannot attain new, notably higher expectations.
• Progressive deprivation occurs when during a prolonged period of time
both value expectations and capabilities evenly increase because of the
constant progress.
• If, after a period of growth, a sharp decline in capabilities occurs,
progressive deprivation may appear. Examples of progressive deprivation
are usually found in societies that have gone through ideological and
systemic changes (for instance, a period of economic depression in
growing economies like the one in South Asia in 1997).
Poverty and Human poverty
Poverty is defined as the condition of not having sufficient resources. Traditionally, we
think poverty in a purely economic sense.
• However, a person living in poverty may be lacking more resources than just money. The
resources can include:
• Physical, as in health and mobility.
• Mental, as in the basic literacy skills to deal with the tasks of everyday life.
• Emotional, as in the capacity to control and choose responses to a situation.
• Support systems, as in friends, family, can provide assistance in crisis.
• Role models and Relationships, as in people who are nurturing and set a good example.
• Spiritual, as in a belief in divine purpose not necessarily participation in organized
religion.
All of these resources are connected. For example, people who don't have enough money to
pay for health services may not get the care needed to treat depression or other forms of
mental illness. These untreated problems can lead to difficulty maintaining relationships and
the support systems that would help them deal with crisis situations effectively
• Absolute poverty is the complete lack of the means necessary to meet
basic personal needs, such as food, clothing and shelter.

• Relative poverty: relative poverty occurs when a person cannot meet

a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same
time and place
 Human Poverty
• Human poverty is a term that defines that poverty is not just limited to
the economic status of the people but rather spreads in various other
sectors which include lack of education, negligence of health care
system, discrimination and disparity.
• Abolishing poverty from the country should no be the only aim of the
authorities but to abolish human poverty must be the aim.
• Women, female infants and elderly are considered to the poorest of the
poor. This is because, in a poor household, these people suffer the most
and are deprived of the maximum necessities in life.
•
Human poverty is a concept that expands the traditional understanding of
poverty beyond purely economic measures. It takes into account a range of
factors that contribute to a person's overall well-being and quality of life.
• Human poverty emphasizes the multidimensional nature of poverty and aims
to capture not only income or material deprivation but also other aspects that
affect human dignity and capabilities
• Key dimensions of human poverty are ,
• Income , education , health , social inclusion, empowerment etc
• The Human Poverty Index (HPI) was an indication of the poverty of
community in a country, developed by the United Nations to complement
the Human Development Index (HDI) and was first reported as part of the
Human Deprivation Report in 1997.
• The HPI aimed to provide a more comprehensive measure of poverty by
considering not only income but also other dimensions of human well-being.
• It was considered to better reflect the extent of deprivation in deprived
countries compared to the HDI. In 2010, it was supplanted by the
UN's Multidimensional Poverty Index.
• concentrates on the deprivation in the three essential elements of life already
reflected in the HDI: longevity, knowledge and a decent standard of living.
• The HPI is derived separately for developing countries (HPI-1) and a group of
select high-income OECD countries (HPI-2) to better reflect socio-economic
differences and also the widely different measures of deprivation in the two
groups
What is human poverty index HPI 1 and HPI 2
• The HPI 1 measure the human deprivation in the same three aspects of
human development as in the HdI (longevity, knowledge and a decent
standard of living)
• For HPI 1: deprivation in longevity are measured by the probability of not
surviving to 40 (probability of death below 40 years);
• deprivation in knowledge are measured by percentage of adults who are
illiterate;
• deprivation in a decent standard of living are measured by two
variables; percentage of people not having sustainable access to an
improved water source and the percentage of children below the age of
five who are underweight.
• HPI 2: in addition to three dimension of HPI 1, social exclusion added

• For HPI 2: deprivation in longevity are measured by the probability at birth

of not surviving to 60 age;
• deprivation in knowledge are measured by the percentage of adults lacking
functional literacy skills,
• deprivation in a decent standard of living are measured by the percentage
of people living below the poverty line, and social exclusion is measured by
the rate of long term unemployment of the labour force.
• Poverty is the state of not having enough material possessions or income for
a person's basic needs.
• Absolute poverty is the complete lack of the means necessary to meet basic
personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter.
• The floor at which absolute poverty is defined is always about the same,
independent of the person's permanent location or era.
• On the other hand, relative poverty occurs when a person cannot meet a
minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and
place. Therefore, the floor at which relative poverty is defined varies from
one country to another, or from one society to another.
• As of 2019, most people on the planet live in poverty: 85% live on less than
$30 per day, two-thirds live on less than $10 per day, and 10% live on less
than $1.90 per day (extreme poverty)
Types of poverty (On the basis of social, economic and political aspects)

1. Absolute poverty.
2. Relative Poverty.
3. Situational Poverty.
4. Generational Poverty.
5. Rural Poverty.
6. Urban Poverty.
1.Absolute Poverty:
Also known as extreme poverty or abject poverty, it involves the
scarcity of basic food, clean water, health, shelter, education and
information.
Those who belong to absolute poverty tend to struggle to live and
experience a lot of child deaths from preventable diseases like malaria,
cholera and water-contamination related diseases.
 Absolute Poverty is usually uncommon in developed countries
It was first introduced in 1990, the “dollar a day” poverty line
measured absolute poverty by the standards of the world's poorest
countries. In October 2015, the World Bank reset it to $1.90 a day.
This number is controversial; therefore each nation has its own
threshold for absolute poverty line.
2. Relative Poverty:
It is defined from the social perspective that is living standard compared to the
economic standards of population living in surroundings. Hence it is a measure
of income inequality.
For example, a family can be considered poor if it cannot afford vacations, or
cannot buy presents for children at Christmas, or cannot send its young to the
university.
Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of the population with
income less than some fixed proportion of median income.
• 3. Situational Poverty:
• It is a temporary type of poverty based on occurrence of an adverse
event like environmental disaster, job loss and severe health problem.

• People can help themselves even with a small assistance, as the

poverty comes because of unfortunate event.
• 4. Generational Poverty:
• It is handed over to individual and families from one generation to the
one. This is more complicated as there is no escape because the people
are trapped in its cause and unable to access the tools required to get
out of it.

“Occurs in families where at least two generations have been born

into poverty. Families living in this type of poverty are not equipped
with the tools to move out of their situation” (Jensen, 2009).
• 5. Rural Poverty:
It occurs in rural areas with population below 50,000. It is the area where
there are less job opportunities, less access to services, less support for
disabilities and quality education opportunities.
People are tending to live mostly on the farming and other menial work
available to the surroundings.
The rural poverty rate is growing and has exceeded the urban rate every
year since data collection began in the 1960s.
The difference between the two poverty rates has averaged about 5 percent
for the last 30 years, with urban rates near 10–15 percent and rural rates
near 15–20 percent (Jolliffe, 2004).
6. Urban Poverty:
• It occurs in the metropolitan areas with population over 50,000. These
are some major challenges faced by the Urban Poor:
• Limited access to health and education.
• Inadequate housing and services.
• Violent and unhealthy environment because of overcrowding.
• Little or no social protection mechanism.
Another approach of defining poverty income poverty and
non income poverty:
• Income poverty happens when a household takes in less than one US
dollar per day. This means that people will not have enough food or
medicine and they will have poor clothes and houses.
• Income poverty is due to people not having access to money or other
assets. If people do not have any other assets like land to grow their
own food, then income poverty can result in stunted growth and
early death.
• The best way to reduce income poverty is to encourage and support
the development of effective businesses (small, medium and large)
which make good use of our natural resources and talents to create
wealth and jobs
• Non income poverty happens when people may have a little bit of money
but otherwise the quality of their life is not good.
• They do not have access to affordable social and physical services
(schooling, health care, medicines, safe water, good sanitation, good
transport) and they may not feel safe in their homes either because they
cannot trust the authorities or because they belong to some particularly
vulnerable group
• The best way to reduce non-income poverty it to make sure that people have
access to affordable and good quality social services and infrastructure, that
they feel secure in their homes, that they trust the authorities and, if they are
vulnerable, that there are safety net programmes to protect them
Vicious cycle of Poverty
• The vicious cycle of poverty deals with if a man is poor; the probability of being poor
to poorest is higher and vice versa for rich man is being richer and richer.
• The main theme of this cycle is “poverty breed poverty”.
Why poor remains poor? (poverty trap or deprivation
trap)
• The poor remain poor due to poverty trap or deprivation trap.
• The poor become poor and difficult to take out from the trap.
• In case of Nepalese society, in spite of development practices, rural
society is always in trap due to
• i) isolation ii) powerlessness (political and social), iii) vulnerability
and iv) physical weakness.
• According to R. Chamber, the interrelated elements of poverty are
diagrammatic below.
Elements of poverty trap/deprivation trap
Poverty line
• After 19th century researcher trying to fix yardstick for poverty called as
poverty line for below which poverty begins and above which poverty
ends.
• Such a yardstick is believed to be universal in character and would be
applicable to all societies.
• This concept is known as “absolute poverty”.
• Poverty line is a threshold income below which one is considered to be
poor. Thus the specification of the poverty line is of crucial in
identifying poor.
• The world bank set poverty line of $1.90
• 2.15$ from 2022
• In poverty analysis literature one encounters three types of poverty lines,
‘relative’, ‘absolute’ and ‘subjective’.
1. The relative poverty line is simply a cut-off point. It may be the point in
the welfare distribution below which a specified proportion lie, or it may be
the proportion of population that lie below half of the median income.
The relative poverty line is both transparent and simple to calculate, but it is
not comparable across regions with different income levels, nor it permit ready
comparison over time.
2. An absolute poverty line is linked to a minimum welfare level necessary
for life as a human being. Defining the poverty line in this way allows
comparisons to be made over time or across groups, as it would guarantee that
two individuals irrespective of where they live are treated in the same way.
Once the welfare level distinguishing the ‘poor’ from the ‘non-poor’ is defined,
monitoring poverty over time also becomes possible.
3. A subjective poverty line
is defined in terms of the minimum level of income that a person feels is
required to meet his/her basic needs. This approach leads to different
poverty lines for people in different regions and for the same people over
time but with the same level of welfare.
This is because the minimum level of income perceived as being required to
meet basic needs may differ between people in different areas and for the
same people over time.
Incidence of poverty in Nepal (poverty rate and data of Nepal)
According to the measurement of Multi-dimensional Poverty Index, 28.6 percent Nepalese have been
multi-dimensionally poor. Among the seven Provinces, Karnali Province has the highest level of
multidimensional poverty whereas the lowest level is in Province No 3 (economic survey 2017)

Year 1995 2003 2008 2011 2013 2015 2018 2023

% of 42 31 24.7 25.2 23.8 21.6 21 15.1
populatio
n below
poverty
line
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)
• The Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) is a measure used to
assess poverty on multiple dimensions, providing a more holistic view
of poverty than traditional income-based measures.
• It was developed by the Oxford Poverty and Human Development
Initiative (OPHI) and the United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP). The MPI was first introduced in the United Nations
Development Programme's Human Development Report in 2010.
Causes of poverty in Nepal
• Low economic growth rate: low per capita income growth
• Low agricultural growth rate: monsoon variation and effect of
climate change ---poor growth in agriculture
• Limited impact of non agriculture sector: ag depended economy
and contribution form other sector is limited
• Ineffective public service delivery: ineffective service delivery by the
government and lack of access of the poor to the service delivered by
the private sector
• Lack of good governance : lack of responsibility, transparency, legal
and institutional framework with the open and competitive market
environment
• Insecurity and political instability:
• Lack of program achievement and sustainability:
• Social discrimination:
• Uneven development: only in ktm and city area
• Inadequate infrastructure facilities: road, electricity
Ways of society poverty reduction

Agricultural Development
Investment on private sector
Population control
Promotion of industry
Equal distribution of resources
Exploitation of potential natural resources
Increase economic growth rate
Participatory program planning
Infrastructure development
Concept of Social Mobilization, definition,
purpose, strategy of implementing social
mobilization

Ghanshyam Kandel
Asst. professor
CNRM, Purunchaur
Social- In very simple terms, the expression social means:
• relationship between an organization of people and the community; or,
• An informal gathering or party organized by a group of people.

Mobilization means-
(mobilization ---a military term , to mobilize means prepare forces for
actions)
• to make someone (or something) ready for action (or service);or,
• to organize (people) with a certain purpose
Therefore, the term Social Mobilization, in a broader sense means
organizing people living in the same community with a specific purpose.

A more comprehensive definition of social mobilization suggest that it is

a dynamic and participatory process of empowering people, especially
the poor and the socially excluded, for their socio-cultural political and
economic upliftment in a sustainable manner.
• Social Mobilization (SM), as defined by UNICEF, is a broad-scale movement
to engage people’s participation in achieving a specific development or health
goal through self-reliant efforts — those that depend on their own resources and
strengths.
• It involves all relevant segments of society: policymakers and other decision-
makers, opinion leaders, the media, bureaucrats and technical experts,
professional associations, religious groups, the private sector, NGOs,
community members, and individuals.
• It is a planned decentralized process that seeks to facilitate change through a
range of players engaged in interrelated and complementary efforts. It takes into
account the felt needs of the people, embraces the critical principle of
community involvement, and seeks to empower individuals and groups for
action.
• Mobilizing the necessary resources, disseminating information tailored to
varying audiences, generating intersectoral support, and fostering cross-
professional alliances are part of the process
• Definition of social mobilisation provided by Biggs et al (2004:29):
‘Social mobilisation – implies organising people into community level
groups, to accomplish specific aims and objectives, according to locally
identified needs and desires, and project or programme objectives.
• It is an attempt to harness and enhance human capacity i.e. the
willingness of local people to help themselves. Often one of the main
social mobilisation goals is to mobilise the poor, socially-excluded,
marginalised and deprived people (women, Dalits, poor Janajatis and the
ultra-poor of any caste/ethnicity), to realise their power and to achieve
voice and agency through collective action.
• ‘Good’ social mobilisation empowers group members through the
democratic processes of participatory planning and action, as well as
through capacity-building and benefit-sharing’.
• Social Mobilization is the cornerstone of participatory approaches in all types of rural
development activities. It is an approach and tool that enables people to organize for
collective actions by pooling resources and building harmony to resolve common
problems and work towards community advancement.
• Social Mobilization is a powerful instrument for strengthening human and institutional
resources development at local level.
• Broadly, social mobilization means organizing people living in a community to bring
about elements of change, whether in the realm of economics, politics, religion, culture or
even health practices
• In summary social mobilization is to help people realize this strength and use this for
social, economic and psychological changes
to organise the people
 Institutionalize them into the institution
build their capabilities
Background to social mobilization
• Nepal has a long tradition of social mobilization. It has become an
integral part of many development programmes and it has been
recognized in the 10th Five-year Plan and the 3-year Interim Plan
as a means for contributing to the national poverty reduction goal.
• From a transactional to a transformational approach
• in Nepal social mobilisation has largely developed as a process for
organising people into groups and supporting those groups. Such
groups then become responsible for delivering services and mobilising
resources (financial and human) for their members.
• This type of social mobilisation is sometimes called the transactional
approach. It has been broadly successful in catering to the needs of
group members and enhancing their livelihoods.
• Poor and socially marginalized people have not always benefited from the
transactional approach to social mobilization. Specific barriers to their
involvement in group activities and sharing of benefits have sometimes not
been addressed.
• Now, since the Government of Nepal specifically aims to transform power
structures and develop economic policies that favour disadvantaged groups
(DAGs), including the poor, women, Dalits, Madhesis and Janajatis, citizens
rights have become a major focus of all development programmes.
• Consequently a different approach to social mobilization is needed.
• The new focus for social mobilization is on empowering all citizens to engage
with the state, building their capacity to voice their views, to influence policy
and development programmes according to their own priorities, to claim assets
and services from government and to make local government and service
providers accountable to them.
• This is called a transformational approach to social mobilization (sometimes
called citizen mobilization).
• In some cases a combination of transactional and transformational approaches
has been successfully developed
• Transformational processes: REFLECT and power analysis: For those
following a more gradual transformational approach to mobilisation
and group formation generally a REFLECT (Regenerated Freirean
Literacy through Empowering Community Technique) is used.
• This has been popular in Nepal since 1998. Many organisations use
REFLECT as a tool for learning, empowerment and social action.
• In these centres, issue-based discussions are the basis for literacy
skills but more importantly, it engages community women and
men as innovators, leaders and change agents against injustice
and exclusion.
• Besides, enabling and facilitating efforts of excluded groups and
communities for positive change in their lives, REFLECT also
empowers these groups to organise themselves, claim and enjoy their
rights (Hickey and Mohan, 2004).
• REFLECT circle is a forum where the disadvantaged are brought together to
identify, analyse and take actions on issues that directly affect them.
• The main purpose of the circle is the empowerment of the poor and excluded.
The facilitator of the circle helps to educate the members on their rights and
support them to take actions to ensure access to services.
• It helps to capacitate members to advocate and lobby for their rights. The circle
not only takes up the issues of the disadvantaged, it also encourages the
members to fight for the rights of the community as a whole.
• On the one hand it encourages the poor to bargain with the richer section in the
community and side by side it also takes up the issue of the whole community,
including that of the rich and the elite, up to VDC and the district level.
• In this way the circle can be effective to ensure the rights of the disadvantaged
on the one hand and gather support of the rich and the elite of the community on
the other hand.
Concepts of social mobilization (building
blocks of social mobilization):
• As defined by famous Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire, social
mobilization is a process of making conscientization. By using this
definition, social mobilization embraces other behavior change
strategies and skills including advocacy, community mobilization,
social marketing and behavior change communication.
• All of these strategies can be used in social mobilization movement
to promote conscientization. (conscientization a state of critical
consciousness as defined by the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire)
• Community mobilization:
• Uses deliberate, participatory process to involve local institutions, leaders,
community groups and members of the community to organize for collective action
toward a common purposes.
• Community mobilization is characterized by respect for the community and its need.
• Advocacy:
• Is a process that involves a series of actions conducted by organized citizens in order
to transform power relations.
• Purpose of advocacy is to achieve specific policy changes, program changes, or
allocation of resources that benefit the population involved in this process.
• These changes can take place in public and private sector.
• Effective advocacy is conducted according to a strategic plan and within a reasonable
time frame.
• Behavior change communication (BCC)
• Is designed to achieve measurable objectives; it reaches and involves
specific audience, positions and health practices persuasively as a
benefits in the minds of the intended audiences.
• BCC recognizes that behavior change is a process and that people
usually move through several intermediate steps before they change
their behavior.
• Social marketing:
• Promotes and sells products, ideas, or services that are considered to
have social values, using a variety of outlets and marketing
approaches. Social marketing may not always be a component of
social mobilization.
• SOCIAL PRODUCT – IDEA (belief, attitude, value) – PRACTICE
(behavior, action) – PRODUCT/TANGIBLE OBJECT (e.g., fortified
food and drinks, environmental friendly materials, etc.)
Social mobilization As a Brand
• The message, style of work, and the group of social mobilizers that are involved in
the process of social mobilization are implicated in the form of a brand.
• The better the brand , the more effective its service and outcome. The brand of
social mobilization process is due to its success factors in process and the characters
of social mobilizers.
• James Yen (1920-1980) summarized following characteristics of social mobilization
as
• a. success factor:
Simplicity:msg/technique should be simple to understand by target groups
Economical: cost effective in terms of time and resources
Demand Based: embody aspirations
Resources availability: resources are necessary but not impossible to get
Personnel : employee/cadre possessing 4 C characters …
 (4 C characters as competent, creative, committed, characters )
• Competent in his/her field of specialization
• Creative enough to translate difficult technical knowledge
into simpler form to be understood to masses including
illiterate people
• Committed to achieve the goal irrespective of time it
takes and struggle it requires
• Character- able to maintain ideal character
b. Qualities of social mobilizers:
• Social mobilisers are involved in the task of transforming society. There is no consensus o
the personal qualities required, but the following are thought to be important for a successfu
and exemplary social mobilise. Although these are difficult qualities to measure, interviewer
should try to assess whether candidates have these:
1. Punctuality
2. Empathy with poor and disadvantaged people
3. Gender sensitivity
4. Hard working
5. Ability to take decisions independently
6. Disciplined Of high moral character
7. Having the necessary subject matter skills and knowledge
8. Dependability
9. Analytical and logical
10. Commitment to duty
11. Patient
12. Good listening skills
13. Well-behaved
14. Ability to speak the local language(s)
15. Softly spoken and polite
16. Child sensitive and able to communicate with children
Purpose of social mobilization
• The aim of social social mobilization is to empower people and society to
improve peoples live through livelihood enhancement activities and through
better service delivery (SMG, 2014). Makes people aware of right and
responsibilities in societies and help to breakdown social barriers especially
for disadvantaged group.
1.Religious: to establish new religion or disseminating information on religion
2.Political- to establish a specific political ideology or to disseminate
information
3.Socio-economic- poverty alleviation
4.Cultural- to bring changes in social norms, food habits, clothing 5.National-
war, fight for independence, immunization etc.
5.National-to wage a war, to fight for independence, to initiate an
immunization programme, etc
Benefits of Social mobilization:
• Inclusion of the poorest into the development process
• Inclusion of women into the development process
• Greater unity and social cohesion
• Creation of sustainable rather than project based organization
• Ability of the poor people to develop linkages with external stakeholders for
their collective voices to be heard
• Increase in social capital
• Grass roots driven development agenda, compared to donor driven agendas
• Local capacities being built in management , problem identification and
solving and financial literacy
• Increase in local resources mobilization through savings, membership fees
and local donations, in addition to resources from external organization
• Assumption of social mobilization
It is expected that adequate support and cooperation will be available at the
grassroots to carry out activities as mentioned
• 1. People have willingness to help themselves for the benefit of self and the
community as a whole
• 2. Organization, capital and skills are effective every where as a fundamental
elements of development
• 3. The social, cultural, political, economic, geographical and environmental
condition outline the actual form of development in any place
• 4. People sharing the same geographical proximity and having common interest
have willingness to work in an organized way
• 5. Participation of all interest group is more effective for sustainability of the
development efforts
• 6. People consent to enter into partnership with view to receive sectoral service and
facilities
Strategies of Social mobilization
• The seven strategies of social mobilization:
1)Dialogue:
2)Capacity Buildings:
3) Social Responsibility:
4) Transparency and Accountability
5)Sustainability
6) Gender
7)Do no harm
• 1. Dialogue:
• Encouraging open and inclusive dialogue is crucial in social mobilization. This
involves facilitating conversations among community members, stakeholders, and
relevant parties.
• help to identify issues, build consensus, and foster a sense of community
ownership and participation.
2. Capacity Building:
• strengthening the skills, knowledge, and resources of individuals and communities.
• This strategy aims to empower people to take an active role in their development,
enabling them to identify and address challenges effectively
3. Social Responsibility:
• promoting a sense of responsibility for addressing social issues and contributing
to positive change
4. Transparency and Accountability:
 Transparency involves openness and clarity in decision-making processes,
while accountability involves being answerable for one's actions.
 These principles are critical in social mobilization to build trust among
stakeholders and ensure that actions align with the interests of the community.

5. Sustainability
Sustainability in social mobilization refers to the long-term impact and viability of
initiatives.
6. Gender:
• Gender considerations involve recognizing and addressing the specific needs, roles,
and contributions of both men and women in social mobilization efforts.
• Promoting gender equality is essential for ensuring that interventions are inclusive
and responsive to the diverse needs of communities.
7. Do no Harm:
• This strategy involves careful planning and assessment to minimize potential harm
and prioritize the well-being of individuals and communities.
Types of social mobilization program in Nepal
• Depending on the target (section\ of people in a society) to be served, the
type of activity to be established or the predefined purpose for which social
mobilization is to be used as an entry point, social mobilization can differ by
two main perspectives namely, those from the viewpoint of the
beneficiaries and those from the viewpoint of activities.
• Targeted- Social mobilization that aims to include a certain section of society
(e.g. women, small farmer, etc) is commonly referred to as 'targeted socially
mobilization include Small farmers development programme and women
development programme
• Broad based- An all encompassing notion of social mobilization, which
target all section or classes of society, is known as' broad based social
mobilization'. Examples of broad based social mobilization initiatives
include programmes implemented through Users 'Group (UGs) for irrigated,
drinking water and forestry such as Irrigation Sector project (ISP), Drinking
water supply and sanitation programme (DWSSP), ),Local Governance
Programme (LGP) Rural environment development programme (REDP
• From the Viewpoint of Activities
• Single Sector- Single sector based social-mobilization takes into
considerations only one sector (e.g. sericulture, immunization,
vegetable farming, literacy campaign, irrigation, etc) as an entry
point to achieve defined objectives
• Multi Sector- Multi Sector based social mobilization incorporates all
possible sectoral activities as entry points to achieve certain objectives.
From Viewpoints of Time Factor

Short term Social mobilization which takes very short period of time to
achieve the goal
e.g. administration of polio drops
Mid term Social mobilization which take 3-5 years to achieve the goal.
Sericulture development program
Local energy development programme
Long term More than 10 years,
Poverty alleviation, Women development etc
• Implementation model in the process of social mobilization
Social mobilization agency may work in two models that can be characterized as
cadre based and staff based. Organization difference in social mobilization approach
come in staffing.
Staff based models:
• In staff based model the social mobilizers are the employee of the implementation
agency.
• These staff are active at all levels from mobilizing individuals’ household to
perusing outside funding, from managing relationship with local government to
undertaking evaluation
• This range tend to reduce the number of hhs that can be mobilized per staff
• Success depends on presence of staff members and difficult to sustain when
program withdraw
Cadre based model
• In the cadre based model social mobilizers work at community level and
help the community organization to identify and select the community
leaders or genuine leaders who become directly accountable to community
organization.
• These genuine cadres who are members of the community itself work to
mobilize the individuals and household and become link between the people
and social mobilize agency.
• In this way single social mobilizer can cover more territory as the local
community leaders do much of the ground work.
• Community member motivated to work as a group leader manage the part
of the process
• These mechanism reduces the cost of social mobilization
• The cadres like to be remain the village even when donor funded efforts
come to end
• SM: A collective effort
• Given its multi dimensional nature, poverty alleviation cannot be managed
in isolation by a single social mobilizer. Rather, it can be effectively tackled
through a sustained effort of a group of sectoral experts hence calling out
for a collective effort. Generally, a SM team consists of persons related with
the following sectors:
• Group and institutional development
• Saving credit and enterprise development
• Physical infrastructure development
• Gender, equity and social inclusion
• Monitoring, evaluation and research
• Agriculture, forestry, livestock, public health
• Other sector as per need
Stages of social mobilization:
Stage I: Organization Development
• During the course of the overall development of villages/ settlements in general, and in the context of poverty
alleviation in particular, the villagers are made aware of the theoretical/ Practical aspects of social
mobilization and the ways they could participate in the programme and develop grassroots institutions. Stage I
of the social mobilization process provides grounds for dealing with these aspects.
 Main activities involved
 Enter into a VDC/ community
 Collect data and prepare a village profile
 Make contacts at the village settlement level and raise awareness
 Make necessary arrangement if and when the inhabitants of the village/ settlements show willingness to take
part in the process of organizational development, organizational development
 Follow up regularly and enhance the capacity of the Vos
• Initiate CMC – a loose federation of VOs at the VDC level
• At the end of this stage, the grassroots institutions (VOs and CMCs) become mature and the necessary policy/
rules/regulation are put in force. Furthermore, the VO- members become adapt in managing their institutions
by themselves.
 Cmc …chairpersons manger conference
• Stage II: Planning / Identification of Opportunities
• In stage II of the social mobilization process, identification and prioritization of
development opportunities relevant for the household and the community is done,
cost is estimated for those opportunities and sources of funding are identified
• Main Activities Involved:
Identify household level opportunities
Prepare settlement/ community level investment plan for physical infrastructures
Explore social needs at the community level
 Explore VDC level requirement for human resource development
Identify and qualify the means required to materialize the above needs and
opportunities
At the end of this stage, VOs/ CMCs learn to follow participatory planning process
and mobilize resources
• Stage III: Implementation of Opportunities
• During this stage, effort is made to mobilize resources required to execute plans
for the prosperity of households and development of the community. Furthermore,
a foundation is fostered for the sustainability of the existing services/ facilities.
• Main Activities Involved:
• Inculcate the habits of participating in the VDC level planning workshop.
• Inculcate the habit of entering into partnership with various donors, government/
non government agencies, private firms through MOA, TOP and take
responsibility as per the terms and conditions spelled out in the MOA and TOP
• Teach the organization how to mobilize resources
• Provide training to the members regarding the implementation of plans
• Provide support in laying the foundation for monitoring, reporting, sustainability
and public auditing
• At the end of stage VOs/CMCs learn to carry out participatory monitoring of
the activities implemented with support from grassroots institutions
• Stage IV: Shaping the future
• Arrangement is made during this stage to shape the future based on the evaluation
of activities carried out in the previous year. The main purpose is to ensure that all
the members become better off in the future and institutional development gets
further strengthened.
• Main Activities Involved:
• Carryout participatory evaluation to assess the task that were planned to be carried
out, those that were actually carried out and those not yet executed
• Explore the activities that should be carried out to ensure the availability of
services/ supports deemed essential for the benefit all the VO- member and improve
the existing policies or formulate new policies to further strengthen the
organization.
• At the end of this stage, VOs/ CMC are able to plan for the next cycle.
Dialogues in social mobilization:
• Formal dialogues are tools that help carry out the proposed activities. These
dialogues are two way communications between the programme staff and the
villagers/ VO- members.
• Subject matter of the dialogues varies according to stage in which they are
conducted. None the less, in the each dialogue, the communication focuses
on building partnership and stipulating the terms of partnership between
the programme and the villagers/ VOs.
• Based on it, the programme and the villagers/VOs then work toward meeting
their responsibilities as spelled out in the terms of partnership.
• In any stage, dialogues is held first and followed thereafter by
implementation (as per the conclusion reached during the dialogues).
• During the First Dialogue – the villagers are made aware about the
importance of organization, capital (saving) and skill enhancement. Upon
completion of this dialogue, the villagers form an organization based on the
terms and conditions set during the dialogue.
• During the Second Dialogue – In the course of searching for opportunities
that might benefit the members, discussions (dialogues) are held with VOs
regarding their own initiatives and the type of support the programme can
extend towards them. According to the terms and conditions, the programme
assists in identification and prioritization of needs.
• During the Third Dialogue – While implementing the prioritized
opportunities, the VOs might get assistance from the programme. In that
case, dialogue id held to set terms of partnership and resources is handed
over accordingly.

• During the Forth Dialogue – Having completed the evaluation of changes

that took place in the social and economic status of the VO- members and
the stability/ strength of the organizations, discussion (dialogue) is held
between the programme and the VOs to agree on the ways to further
enhance the effectiveness of the VOs and raise the living standards of the
VOs members. Upon completion of this dialogue, both parties take actions
according to the terms stipulated in the dialogue.
Social mobilization and good governance
Social mobilization as a dynamic process
Peoples participation, Participatory planning
Social mobilization and three domain of change (three
dimension of transformation)
The goal of social mobilization is the
production of inclusive local development
through community led development that
enables active engagement of citizens from
all section of society

To do this social mobilization support a

series of action and changes in the areas of
1. Assets and Services
2. Voice and influences
3. Policies and Institutions
• Success of social mobilization will be judged on its effectiveness in supporting change in each of these three
domains.

• These will include: Social mobilization processes to increase voice and agency to influence the decisions and
processes that affect people’s lives;

• changes to the enabling institutional environment at macro-, meso- and micro-levels that lead to changes in
practices, attitudes and behaviors to the poor and excluded (through for example implementation of GESI
strategy, changes to planning practices, budgetary allocations etc);

• and changes to the access to assets and services by ensuring the reach of services to the poor and excluded.

• The role of the social mobilization process is not to deliver these assets and services directly but through the
voice and agency work to help individuals to claim from existing resources within a VDC or municipality,
from groups and from government.
Social mobilization as a dynamic process
• Message of social mobilization teach new lessons to the people. The new
techniques bring a change in their traditional thinking pattern. The
traditional attitudes get changed due to the change in their thinking pattern.
• Such attitude change in large populace means beginning of new tradition.
This new tradition get institutionalized in the society. However the society
remains dynamic because of so many others factors.
• Because of this, the institutionalized new tradition also get obsolete. Upon
realizing this stage, the message of social mobilization should be improved
and re-disseminated among the people in form of new learning, thus the
cycle keeps going.
• Therefore, the process of social mobilization should be updated with
changing social environment. Nonetheless, objective of social mobilization
ought to remain the same even after changing the procedural part o to suit
the time, place and environment.
Social mobilization and good governance
• "governance" means: the process of decision-making and the process by
which decisions are implemented (or not implemented)
• good governance is a way of measuring how
public institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources in a
preferred way.
• Generally social mobilization conducted in four stages: institutional, project
planning, implementation and evaluation
• The initial goal of social mobilization is the creation of democratically self
governed community organization, which then take responsibility for and gain
control over the development of the community.
• To be successful and have the greatest impact on poverty reduction, these
organization must meet the criteria of good governance at any level.
Mobilization and good governance
• Ownership: social mobilization creates the feeling of ownership through genuine
participation by all community members
• Equity : equitable sharing of benefits of development among all members including
DAGs.
• Accountability: Decision-makers in government, the private sector and civil society
organizations are accountable to the public, as well as to institutional stakeholders. This
accountability differs depending on the organizations and whether the decision is internal
or external to an organization
• Transparency: Transparency is built on the free flow of information. Processes,
institutions and information are directly accessible to those concerned with them, and
enough information is provided to understand and monitor them
• Rule of the law: decisions are consistent with relevant legislation or common law and are
within the power of council
• Responsive : SMA should always try to serve the needs of the entire community while
balancing competing interests in a timely, appropriate and responsive manner
• Effectiveness and efficiency : Processes and institutions produce results that meet needs
while making the best use of resources.
• Participatory : Anyone affected by or interested in a decision should have the
opportunity to participate in the process for making that decision.
 Package of social mobilization:
Conceptual and Program package
Basis/ package of social mobilization:
Conceptual package/ basic elements / three
mantras of SM
 These package has been used since
hundred years ago in different
development work or poverty alleviation
program around the world.
 Package consist of three elements
namely, capital, skills and
organization.
 Also called three mantras of social
mobilization.
Conceptual package of SM and major outputs
Program bases/package of SM
• Program package helps to enhance the
capacity of organization and strengthening
of the social capital.
• With enhanced capacity and social capital
, organization will function in proper
manner to serve various social and
economic benefit.
• Program Package consist of four different
kind of activities:
Four different activities under program Package
of SM:
• Productive Physical Infrastructure: investment in physical infrastructure. Road,
Buildings, industry, electricity, drinking water, irrigation etc. based on demand of the
people from society.
• Income generating activities: credit for entrepreneurship, support in income
generating activities.
• Can cover areas in agriculture, forestry, horticulture, livestock , small industry etc.
• Training for human resource development:
• Skill enhancement through training, job related training,
• Linkage with like minded organization and support agencies
• For example in agriculture, local government, NGOs , cooperative , farmers, AKCs
for better resources mobilization
Participatory planning
What is participation?
• Process through which all members of a community or organization
are involved in and have influence on decisions related to
development activities that will affect them.

• It implies that development projects will address those community or

group needs on which members have chosen to focus, and that all
phases of the development process will be characterized by active
involvement of community or organizational members.
• According to United Nations Development Programme (1993)
“participation means that people are closely involved in the
economic, sociocultural and political processes that affect their
lives

• According to International Labour Organization, participation

involved active collectively organized and continuous efforts by the
people themselves in setting the goals, pooling the resources
together and taking actions which aim at improving their living
conditions
Peoples participation:

• Peoples participation means:

Involvement in certain activities and organizations
Readiness to accept certain roles, responsibilities and activities
Representation in certain activities or organizations
• The other terms to connote peoples participation are community
participation, citizen participation, public participation, collective
participation
Importance of participation
According to Oakley, advantages of people’s participation are as
follows:
a. Efficiency: participation can ensure effective utilization of available
resources.
b. Effectiveness: people’s participation can make different programs
more effective by granting them a say in deciding the objectives and
strategies and by participating in implementation, thereby ensuring
effective utilization of resources.
• c. Self reliance: many development interventions have been seen to
create a kind of dependence syndrome. With active involvement of
local people, it is possible not only to break the mentality of
dependence but also to increase their awareness, self-confidence and
control of the development process
• It is the ability to think and act without the help or influence of others,
the ability to decide what you should be or do.
• d . Coverge
Development interventions are directed towards the upliftment of the
weaker sections of the-society.
People’s participation can be a potent way of ensuring the flow of the
benefits to the target groups. Furthermore, the cost effective operations
can ensure that resources are available for wider coverage of the
weaker sections of society than would otherwise be possible.
• e . Sustainability:
• Generally, development interventions are funded by government or
by donor agencies.
• Experience has shown that development interventions from the
external assisted projects fail to sustain the required level of
development activity once support or inputs are withdrawn by the
funding agencies.
• People’s participation regarded as an essential pre-requisite for
the continuity of the activities.
• The involvement of local people and the utilization of local resources
generate a sense of ownership over the development interventions to
the people.
• This sense of ownership is essential for the sustainability of the
interventions even after external funds cease to flow
Conditions for peoples non-participation(why people
fail to participate?)
• Development program are not in line with people’s problem/need/interest
• Peoples perception that the development program is not going to benefit
them in anyway (socially, economically….)
• Lack of motivation and encouragement on the part of people
• When people are neglected or ignored for their participation or
contribution in development activities
• People perception of belongingness and ownership over the
program/project initiated for them.
• Matter are technical in nature that is beyond the understanding and outside
the experience of people
Levels/ forms of participation
• The forms and level of participation may vary depending upon the
context, their capabilities and capacities and the policies of the
development agents.
• Based on the extent of involvement of those concerned in terms of the
exercise of the power, the level of people's participation can be presented
as follows:
• Information
• This is the lowest level of participation
• In this type of participation, the decisions is made by the external or
programme professionals and the people are just informed about what is
going to happen or has already happened.
• Persuasion:
• At this stage , the decisions is made and an effort is made by the
external professionals to convince the people about the development
program, about what is going to happen and has already happened.
People do not have the power (opportunity) to influence the programme
professionals.
• Consultation
• People participate by being consulted, and the external agents listen
to views of the people.
• People have a voice to some extent. However, the external agents define
both problems and solutions, and they may or may not modify the
decisions in the light of peoples responses.
• This means people still lack power to ensure that their opinions will
be taken into considerations.
• Cooperation
• At this level of participation, people have power with increasing
degree of decisions making. Decisions are made together by the
external agents and the people. At this stage the external agents and
people discuss, negotiate and the decisions is shared with and
made jointly.

• Control:
• This level enables the people to exercise more power and the
decision is made by the public.
• The public also assumes a role of responsibility and have the
opportunity to exercise full managerial power
• Participatory planning is part of the decentralization process and it aims to
identify the critical problems, joint priorities, elaboration and adoption of a
socio-economic development strategies. The use of participatory methods and
tools has become common practice in the field of social mobilization.
Characteristics/advantage of participatory planning
 Participation carries with the feelings of ownership.
 It ensures credibility of the intervention.
Bringing a broader range of people to the planning process.
 Avoiding pitfalls caused by ignorance of the realities.
 It involves important players from the outset.
 Providing an opportunity for groups to be heard. It teaches skills which
last far beyond the planning process.
Bringing together community members
 A participatory planning process builds trust.
 It generally reflects the mission and goals of organizations.
 It implies respect for everyone in the community.
 Logically, a participatory planning approach is effective.
 Finally, it does things the way they should be done.
Disadvantage of participatory process:

A participatory process takes longer.

 Members may not agree with the "experts ".
 Lots of education may be needed, both for community members and
the organization.
One determined individual can wreck the whole process.
Difficult to assure that all the right people get to the table.
 A participatory planning process takes patience and commitment.
Decentralized Development Tiers in Nepal
Development tiers in Nepal in federal context
Participatory planning process: A second step
of the social mobilization:
• Prerequisite for CO to enter in second stage:
Building of social capital
Formulations of policy and guidelines
Regular CO meeting
Regular saving and its mobilization
Consensus based Decision making
Transparent account keeping
Establishment of CMC
Major portfolio component of planning
• Before starting of program package to support social mobilization plans prepared for
major three portfolio component
• 1. Household plan:
• A household plan focuses on understanding and addressing the specific needs,
challenges, and opportunities within individual households.
• To foster the life of individual household through micro credit for income generating
activities (IGA)
• 2. Community need plan: A community needs plan assesses the overall needs of the
community and forms the basis for mobilization efforts.
• Plan prepared to settle the collective community need of physical infrastructures
• 3. Capacity building or HRD plan: A capacity building or HRD plan focuses on
enhancing the skills, knowledge, and capabilities of individuals and organizations
involved in social mobilization.
• All type of services as well as income oriented training needs are identified and
persons for the training are selected by mass
• These plans serve as integral components within the broader social
mobilization strategy, and their effective implementation contributes to
the success and sustainability of mobilization efforts.
• Additionally, these plans emphasize the importance of tailored and
community-driven approaches, ensuring that interventions are
responsive to the unique characteristics and requirements of
households and communities.
• There are four major stages are identified to accomplish the
planning exercise:
Second dialogue
Identification of needs/opportunity
Selection (Prioritization)
Aggregation
Fundamentals questions for the planning process
• Two broad questions asked during the planning exercise because it
does not move with the preconceived packages:
• 1) What thought the household/community has made to further
improve its condition?
• 2) What constraints are standing on the way to materialize the
thought?
 PREPARATION BEFORE PLANNING EXERCISE
Village technicians from each block identified and trained
Whole VDC re divided in 4-5 block based on geographic condition and
natural resource related to the adjacent village organization
Block level schedule set for productive physical infrastructure (PPI) need
assessment meeting
Information in advance disseminated for presence of at least one member
from each household, VDC officials from concerned ward and all the CO
chairperson and managers in the block
Technicians with equipment
 Forms and sheets for the data collection
Steps of planning cycle:
Second Dialogue: the main contents of this dialogue is;
• Objective and strategy of Micro Planning
• Concept of plan in local term
• Message for neutralization of peoples expectation
• Think only which is attainable, realistic and equitable
• Diagnostic studies and problem analysis
• The main objective of the step is to diagnose the poverty/crisis of individual or
collective and identify cure for it
• Shopping list collection
• General analysis of shopping list
• Feasibility study
 Social
Economical
Technical

• Diagnostic survey helps to create bond between villagers and programs staff
rather than preserving the distance between outside planners
• Strategy setting:
• When setting strategies for social mobilization, it's crucial to consider
various factors, including do ability, productivity, equity, sustainability
and rehabilitation.
Do-ability: Scheme should be simple and within the capacity of Cos.
Productivity: Directly/Indirectly contribute to increase in income
Equity: At least 80% HH should be benefited
Sustainability: 1) structural quality 2) Operation and maintenance
(fund , skill person)
Rehabilitation: Losses occurs to household due to implementation of
scheme , rehabilitation for their permanent income sources or
employment opportunity should be ensured
• Project Identification:
• This is a comprehensive step, a series of interactive dialogue needs
between villagers and programme.

• Prioritization/Selection:
• To prioritize the scheme identified through diagnostic survey and select 1-
2 scheme for implementation , based on availability of resources within
and from outsides.
• Project formulation: Technical design and estimate could be prepared in
the diagnosis process itself. However a review in depth is required to
proceed forth. Other items like action plan prepared by the group,
installment division as per the action plan, MoA preparation
• Budgeting: Source of budget explored from all possible side
• Appraisal: it is done by all concerned parties
• Negotiation: Two indispensable item of agreement
• 1. a. All locally available resources (sand, stone, unskilled labor etc) will
be provided by the beneficiaries
• b. Non locally available resources (Cement, Rod, Pipes, Skilled
Manpower) falls under external materials and donors are responsible
• 2. Transparent execution, effective use of O and M of the scheme
• 3. Policy guidelines
Installment delivery/Third Dialogue:
• This process leads to established the transparency and accountability between
activist and general users. This event organize only after the collection of operation
and maintenance fund and completion of work defined under the action work plan ie.
Excavation, filling, collection, of sand at appropriate site must be completed before the
delivery of first installment
• IMPLEMENTATION
In implementation process, people take responsibility for
 Procurement of external materials
 Progress of construction works
Village technicians give high attention to the control of quality
Labor division to the individual households
• Monitoring:
• It is done through all the concerned stakeholders
• Like beneficiaries, programme, others donors, CMC, Local
Government
• Public Auditing:
• Is the most powerful tools for the financial as well as operational
monitoring of the scheme. Clearance of previous installment and
demand for next is specially done through the public auditing.
• Subsequent installment delivery
• Post Completion Exercise:
• Following approaches are adopted to make it sustainable,
Optimum utilization of scheme (training and follow up)
An endowment fund and its regular mobilization
A paid manpower to look after this scheme
Participatory planning process at local level
• Receiving ceiling and budget from state and federal government
• Resources assumption and ceiling fixation for the fiscal year
• Project identification at local/settlement level
• Project selection and prioritization at ward level
• Integrated budget and program selection at rural municipality/municipality level
• Approval of budget at executive level
• Approval of budget and program at council level
 Unit 9: Decentralization for
development:Definiton, Strategy and current
status of decentralization in Nepal
• Decentralization The term comes from the French term décentraliser+action and is
normally used to discuss the dispersion of functions and powers from a central authority
to regional, local bodies and other organizations.
• Decentralization: Transfer of responsibility, function, authority and resources from center
to the close to the citizen as far as possible.
• subsidiary governance is the guiding principle of decentralization.
• Widely accepted definition of decentralization is that of a broad-based institutional
process involving the transfer of authority and responsibility for public functions
from the central government to other levels of government. Under decentralization,
responsibilities such as planning, management, and resource raising and allocation may be
transferred from central government to:
• a. Field-units of central government ministries or agencies;
• b. Sub-ordinate units or levels of government;
• c. Semi-autonomous public authorities or corporations;
• d. Area-wide regional or functional authorities; or
• e. Organizations of the private and voluntary sector.
• Decentralization, or decentralizing governance, refers to the
restructuring or reorganization of authority so that there is a
system of co-responsibility between institutions of governance at the
central, regional and local levels according to the principle of
subsidiarity, thus increasing the overall quality and effectiveness of
the system of governance, while increasing the authority and
capacities of sub-national levels.
• Decentralization -- the transfer of authority and responsibility for
public functions from the central government to intermediate and local
governments or quasi-independent government organizations and/or
the private sector -- is a complex multifaceted concept
• … Decentralization could also be expected to contribute to key
elements of good governance, such as increasing people's
opportunities for participation in economic, social and political
decisions; assisting in developing people's capacities; and enhancing
government responsiveness, transparency and accountability.”
• Principle of subsidiary
• Functions, service that can be carried out by citizen or citizen
institutions should be carried out by them
• If function carried out at lower level, these should be carried out at
that level
• Essential governance functions should always be carried out as close
to the citizen as possible.
• The principle of subsidiary put people at the center
a) Making people subject of governance
b) Building human capital to articulate demand
c) Holding governance bodies accountable to people
• One of the key principles of Catholic social thought is known as the
principle of subsidiarity. This tenet holds that nothing should be done
by a larger and more complex organization which can be done as well
by a smaller and simpler organization.
• The principle of subsidiarity, which was developed as part of Catholic
Social Teaching, states: What individuals can accomplish by their own
initiative and efforts should not be taken from them by a higher
authority.
• A greater and higher social institution must not take over the duties of
subordinate organizations and deprive it of its competence. Its
purpose, rather, is to intervene in a subsidiary fashion (thus offering
help) when individuals or smaller institutions find that a task is beyond
them
• Principle of subsidiary governance is based on following lessons.
1. State agencies do not provide sufficient access to people in governance.
Hence people’s ownership remains weak
2. Without empowering local institutions equity can not be addressed
effectively
3. People participation and contribution in the service delivery can not be
mobilized in the absence of transparency and accountability
4. Effectiveness of all service should be measured from perspective of
cost, coverage, quality, time and people satisfaction.
1. Political decentralization (or democratic decentralization) is the selection of local
government officials by local election rather than by central government appointment
 Political decentralization aims to give citizens or their elected representatives more power
in public decision-making.
 It is often associated with pluralistic politics and representative government, but it can
also support democratization by giving citizens, or their representatives, more influence in
the formulation and implementation of policies
2. Administrative decentralization:
It is the transfer of responsibility for the planning, financing and management
of certain public functions from the central government and its agencies to field units of
government agencies, subordinate units or levels of government, semi-autonomous public
authorities or corporations, or area-wide, regional or functional authorities. It has three major
forms deconcentration, delegation and devolution
3. Fiscal decentralization (financial )
Financial responsibility is a core component of decentralization. If local
governments and private organizations are to carry out decentralized functions
effectively, they must have an adequate level of revenues –either raised locally
or transferred from the central government– as well as the authority to make
decisions about expenditures.
Fiscal decentralization is the transfer of responsibility for raising and spending
program funds to lower level government units.
4. Market decentralization is the most decentralized form in as much as
decision making power is transferred from public to private organizations.
Electricity distribution
Forms of administrative decentralization
• De-concentration involves central government dispersing staff responsibilities to
regional offices without changing the basis for authority and control. This is not true
decentralization and can actually increase central control and influence.
Deconcentration assigns specific functions and tasks performed by the staff of the
headquarters of central administrations to staff posted in peripheral locations within the
national territory. Staff, equipment, vehicles, and budgetary resources are transferred to
units such as regional and district offices.
• Delegation is the transfer of responsibility for public functions to lower levels of
government or to other organizations, which implement programs on behalf of the
central government.
Through delegation central governments transfer responsibility for decision-making
and administration of public functions to semi-autonomous organizations not wholly
controlled by the central government, but ultimately accountable to it.
Devolution: Local governments are assigned clear and legally
recognized geographical boundaries over which they exercise authority,
and within which they perform public functions (e.g. raising revenues,
investment decisions). It is this type of administrative decentralization
that underlies most political decentralization.
Devolution usually transfers responsibilities for services to
municipalities that elect their own mayors and councils, raise their own
revenues, and have independent authority to make investment decisions.
Example: The devolution of powers to states or provinces within a
federal system.
Decentralization through devolution requires municipalities to elect
their mayors and councils and raise revenue.
• Forms of market decentralization
• Privatization is government transfer to the private sector of managerial,
fiscal, and decision making control, while retaining normal regulatory
authority.
• Deregulation: Deregulation entails the removal or relaxation of government regulations
and restrictions on industries, allowing for more competition and market-driven outcomes.
• Characteristics:
• Reduction or elimination of entry barriers and restrictions on pricing.
• Increased competition in previously regulated industries.
• Example: Deregulation of the telecommunications industry, which allows multiple private
companies to compete in providing communication services
• Partnerships between public and private/ voluntary sectors, within market
decentralization and devolution processes, based on cooperative or business
arrangements involving government, non government and civil society
organizations
Advantage/ importance of decentralization
Limitations of Decentralization:
• Before Panchayat regime (1825-1950)
• Before unification of Nepal , there were several practices of decentralization.
Particularly during the era of lichibi regime, through the formation of
“panchali”specially to resolve local dispute and conflicts.
• During Rana regime, municipality was established to manage local level
infrastructure and maintenance of road, drinking water and resolutions of
disputes.
• Panchayat were initiated and replicated in saptari by merging 4-5 villages.
• Village panchayat act 2006 BS, Nepal state municipality act 2006 BS and
Panchayat Judiciory act 2006 were endorsed
• Under the Panchayat Regime (1962-1990) Towards the attainment of
decentralization goal, the government first established a country wide network
of local institutions, originally a three-tier system: village/town panchayat,
district panchayat and zonal panchayat.
• In addition, several other acts and conceptual innovations, such as the
Decentralization Plan 1965, Decentralization Act 1982 and Decentralization
Working Procedure Rules 1984, were initiated.
• After 1990, the Local Self Governance Act, 1999 In 1990, the panchayat
system was formally discarded after the promulgation of the Constitution of the
Kingdom of Nepal 1990. It was noted that It shall be a chief responsibility of
the State to maintain conditions suitable to the enjoyment of the fruits of
democracy through wider participation of the people in the governance of the
country by way of decentralization, and to promote general welfare by making
provisions for the protection and promotion of human rights, by maintaining
tranquility and order in the society
• Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal The 5th amendment of the
Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2063 was the first document to mention
Nepal officially as the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal. It
envisioned federalism as a prominent feature for a new Nepal. The
new constitution Nepal 2015 committed Nepal to “an inclusive,
democratic and progressive restructuring of the state by ending the
centralized, unitary state”
• Decentralization was adopted in Nepal Government policy in third planning period (1965-
1970) associated and involve the planning and decision making process with specific reference
to planning and development at the local level. Since then has been followed as development
strategy by the country.
• Currently local bodies (LBs) exercise and manage local development activities as per
following
a) Local Self Government Act (LSGA) 1999
b) Local Self Government Regulation (LSGR) 1999
c) Local body (Financial administration) Regulation 2007
d) Local resource mobilization guideline 2067 and 2069
• Decentralization efforts in Nepal started in 1962 has gone through many changes and
improvement.
• LSGA (1999)is the latest improvement which is supposed to address : 1. Insufficient
autonomy and roles for local government
• 2. Overlapping and parallel roles of local government with line agencies
• 3. Line agencies to be accountable to local government 4. High interference of
central government
• The 10th Plan (2002 - 7) aimed to actively involve people in the
development process through decentralization. In this context, the main
strategies of the plan were to:
• I. Give autonomy to the LBs to perform duties pursuant to the objective of the
LSGA,
• II. Enhance the institutional capacity of LBs to enable them to deliver services
to the people and to function responsibly,
• III. Enhance extensively the people's participation in the local development
process, and
• IV. Make LBs capable of mobilising internal and external resources.
• Assignment to all
• Difference between federalization and decentralization?
Unit 12: Introduction to gender concepts, gender
segregation and stratification, discrimination,
equity and social inclusion
• Gender
•It describes socially constructed roles and responsibilities of women
and men In a given places or culture
•These roles are influenced by perceptions and expectations arising
from cultural , political , environmental, economic, social and
religious factors as well as custom, law, class, ethnicity, and
individual or institutional bias.
• •According to WHO-Gender refers to the characteristics of women,
men, girls and boys that are socially constructed. This includes norms,
behaviors and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or boy,
as well as relationships with each other.
As a social construct, gender varies from society to society and can
change overtime.
• Difference between sex and gender
• Sex
• Sex refers to the biological difference between males and females
• Sex is based on the reproductive function, since biological, physiological
difference between males and females exist due to the process of
reproduction.
• These difference includes hormones, chromosomes and internal and
external sexual organs.
• For example, women’s capability of giving birth to offspring is a
difference in sex, not gender.
• The deeper voice inherent in men is also a difference based on sex
• It is sex that creates distinction between male and female.
•Gender
•Gender refers to the social and cultural differences between men and women
•This takes into account features such as gender roles, behaviors expectations
and attributes that are considered appropriate by the society.
•This deals with the social role assigned to men and women. For example ,
women are expected to be more nurturing and gentler than men.
•This is not a difference based on physical difference dictated by the society.
•There are also some physical difference that do not actually fall into the
category of biological difference. For instance , the belief that women have long
hair and men have short hair is not actually based on sex, but gender , since the
length of hair , is not actually determined by biological factors, but social norms
and customs
Gender Stereotyping
•Preconceived ideas whereby females and males are arbitrarily assigned
characteristics and roles determined and limited by their gender.
•A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s
capacity to develop their personal abilities, pursue their professional
careers and/or make choices about their lives.
•Gender stereotyping is nothing but reinforcing feminine and masculine
qualities and attributes again and again.
• Masculinity: The word Masculinity derives from Latin
word‘masculinus (male person/male) and masculus(male). The word
first used in 14th century to denote‘malesex’.
• The word used more to refer the characteristics of men. The masculine
characters are powerfulness, strength, force, manhood and manliness.
• •Femininity:
• •It is culturally constructed collection of qualities, behaviors,
appearance, attributes, features, characteristics, postures associated
with women. It is not natural but is constructed and socially produced.
• Gender Segregation:
• •Separation of people according to the Social construction of gender.
• Occupational separation:
• Occupational gender segregation refers to the tendency of men and
women to work in different professions
• ………….horizontal vs vertical segregation (horizontal …under
representation of particular gender like in construction male dominated
….vertical one gender dominating other top mgmt roles male …..)Vertical
segregation denotes the situation whereby opportunities for career
progression for a particular gender within a company or sector are limited
• Educational separation: single gender education, technical education
for men etc
• top six occupations employing the largest numbers of women:
• shop salespeople and demonstrators;
• domestic helpers and related jobs such as cleaners and launderers;
• personal care and related workers;
• other office clerks;
• administrative associate professionals;
• housekeeping and restaurant services workers.
• The top six occupations employing the largest numbers of men are:
• motor vehicle drivers;
• building frame and related trade workers;
• managers of small enterprises;
• building finishers and related trades workers;
• physical and engineering science technicians;
• Gender stratification
•Gender stratification refers to the inequalities between women and men
regarding wealth, power, and privilege.
•Gender stratification refers to the social ranking, where men typically
inhabit higher statuses than women. Often, the terms gender inequality
and gender stratification are used interchangeably.
•Broadly defined, most of the research in this area focuses on
differences between men's and women's life circumstances.
• E.g.
• Unequal pay for equal work
• Differential access of labor market male have more access
• Women have to perform household work after returning from
employed job etc
• Sociological perspective of gender stratification
• •Functionalist perspective
• •Conflict perspective
• •Feminist perspective
• Functional perspective/functionalist
•The functionalist perspective sees society as a complex system whose
parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
•This approach looks at society through a macro-level orientation and
broadly focuses on the social structures that shape society as a whole.
•This theory suggests that gender inequalities exist as an efficient way to
create a division of labor, or as a social system in which a particular
segment of the population is clearly responsible for certain acts of labor
and another segment is clearly responsible for other labor acts.
•The feminist movement takes the position that functionalism neglects
the suppression of women within the family structure.
• Conflict perspective
• •Asserts that social problems occur when dominant groups mistreat
subordinate ones, and thus advocates for a balance of power between
genders.
• •Gender is a dimension of social inequality and conflict.
• •The relationship between man and women is based on unequal power.
• •Man have a dominant position over women. The subjugation of
women by man …gender inequality.
• Feminist Perspective
•Women's subordination is exploitation and injustice in capitalist society
•Enhancing women's right via legislation and policy
•Feminism focuses on the theory of patriarchy as a system of power that
organizes society into a complex of relationships based on the assertion
of male supremacy.
• •The rise of private property during industrialization are causes of
subordination of women in the society
Gender Role and Gender Need
• Socially prescribed and assigned roles and responsibilities to the men and
women. They are the sociocultural expectations that apply to individuals on
the basis of their assignment to a sex category (male or female).
• There are five types of gender roles
1. Household role: HHs related work, unpaid (cleaning, cooking, and other
domestic responsibilities)
2. Reproductive role : child bearing and caring, unpaid, caring work
3. Productive: Contribute to income generating and economic welfare and
advancement of family
4. Community: activities mostly undertaken by women at the community level
as an extension of reproductive role
5. Political: Political activities undertaken at community, within the framework
of traditional/customary structure, party politics and lobby, Campaign
Triple role of women:
• Women have triple roles
• Productive (tasks contributing to household economy such as
crop and livestock production),
• Reproductive (tasks to reproduce and care for the household
such as fuel/water collection, food preparation and child care)
• Community (tasks supporting community improvement and
community’s social events and services).
Gender Need
• Gender need: Needs/requirement to perform assigned roles by the society
specifically to the men and women
• The roles of men and women in existing societies and institutions are
generally different. Thus, their needs vary accordingly.
• Two types of needs are usually identified practical needs and strategic
needs.
• Practical needs arise from the actual conditions which women and men
experience because of the gender roles assigned to them in society.
• Strategic needs are the needs required to overcome the subordinate position
of women to men in society, and relate to the empowerment of women.
• They vary according to the particular social, economic, and political context
in which they are formulated.
• Gender discrimination
• •Gender discrimination is unequal or disadvantageous treatment of an
individual or group of individuals based on gender. Sexual
harassment is a form of illegal gender discrimination.
• •Gender discrimination can be treating an individual differently based
upon his/her gender in academia or extracurricular activities, academic
programs, discipline, class assignments given in a classroom, class
enrollment, physical education, grading, and/or athletics.
Common Types of Gender Discrimination:
1. Direct Discrimination: This occurs when individuals are treated differently
based on their gender, resulting in unfair and unequal treatment. For example,
paying a woman less than a man for the same job or denying someone a
promotion solely because of their gender.
2. Indirect Discrimination: Indirect discrimination happens when policies,
practices, or rules disadvantage individuals of a particular gender, even if the
discrimination is not explicit. An example is a job requirement that
disproportionately affects one gender and is not necessary for the job.
3. Gender-Based Harassment: Harassment based on gender involves
unwelcome behavior, comments, or actions that create a hostile or intimidating
environment. This can include sexual harassment, offensive jokes, or comments
about a person's gender.
• 4. Occupational Segregation: Occupational segregation occurs when
individuals of a particular gender are concentrated in specific types of
jobs or industries. For example, women might be overrepresented in
caregiving roles, while men might dominate fields like engineering.

• 5. Wage Gap: The gender wage gap refers to the difference in earnings
between men and women performing similar work. It can result from
various factors, including discrimination, occupational segregation, and
disparities in negotiation and advancement opportunities.
• The European Commission defines gender analysis as ‘the study of
differences in the conditions, needs, participation rates, access to resources
and development, control of assets, decision-making powers, etc., between
women and men in their assigned gender roles
• Gender analysis provides the necessary data and information to integrate
a gender perspective into policies, programmes and projects.
• As a starting point for gender mainstreaming, gender analysis identifies
the differences between women and men in terms of their relative position
in society and the distribution of resources, opportunities, constraints
and power in a given context.
• In this way, conducting a gender analysis allows for the development of
interventions that address gender inequalities and meet the different needs
of women and men.
• Why is gender analysis important?
• Gender analysis provides information on the different roles of women, their
respective access to and control over resources, and the material and non-
material benefits of society; and their gender-specific needs, priorities and
responsibilities
• A thorough gender analysis enables policymakers to understand gender
inequalities in a given situation or sector, also explores the causes and effects
of gender disparities on the target group.
• Looking at the underlying causes of gender inequalities and discrimination can
assist in setting relevant and targeted objectives and measures to eliminate
gender inequalities
• . In this way, gender analysis contributes to the improved gender
responsiveness of policies and legislation as it provides the basis for ensuring
that the needs of all citizens — women and men — are adequately addressed
Different approach/framework for Gender analysis
• Harvard Analytical Framework (gender role framework)
• Social relation approach
• Capacities and Vulnerability Analysis Framework
• Women's Equality and empowerment Framework
• Gender Analysis Matrix Framework
• Caroline Moser Framework
• People Oriented Planning Framework
• The Harvard Analytical Framework is often referred to as the Gender Roles
Framework or Gender Analysis Framework. Published in 1985, it was one
of the first frameworks designed for gender analysis.
• It was developed by researchers at the Harvard Institute for International
Development in the USA, working in collaboration with the WID office of
USAID
• The framework The Harvard Analytical Framework is a grid (also known as
a matrix) for collecting data at the micro-level (i.e., at the community and
household level).
• It is a useful way of organizing information and can be adapted to many
situations. The Harvard Analytical Framework has four main components.
Activity profile : Who does what at Hh level , community level and how long
Access and Control profile: Who has access to
resources and Decision making
Analysis of influencing factors: tool allows you to chart factors which influence the
differences in the gender division of labour, access, and control as listed in the two Profiles
Checklist for project cycle analysis
 This consists of a series of questions.
 They are designed to assist you to examine a project proposal or an
area of intervention from a gender perspective, using gender-
disaggregated data and capturing the different effects of social change
on men and women.
 Gender Considerations in project identified
 Design project based on based of above gender analysis results to address
gender needs

 Checklist consisting number of question from project identification , design,

implementation and evaluation
2. Women's equality and empowerment framework
• Also called women's empowerment framework
• The Longwe Framework emphasizes women’s empowerment and
equality means in practice, and to assess critically the extent to which
a development project is supporting this empowerment.
• The ultimate aim of this Framework is to achieve women’s
empowerment by enabling women to achieve equal control over the
factors of production and participate equally in the development
process alongside men.
• It may be better used as part of a 'tool kit', rather than as a stand-alone
framework.
 Longwe Framework
• Longwe classified 5 levels of equality to measure empowerment
Control Using the participation of women in the decision-making process to achieve balance of control
between men and women over the factors of production, without one in a position of dominance.

Paticipation Pertains to women’s equal participation in the decision-making process, policy-making, planning and
administration. In development projects, it includes involvement in needs assessment, project design,
implementation and evaluation.

Consiencitazation Pertains to an understanding of the difference between sex roles and gender roles and the belief that
gender relations and the gender division of labour should be fair and agreeable to both sides, and not
based on the domination of one over the other

Access Pertains to women’s access to factors of production land, labour, credit, training, marketing facilities,
and all publicly available services and benefits on an equal basis with men. Equality of access is
obtained by securing equality of opportunity through legal reform to remove discriminatory
provision

Welfare Pertains to level of material welfare of women, relative to men, with respect to food supply, income
and medical care, without reference to whether women are themselves the active creators and
producers of their material need
Longwe classified five levels of equality to
measure empowerment
3. Gender Analysis Matrix
• The Gender Analysis Matrix (GAM), developed by Rani Parker, is a tool
that uses participatory approaches to identify how a particular agricultural
production, processing or marketing practice impacts men and women
differently in the community.
• Using the Gender Analysis Matrix will provide a unique articulation of
issues as well as develop gender analysis capacity from the grassroots
level up
• The Gender Analysis Matrix is based on the following principles:
• All requisite knowledge for gender analysis exists among the people
whose lives are the subject of the analysis
• Gender analysis does not require the technical expertise of those
outside the community being analysed, except as facilitators
• Gender analysis cannot be transformative unless the analysis is done by
the people being analyzed
Caroline Moser Framework (triple role framework)
• An important tool that is commonly used in gender analysis is the Moser
(triple roles) Framework.
• Developed by Caroline Moser, this framework can help extension agents
understand the division of labor within the household and community by
asking “who does what?” Moser introduces the idea of women’s ‘triple
role’ in production (farm work), reproduction (household work and
childcare), and community affairs, and the multiple roles women
perform simultaneously.
• In contrast, men are often less involved with household chores and more
engaged in production and community-managing activities.
It consist of six tools:
• Tool 1. Gender roles identification.
• This tool maps gendered division of labor within the household by
examining the activities all women and men, girls and boys, over a
twenty-four hour period.
• Moser identifies a triple role for low income women: productive work,
reproductive and community roles
• All of these roles for women are often underappreciated because they tend
to be non-paid and because productive and community roles closely relate
to reproductive roles which are themselves undervalued
• Tool 2. Gender needs assessment
• The idea of women’s practical and strategic interests was originally developed
in the 1980s by Maxine Molyneux, and later by Caroline Moser
• A. Practical gender needs: are those which, if they were met, would assist
women in their current activities without challenging the existing gender
division of labor. These include: i) Water provision; ii) Healthcare provision;
iii) Opportunities for earning an income to provide for the household; iv)
Provision of housing and basic services; vi) Distribution of food; and others.
• B. Strategic gender needs are those which exist because of women’s
subordinate social status. If met, these would enable women to transform
existing imbalances of power between women and men.
• These relate to gender divisions of labor, power and control, and may include
such issues as legal rights, domestic violence, equal wages and women’s
control over their own bodies.
Tool 3. Disaggregated control of resources and decision-making within the
household.
• This tool links allocation of resources within the household (intra-household
allocation) with the bargaining processes which determine this. Who has
control over what resources within the household, and who has what power of
decision-making?
• TOOL 4: Planning for balancing triple roles.
• This tool looks at the impact of a project intervention on women’s
triple work burden.
• Sectoral planning frameworks, which concentrate only on one role,
often tend to ignore the effect on women’s other roles.
• Users of the framework are asked to examine, whether a planned
programme or a project will increase a woman’s workload in one of
her roles, to the detriment of her other roles.
• For example, the provision of irrigation water will increase women’s
participation in agriculture activities while constraining the time
available for domestic activities, or might increase the workload of
fetching water due to diversion of fresh water from domestic use to
irrigation
• TOOL 5: Distinguishing between different aims in intervention.
• This tool helps identify the approach that a project followed or will follow (if
used for evaluation) by asking to what extent do different approaches meet
practical and/or strategic gender needs.
• Assessing the extent to which programmes fit into WID or GAD policy
approaches
• TOOL 6: Involving women and gender-aware organizations and
planners in planning.
• Finally, Moser’s framework asks users to think about the importance of
involving women, gender-aware organizations and planners themselves in
planning.
• This should be at all levels – in planning, implementation and monitoring and
evaluation.
• This tool tries to ensure that women participate in this process and that it
addresses the needs that they themselves experience as opposed to needs that
project planners may perceive them as having.
• Gender Mainstreaming Gender mainstreaming is understood as the “the
integration of a gender perspective and gender analysis into all stages of
design, implementation and monitoring of projects, programs, policies or
planning at all level (local, regional, national)” and is essential to achieve
sustainable results.
• Gender mainstreaming refers to the process of ensuring that women and
men have equal access to and control over resources, development
benefits and decision-making at all stages of development processes,
projects, programmes or policies.
• Gender mainstreaming is an approach to policy-making that takes into
account both women's and men's interests and concerns. The concept of
gender mainstreaming was first introduced at the 1985 Nairobi World
Conference on Women.
• Mainstreaming includes gender-specific activities and affirmative action,
whenever women or men are in a particularly disadvantageous position.
• Gender-specific interventions can target women exclusively, men and women
together, or only men, to enable them to participate in and benefit equally from
development efforts.
• These are necessary temporary measures designed to combat the direct and
indirect consequences of past discrimination.

• Gender mainstreaming remains widely accepted as the most practical means to

achieve gender equality and the empowerment of women.
• It moves gender equality and the empowerment of women from the margins to
the mainstream of decision-making, integrating gender perspectives into all
policies, programmes, functions and structures of an institution.
Key elements and principles of gender mainstreaming include:
• Incorporation of Gender Perspectives:
• Analyzing and understanding the different needs, roles, and opportunities of
women and men in a given context.
• Recognizing and addressing existing gender inequalities and power dynamics.
• Policy Integration:
• Integrating gender considerations into the formulation, implementation,
monitoring, and evaluation of policies and programs across all sectors
• Institutionalization:
• Establishing mechanisms within organizations and institutions to support and
sustain gender mainstreaming efforts.
• Assigning responsibilities for gender mainstreaming at various levels of
decision-making.
• Capacity Building:
• Providing training and building the capacity of individuals and organizations to
understand and apply gender analysis.
• Enhancing awareness and understanding of the importance of gender equality
• Participation and Collaboration:
• Ensuring the active participation of both women and men in decision-making
processes.
• Collaborating with relevant stakeholders, including civil society organizations and
women's groups.
• Monitoring and Evaluation:
• Developing indicators and systems to monitor and evaluate the impact of policies
and programs on gender equality.
• Making adjustments based on feedback and results to improve effectiveness.
Objective of Gender Mainstreaming:
• Promote Gender Equality
• Elimination of discrimination based on Gender
• Women's empowerment
• Social inclusion
• Creating just equitable society
• to improve the quality of public policies, programmes and projects
Gender sensitive planning
• Gender-sensitive planning is a more specific focus on ensuring that gender
perspectives are taken into account during the planning phase of policies,
programs, or projects
• This includes the process of formulating appropriate gender equality results and
developing corresponding strategies and activities
• Gender-sensitive planning helps to demonstrate changes in gender relations (i.e.
relations between women and men) in a given society over a period of time
through gender-sensitive indicators.
• The indicators are used to assess progress in achieving gender equality by
measuring changes in the status of women and men over a period of time.
Gender sensitive budget
• Gender-responsive budgeting (GRB) is a strategy that promotes the
goal of gender equity by allocating specific budgets for both women
and men beneficiaries in projects/programmes.
• The purpose of GRB is to promote accountability and transparency in
fiscal planning; increase gender responsive participation in the budget
process; and to advance gender equity/equality agenda.
• Women's budget, gender budget, gender sensitive budget, gender
responsive budget, Gender budget initiative
• Gender budgeting is an application of gender mainstreaming in the
budgetary process. It involves conducting a gender-based assessment
of budgets, incorporating a gender perspective at all levels of the
budgetary process, and restructuring revenues and expenditures in
order to promote gender equality.
• In short, gender budgeting is a strategy and a process with the long-
term aim of achieving gender equality goals.
• For example improving access to education for girls:
• Allocation of Funds: Increase the budget allocation for building girl-
friendly school infrastructure, such as separate sanitation facilities,
changing rooms, and secure transportation for girls
Gender sensitive rural and agricultural
development strategies
• Women's representation at all level of decision making related to public and quasi public
resource management
• Exploring the possibilities to empower rural poor women to claim intellectual property
right in medicinal plant and different plant product
• Potential expansion of livelihood opportunities to the rural women
• Developing and disseminating the technology that reduces the rural women drudgery
• Gender sensitive planning and budgeting
• Extending the facilities presently enjoyed by urban women to their rural counterparts
• Tackling the issues of gender bias in different situation/place
• Providing the equal access to the women in different assets like land , water, information
, technology etc
• Origin and concept of WID, WAD, GAD and GESI
• Concept of WID, WAD and GAD was originated with evolutionary
process of development simply modernization theory of development
which change traditional society with means of production. With change in
mode of production and innovation of technology there had been change in
division of labour.
• The publication of Ester Boserup's book "Woman's Role in Economic
Development" in 1970 coincided with the growing wave of feminist
consciousness in Europe and USA and youth radicalization all over the
world.
• Boserup argues that a change in the density of population results in the
change of techniques in farming, which requires a higher labor input
resulting in a change in the division of labor between men and women
• Focusing in two type of agriculture i.e. shifting cultivation in Africa
(female dominated) and subsistence agriculture in Latin America and
South Asia (male dominated) she elaborated the role of women and
consequences of development in their further role.
• She analyzed and point out adverse effect of technological
transformation in agrarian mode of production only to women in
modern society.
• She also analyzed the status of women and the sexual divisions of
labor that existed in non-agricultural activities particularly in the urban
areas.
• Her thesis challenged the commonly held notion that women's status
and their rights automatically improve with modernization
• Women in Development (WID) was a term coined in early 1970’s, and
was first used by the Women’s Committee of Washington DC, Chapter
of the Society for International Development.
• The term was subsequently adopted by the UN and other international
aid agencies including USAID.
• Concepts of WID:
• Modernization and agriculture mechanization were also male oriented.
• Due to gender roles and bias in society women did not take advantage of
modernization.
• Projects and planning considered men and women as equal but there was
difference in implementation.
• When women would be integrated in development, traditional role of
women would change, patriarchy would end.
• If there are equal opportunities for women, they would contribute in
development and structural roles would change.
• Integrate women into development without changing structure
WAD
• Women and Development (WAD) The WAD approach was emerged
out of concern with the exclusion of women from earlier development
strategies.
• The WAD approach provides a more critical view of women's
position than WID.
• It focuses on the relationship between women and development
process rather than solely on the integration of women into
development.
• According to this perspective, women were not a neglected resource
but overburdened and undervalued.
• Their substantial contribution to development needs to be recognized,
along with a redistribution of its benefits and burdens between men
and women.
• Emerged in the late 1970s from the critique of modernization and WID
approach.
• WID treated women as untapped resources when explored would make the market
economy more effective, WID did not question the existing system and its effects
• The problem is not that women were not integrated into economic development ,
the problem is that women were integrated into the system that is exploitative
• WAD attacks capitalism in developing societies
• Exploitation of proletariat, creates poverty which is the root cause of other evils
History of societies is the history of class struggle
• WAD scholars believe that the women's oppression stems from the country's
dependence on the industrial countries.
• For Marxist feminists the capitalism has produced an oppressive societies where
where women are treated like commodities.
• Women problems can only be solved when capitalism and class struggle are
abolished
• Gender inequality stems from class inequalities.
GAD (Gender and Development)
• This approach offers the holistic perspective looking at all aspects of women's
and men's lives.
• It questions the basis of assigning specific gender roles to different sexes.
• GAD is mainly concerned with the social construction and social structure of the
gender and assignment of specific roles, responsibilities and expectation to
women and men.
• GAD projects would examine not only the sexual division of labor ‘who is doing
what’ but the sexual division of resource ‘who has what’ and recognize the
burden and psychological stress of men and women.
• The GAD approach was, however, different from WID in three respects. First, it
shifts the focus from women to gender and identifies the unequal power relations
between women and men.
• Second, it re-examines all social, political and economic structures and
development policies from the perspective of gender differentials.
• And lastly, it recognizes that achieving gender equality demands
‘transformative change’ in gender relations from household to global level.
• Its two main goals were to prove that the unequal relationship between
the sexes hinders development and female participation.
• The second, it sorts to change the structure of power into a long term
goal whereby all decisions making benefits of development are
distributed on equal basis of gender neutrality.
• The GAD approach is not just focused on the biological inequalities
among sexes: men and women, however on how social roles,
reproductive roles and economic roles are linked to gender inequalities
of : Masculinity and Feminity.
• Social structures refer to the patterns of relationships, roles, and norms that exist
within a society. These structures are often influenced by cultural, historical, and
social factors.
• societal norms and expectations limit women's opportunities, autonomy, and
decision-making power.
• Economic Structure: economic activities, the distribution of resources, and the
relationships between different economic actors within a society.
• how factors such as unequal pay, limited access to resources, and discriminatory
practices within the economy contribute to women's subordination
• Political Structures:
• Definition: Political structures refer to the organization of political power,
institutions, and decision-making processes within a society.
• WAD Perspective: WAD investigates how political structures may perpetuate
gender inequalities. It looks at issues such as limited representation of women in
political institutions, unequal participation in decision-making processes, and the
impact of policies that may disproportionately affect women.
Some concept: Gender Audit, GRB,
GESI, Issues of Beijing concern,
Government efforts on women
development
Gender Audit
• A gender audit is a tool to assess and check the institutionalization of
gender equality into organizations, including in their policies, programs,
projects and/or provision of services, structures, proceedings and budgets
• A gender audit is essentially a “social audit”, and belongs to the category of
“quality audits”, which distinguishes it from traditional “financial audits”.
• It considers whether internal practices and related support systems for
gender mainstreaming are effective and reinforce each other and whether
they are being followed.
• It establishes a baseline; identifies critical gaps and challenges; and
recommends ways of addressing them, suggesting possible improvements
and innovations. It also documents good practices towards the achievement
of gender equality.
• A gender audit enhances the collective capacity of the organization to
examine its activities from a gender perspective and identify strengths
and weaknesses in promoting gender equality issues.
• As a method for gender mainstreaming, gender audits help
organizations identify and understand gender patterns within their
composition, structures, processes, organizational culture and
management of human resources, and in the design and delivery of
policies and services.
• They also help assess the impact of organizational performance and its
management on gender equality within the organization.
• Gender audits establish a baseline against which progress can be
measured over time, identifying critical gender gaps and challenges,
and making recommendations of how they can be addressed through
improvements and innovations
• GESI
• “Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI)” refers to a concept that
addresses unequal power relations between women and men and
between different social groups.
• It focuses on the need for action to re-balance these power relations
and ensures equal rights, opportunities and respect for all individuals
regardless of their social identity.
• Gender Equality and Social Inclusion (GESI) is a concept that
addresses improving access to livelihood assets and services for ALL,
including the women, poor, and excluded.
• It supports more inclusive policies and mindsets and increases the
voice and influence of all including of the women, poor and excluded
• “GESI Mainstreaming” refers to the process whereby barriers and
issues of women and poor and excluded people are identified and
addressed in all functional areas of infrastructure development system:
policies, institutional systems, work environment and culture,
programme and budget formulation, service delivery, monitoring and
evaluation, and research
• Poor refers to households or persons who consume an average of less
than 2,220 calories of food per person per day (Nepal Living Standard
Survey, 2010/11).
• Excluded groups refer to women, Dalit, indigenous/ethnic groups,
Madhesi, Muslim, person with disabilities, elderly people and people
living in remote areas, who have been systematically excluded over a
long time due to economic, caste, ethnic, gender, disability, and
geographic reasons and include sexual and gender minorities
(International Development Partner’s Group, 2017).
• Vulnerable Groups refer to groups of people whose risk of being
disadvantaged is situational rather than structural, for example,
disaster-affected, HIV/AIDs affected.
From exclusion to inclusion : who are excluded and included in Nepal
GESI intervention modality
Figure : Steps for mainstreaming GESI
• First Step: Identification
• Requires identifying the existing status of women/girls and people of
excluded social groups in the project area, based on disaggregated
qualitative and quantitative data and assessment of the available
evidence.
• Analysis is necessary to understand how exactly gender and other
forms of discriminations occur.
• The key actors in existing service provision offices also need to be
critically assessed in terms of their ability (and incentives) to change
their behavior and values, in case of discriminatory attitudes and
behavior towards women and people of excluded social groups exist,
and to transform processes and mechanisms
Second and Third Step: Design and Implementation
Once the socio-cultural barriers and weaknesses in the policy framework or delivery
system are understood, it is important to find ways to address these through
interventions.
This may require changes in policies, program activities, resource allocations,
institutional arrangements and staff incentives, as well as changes in the monitoring
and reporting systems.
Fourth and Fifth Step: Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting, Re-planning
 M&E systems need to be designed to collect disaggregated data on outputs,
outcomes and development results, and to be linked into management decision-
making in such a way that data on failures can prompt decision-makers within
the system to take actions to understand and find a remedy to the situation.
 Reporting formats need to capture information with sex, caste/ ethnicity,
geographical location, income and age (where relevant) disaggregation
• Gender Responsive Budget” refers to government planning,
programming and budgeting that contributes to the advancement of
gender equality and the fulfillment of women’s rights. It entails
identifying and reflecting interventions to address gender gaps in
sector and local government policies, plans and budgets.
Issues of Beijing concern (12 critical areas of concern)
• The Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted at the UN’s
Fourth World Conference on Women (Beijing, China, 1995), is an agenda
for women’s empowerment.
• It aims at removing all the obstacles to women’s active participation in all
spheres of public and private life through ensuring women a full and equal
share in economic, social, cultural and political decision-making.
• This means that the principle of shared power and responsibility should be
established between women and men at home, in the workplace, and in the
wider national and international communities.
• The Declaration and Platform for Action affirm that equality between
women and men is a matter of human rights and a condition for social
justice
• To this end, governments, the international community and civil society,
including non-governmental organizations and the private sector, are called
upon to take strategic action in the following twelve critical areas of concern
for women globally
• Women and Poverty
• When women are poor, their rights are not protected and they face double
discrimination, on account of their gender and economic situation.
• Women, their families, communities and economies suffer as a result. Poverty
is a complex, multidimensional problem, with origins in both the national and
international domains.
• Education and Training of Women
• Education is human right and an essential tool for achieving the goals of
equality, development and peace. Non-discriminatory education benefits
both girls and boys and thus ultimately contributes to more equal
relationships between women and men.
• Women and Health
• Women have the right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard
of physical and mental health. The enjoyment of this right is vital to their
life and well-being their ability to participate in all areas of public and
private life.
• Violence against Women
• Violence against women is an obstacle to the achievement of the
objectives of equality, development and peace. Violence against women
both violates and impairs or nullifies the enjoyment by women of their
human rights and fundamental freedoms.
• Women and Armed Conflict
• An environment that maintains world peace and promotes and protects
human rights, democracy and the peaceful settlement of disputes, in
accordance with the principles of non-threat or use of force against
territorial integrity or political independence and of respect for
sovereignty as set forth in the Charter of the United Nations, is an
important factor for the advancement of women.
• Women and the Economy
• There are considerable differences in women's and men's access to and
opportunities to exert power over economic structures in their
societies. In most parts of the world, women are virtually absent from
or are poorly represented in economic decision-making, including the
formulation of financial, monetary, commercial and other economic
policies, as well as tax systems and rules governing pay.
• Women in Power and Decision Making
• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that everyone has the
right to take part in the Government of his/her country.
• The empowerment and autonomy of women and the improvement of
women's social, economic and political status is essential for the
achievement of both transparent and accountable government and
administration and sustainable development in all areas of life.
• Institutional Mechanisms for the Advancement of Women
• Specialized institutions have played an important part in informing laws,
policies and programs and advancing gender equality.
• Robust laws and policies coupled with stronger mechanisms to coordinate
various actors and ensure their effective enforcement and implementation
can push the agenda.
• Human Rights of Women
• Human rights and fundamental freedoms are the birthright of all human beings;
their protection and promotion is the first responsibility of Governments.
• The Platform for Action reaffirms that all human rights - civil, cultural,
economic political and social, including the right to development are universal,
indivisible, interdependent and interrelated, as expressed in the Vienna
Declaration and Programme of Action adopted by the World Conference on
Human Rights.
• Women and the Media
• During the past decade, advances in information technology have facilitated a
global communications network that transcends national boundaries and has an
impact on public policy, private attitudes and behavior, especially of children
and young adults.
• Everywhere the potential exists for the media to make a far greater contribution
to the advancement of women
• Women and Environment
• Women are among the most affected by climate change. They are often
the ones gathering water, fishing or farming land affected by flooding.
Meanwhile, their voices are often ignored in environmental planning and
management. They also have less access to land and productive resources

• The Girl Child

• Specific forms of violence and harmful practices, including female
genital mutilation (FGM) and cutting, breast ironing and child marriage,
affect girls in particular, including child sexual abuse.
Government efforts on women development:
• Various efforts and commitments from government side on international
convention and national level to enhance social, economic and political status of
women and reduce gender gap.

• Nepal ratified the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination

against Women (CEDAW) in 1991 and the optional protocol in 2007.

• Nepal constitution 2015 guarantees all citizens basic rights and fundamental
freedom and lists women's right as fundamental right

• Nepal began to substantially address ‘gender and development concerns’ since the
Sixth Five Year Development Plan (1980-1985), following the declaration of the
‘United Nations Decade of Women (1976-1985).
• The sixth five year plan (1980-85) government had emphasized women’s
involvement in all programs and projects, and has started to recognize at
legal hurdles to women's economic empowerment and expressed social
programs for meeting their needs. Efforts are in line with WID or WAD
perspective

• The seventh (1985-90) and eighth five year plans expanded on these
themes. Legal framework to facilitate women's participation in
development
• Eighth plan (1992-1997) also mentioned about increasing women's
representation at decision making levels in the development, non –
government and semi government sectors and developing a monitoring
system for recording gender discrimination at work
 The ninth plan (1997-2002) adopted mainstreaming, eliminating
gender inequality, and empowerment as its major policies on women
and thus moving towards a gender approach to women's participation.

 The tenth plan (2002-2007) continued this emphasis on

mainstreaming, equality and empowerment while trying to address the
major problems related to internalization of these strategies in sector
policies and programs.

 The three year interim plan (2007/08-2010/11) envisaged gender

equitable outcomes of development intervention and enhancement of
capability of women farmers.
 The three year plan approach paper (2010/11-2012/13) has given
emphasis to strengthen role of women in sustainable peace and
development process by socially, economically and politically
empowering the women of all caste/ethnicity, classes and religion

Nepal constitution 2015

• Women shall have equal ancestral right without any gender based
discrimination
• Women shall have the right to participate in all agencies of the state
mechanism on the basis of proportional inclusive principles.
History of social mobilization
• History of social mobilization in Nepal is as old as the human history. In
the past the concept operated in the form of self- help groups and
community-based organizations.
• The modern concept of SM emerged along with the growth of
NGOs/INGOs and donor agencies’ (UNDP, World Bank, ADB)
development programs in Nepal.
• Likewise, government agencies have used the participatory concept in
development planning such as irrigation, forestry development and women
development program, and so on.
• Banks, particularly Agricultural Development Bank is seriously involved in
helping the small farmers in improving the quality of life. The approach of
mobilizing rural people is the collective participation, and saving in general.
• History of social mobilization suggests that without mobilizing people it is
difficult to alleviate poverty and improve livelihood of the people.
• The history of community development based on social mobilization
approaches in Nepal can be grouped into four evolutionary phases:
(i) SM through CBOs or Self-help Groups;
(ii) SM through Government Agencies;
(iii) SM by Co-operatives and Banks with focus on poor and deprived;
(iv) SM through HMG/UNDP/INGOs/NGOs.
Social Mobilization through Community Based Organizations or Self-help Groups (Pre 1955
period)

• Before the advent of planning, development history of Nepal was founded on

social participation of people often initiated for developing education, roads/trails,
drinking water system, irrigation system, forest management etc.
• Such participatory process of people was organized either through the Community
Based Organizations (CBOs) or through Self-help Groups.
• E.g.
• i) Agriculture based self-help groups such as kulobanaune (irrigation channel
maintenance groups), mal bokne (manure carriers), khetala (paddy/millet field 9
laborers), ropahar (planters), hali (ploughmen), parma (exchange labour group)
and gothalo (shepherds);
• ii) Forest resource based self-help groups such as bana jane (forest goers), ghas
katne (grass cutters), pat tipne (leaf collectors) and daura tipne (fuelwood
collectors);
• iii) Credit based self-help groups such as dhikur (rotating credit association);
Social Mobilization through Government Agencies (1955 – 1974 period
• The traditional social practice stated above influenced Government to take
step towards bringing development based on planned social mobilization
approaches. These approaches are listed as follows.
• Co-operative Movement (1960s) It was a Government driven initiative
launched nationally during the mid 60s as an effort to build foundation for
economic self-reliance at the grassroots.
• Self-help Community Organizations (during 1960s and 1970s) Panchayat
regime also promoted associations of women, youths, ex-army, farmers, etc.
with their networks at the villages, VDC, district, zone and national level.
• Such initiatives were guided by existing political structure. Besides, serving
as a web of power, they also served for bringing community development in
a guided fashion.
• Similarly, the National Development Service (NDS), initiated in 1972 with
the introduction of the National Education Plan in 1972, required university
graduates to serve for one year into rural area to bring changes in village
education, contribute to village development works etc.
Success and failure:
• Succeeded in establishing a structured form of co-operatives
• people in the villages learned to get organized, generated capital and
carried out various social/economic activities.
• Failed basically due to –
• Lack of ownership from the beneficiaries
• Domination by state, elected people/politician and elites
• Lack of transparency and accountability
• Focus on single sector limited their scope for wider coverage of households
and impact on human poverty
3. Social Mobilization by Co-operatives and Banks with Focus on the
Poor and Deprived People (1975 –1990 Period)
This period is marked by targeted poverty reduction efforts. Targeting is
done in terms of households with a focus on credit or geographical area
with a focus on physical infrastructure.
Some best practices during this period are:
1. Small Farmers Development Programme (SFDP)
2. Intensive Banking Programme (IBP)
3. Grammen Bank Approach
SFDP
• This Programme was initiated under the management of Agricultural Development
Bank (ADB/N) in 1975 with a purpose to
• a) build (service) receiving capacity of the poor and improve (service) delivery
capacity of the line agencies through organizing the small farmers in self-help
groups,
• and b) increase quality of life of the poor through multi-sectoral (social/economic)
activities undertaken by them under credit and grant support
• SFCL is an organization of small farmer at grass root level, which is developed to
build institutional management capacity of the farmers to implement SFDP.
• The basic objective of this approach is to implement the SFDP programme
financially viable and sustainable manner by empowering the grass-roots level
organisation of small farmers so that they can implement the programme by
themselves
• NGO sectors:
• Hundreds of NGOs and dozen of INGOs emerged during 1975-1993.
NGOs have emerged as driving force in the field of poverty reduction
through social mobilization over the last 20 years.
• About 45 percent of Nepali NGOs have mandates to promote
community development.
• Women Development Programme (WDP) This Programme was
initiated in 1982 with a purpose to raise status of the rural poor women
and empower them by increasing their income. Principal strategy was
to organize women into self-help groups, raise their skill/awareness
and give them access to production credit.
General feature of social mobilization up to 1990s

Up to 1990s, most of the social mobilization approaches for poverty reduction
in Nepal were of targeted nature – targeted in terms of beneficiaries and/or
groups of people or in certain activities.
In general, targeting of activities have been short-lived. Once the targeted
activity (education, health, vegetables etc.) was completed, need was felt for
other type of activities or target group.
 Almost all the social mobilization for poverty reduction was done in the rural
area only.
 Almost all the approaches were staff-based with slow coverage rate (per
staff, per year target coverage) and the management cost was high.
 Dependency syndrome was high. Beneficiary targets were unable to sustain
the process once the agencies withdrew their financial part.
• Credit support was found to be a strong element for poverty reduction but most
of the agencies involved in social mobilization were non-bankers and faced
crisis for capital and therefore lost momentum of work at time and place.
• Linkage/co-ordination with local government was poor. As a result,
convergence of various efforts going on in the same area did not take place.
• Area-based programme or group-based programmes were small and the benefit
tends to be diverted to non-poor unless poor were specifically targeted.
• NGOs emerged as the government’s partner in development activities in Nepal.
 Social Mobilization in post 1993 Era (SM through HMG/UNDP/INGOs/NGOs.)

• Government Initiated Poverty Alleviation Programmes

• After 1990s Government launched three programmes during late 1990s for
poverty reduction: i) Western Terai Poverty Alleviation Project (WTPAP),
ii) Bishweshwor Among the Poor (BAP), and iii) Women Empowerment
and Income Generating Programme (WEIGP).
• In addition, in line with the spirit of Ninth Plan, HMG has announced the
establishment of Nepal Poverty Alleviation Fund (NPAF) in 1999 and
started an annual budget allocation.
• The purpose is to cover the entire country under social mobilization,
monitor the achievement brought about by the SM-agencies in the country
and monitor the poverty status of the people
• NGO/INGO
• There were only 219 registered NGOs in Nepal till 1990. But this number
has suddenly increased after the restoration of the multiparty democratic
system in Nepal in April, 1990.
• In the context of poverty reduction, NGOs act partly on their own
agenda/model and partly in line with the model/agenda prescribed by the
funding agencies, particularly their partner INGOs. Some move with
specific sector e.g. literacy campaign, drinking water, etc. and gradually
involve the target population in other social/economic activities as
necessary.
• In mid 1990s, effort was placed to link social mobilization through a
holistic approach, with local governance and the bottom-up planning
process with the initiation of the preparatory phase of South Asia
Poverty Alleviation Programme and its subsequent replication
especially through Participatory District Development Programme
(PDDP) and Local Governance Programme (LGP), Sustainable
Community Development Programme (SCDP), Rural Energy
Development Programme (REDP), Rural Urban Partnership
Programme (RUPP) and so on.
• Among the not governmental sector SAPAP has adopted the social
mobilization approach seven VDCs of Syangja District of Nepal for
the first time in 1994.
• The SAPAP was an out come of the joint initiative of the SAARC and
the UNDP to demonstrate the ways in which the process of social
mobilization could be sponsored to allow for a rapid scaling up of
poverty alleviation efforts.
LGCDP (Local governance and CD programme)
• The SMP was launched under Local Governance and Community
Development Programme by the Ministry of Federal Affairs and Local
Development in July 2008 to 2018 to fill the void left by the absence of
elected representatives in the local levels.
• Social mobilisation approach had been adopted as a mainstay for community
development and created 31,280 ward citizen forums covering 99.7 per cent of
the local levels.
• These WCFs were created to strengthen local level coordination and downward
accountability, according to a report published by the ministry
• Moreover, the SMP supported people by raising their awareness on their rights
and responsibilities through community institutions like CACs and WCFs
• Community awareness center (CACs)
Evolutionary silent features of SM in Nepal
• Lesson learned?
• Assignment
Concept of microfinance and its role in poverty
alleviation; Practices of micro finance in Nepal
• Micro finance, also called micro credit, is a type of banking services that is
provided to unemployed or low income individuals or groups who otherwise
would have no other access to financial services.
• Microfinance is a financial service aimed at low-income individuals or at
those who do not have direct access to typical banking services.
• Microfinance encompasses a number of financial services like micro-credit,
micro-lending, micro-insurance, savings and money transfer among others.
• A microfinance institution (MFI) provides financial services to the
communities who cannot offer collateral against the loans they take but have
skills and desire to undertake economic activities for generating income and
self-employment.
Characteristics of micro-finance
• Small sized loan
• group based lending
• group savings
• small-scale entrepreneurs
• diversified utilization
• quick repayment
• close monitoring
• simple terms/conditions on credit (without collateral)
• Nepal has an experience of about four decades in microfinance. Although
many programmes have been implemented for poverty lessening initiatives
Nepal, only micro-finance programmes are seen as pro-poor and rural based.
• A variety of micro-finance development programmes including deprived sector
credit programme as well as other donor supported micro-credit programmes
were launched during the period.
• Micro-finance has been particularly recognized as an effective development
intervention for basic three reasons:
 The services provided through micro-finance can be targeted specifically to
the poor and poorest of the poor,
 These services can make a significant contribution to the socio-economic
status of the targeted community, and
The institutions that deliver these services can develop within few years, into
sustainable organizations with steady growing outreach.
Different model of microfinance :
Cooperative Model/ Saving and Credit Cooperatives model
• The history of cooperative societies in Nepal dates back to 1956, when the
government first started 13 cooperatives societies in Chitwan district.
• In 1963, the government established the Cooperative Bank, which later was merged
into the Agricultural Development Bank, Nepal in 1968.
• Cooperative models are mostly implemented by the Saving and Credit Cooperatives
(SCCs) under which a wide range of savings and loan products are provided to the
members.
• The SCCs target all community members in a given locality regardless of their
social and economic status. However, organizations established by development
programs stress more on serving the disadvantaged population.
• As per the Cooperative Act 1992, a group of 25 persons from a community can
form a cooperative by registering it with the Department of Cooperatives, Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives. These cooperatives take savings deposits from
their members and whoever wants to put savings in the cooperative is extended
membership.
• Small Farmer Cooperative Limited (SFCL) Model
• The Agricultural Development Bank Nepal (ADBN) initiated the Small
Farmer Development Program (SFDP) as a pilot project in 1975.
• The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) donated US dollar 30,000 to
initiate pilot testing of SFDP at two sites, Sakhuwa Mahendranagar in
Dhanusha district (Terai) and Tupche in Nuwakot district (Hills).
• A SFCL is a multi-service cooperative formed to provide financial as well
as non-financial services, like, social mobilization, training and technical
support services, to its members (farmers), mostly in rural areas.
• Managed by the members themselves, it also provides financial loans in
wholesale.
• A SFCL’s services are targeted only at small farmers and are generally
confined to a single Village Development Council (VDC) serving round
500 household catering 200-700 clients within a community
• SFCL has a three tiers structure. At the village level, promoters help
local household members to form groups; at the ward level, the farmers’
groups with proximity and common interest are combined into
intergroup associations; and at the VDC level, all groups and inter-
groups are represented in the Executive Committee.
• SFCLs are affiliated to the Sana Kisan Bikash Bank Ltd. (SKBBL)– a
bank established in 2001 to provide wholesale finance to SFCLs
• Grameen Bank Model
• This popular model, founded in 1976 by the Nobel Laureate,
Professor Muhammad Yunus in Bangladesh, is quite popular
worldwide and has been adapted by a large number of organizations.
• First introduced in Nepal in the early 1990’s, the Grameen Bank model
is comparatively more feasible in Terai, where the economic activities
are more flourished with a relatively more developed market and road
infrastructure.
• Under this approach, peer groups, each comprising of five members,
are formed.
• Three to ten such peer groups form a center at a particular location – close to a
village, where they meet once every week or fortnight or month as decided by the
members.
• A group chairperson and a center chief, elected by each group and each center
respectively, oversee the activities of group members and maintain group discipline,
check loan utilization and ensure that loan installments are timely repaid.
• In the meetings, group members collect savings and make demand for loans and also
settle the loans or interest due and repay loan installments as per schedule.
• Loans are made initially to two members, then to two others and finally to the last
member, with a four to eight week interval between each disbursement. Such loans
do not require collateral security. However, group guarantee for repayment is
mandatory.
• Swablamban bikas Bank, Chhimek Bikas Bank , Deprosc Development Bank,
Nirdhan Uthhan Bank are some Nepalese MFIs operating under the Grameen Bank
Model.
• Grameen bank system was introduced in Nepal during 1990s by the central
bank establishing five Rural Regional Development Banks, one in each
development region.
• Nirdhan and Center for Self Help Development (CSD) were two NGOs
initiating Grameen replication in the private sector.
• The other prominent MFIs-NGOs replicating Grameen in Nepal are Chhimek,
DEPROSC, and NRDSC. With the initiation of Nirdhan to promote Nirdhan
Utthan Bank, other MFI NGOs also promoted Microfinance Development
Banks like Swabalamban Bikas Bank, DEPROS Bikas Bank, and Chimek
Bikas Bank.
• Self-Help Groups (SHGs)/Community Organizations (COs) model
• Based on the concept of “self-help”, SHG’s are small groups of individuals
formed into groups of ten to twenty and operating a savings-first business
model whereby the member’s savings are used to fund loans.
• In a SHG usually women from a similar class and region come together to form
a savings and credit organization.
• They pool financial resources to make small interest bearing loans to their
members.
• The terms and conditions and accounting of the loan are set by designated
members in the group. The ‘Dhukuti’ system is one such example of a very old
form of self-help group in Nepal which has been in operation for over four
decades
• Community Organizations (COs)/ SHG’s are formed at the VDC level with the
assistance of the Local Development Fund (LDF) under Participatory District
Development Project (PDDP) and Decentralized Local Governance Support
Program (DLGSP).
• Local community residents are organized into CO’s, either separately for men
or women or together irrespective of the gender
• Similar to other MFI’s, the CO’s too mobilize mandatory and other types of
savings.
• Their lending schemes generally offer loans at 10-12% interest per annum to
the borrowers. Members apply for loans and collect due installments during a
CO’s regular meetings.
• The interest rates and other terms and conditions of loans are determined by
the CO’s if they lend money using their own savings
• However, if the member seeks a loan amount that is more than what
the CO can provide from its savings, the member would have to fill a
separate application form addressed to the Local Development Fund
(LDF).
• The CO recommends the loan and forwards it to the LDF for
approval.
Village bank model:
• The Village Bank (VB) model was evolved from Latin America and tried out
in Nepal between 1998 and 2001 in USAID funded Women Empowerment
Project (WEP) through PACT-Nepal.
• Village Banks are grassroots level financial institutions – community-
managed savings and credit associations aimed at providing financial
services to community women through the mobilization of their own
resources and enable them to achieve financial self-reliance.
• A typical village bank consists of 25 to 50 members, who are low-income
individuals, seeking to improve their lives through self-employment
activities. Aiming to enhance the social status and intra-household bargaining
power of women, VB’s mostly seek more female participation.
• They have been promoted by the Pact Nepal in collaboration with
some local NGOs and Cooperatives in the Terai region of Nepal. The
project also lent some money to build up the external account of the
VB, which was then lent to its members.
• However, they have not been linked up with the financial institutions
and most such banks have been non-functional after the phase out of
the project.
Effectiveness of microfinance program:
In rural areas where commercial banks do not operate, Savings and Credit
Cooperatives are the only source of financial services to the community people. In
addition, during insurgency, when all commercial banks withdrew from the rural
areas, the sources of microfinance services in the rural areas were community-
based SCOs.
The community-based Savings and Credit Cooperatives were found effective in:
 Generating funds for further investments
Attaining financial viability
 Protecting target groups from exploitation by providing informal sources of
credit in the project area
Establishing networks for widening financial activities
 Generating self employment opportunities for family members
Increasing member households' income, and
 Reducing poverty
Role of MF in poverty alleviation or role in
social Mobilization

•Discussion?
• Access to the financial service
• Empowering Entrepreneur
• Women empowerment
• Rural development
• Skill enhancement
• Social capital formation
Co-operative Definition
• A cooperative is "an autonomous association of persons united
voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs
and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled
enterprise
Cooperative and Principle of cooperative
• Open and Voluntary Membership
• Democratic Member Control
• Members economic participation
• Autonomy and Independence
• Education, training and information
• Cooperation among co-operative
• Concern for community
Muhammad Yunus

• Who Is Muhammad Yunus?

• Muhammad Yunus is a professor of economics who was awarded the 2006
Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences for his efforts in developing social and
economic improvements through microcredit and microloan operations.
• Most notably, Yunus founded the Grameen Bank, which is known for
loaning billions of dollars to impoverished people all over the world.
• The microfinance movement was started off by one man: Muhammad
Yunus, with one vision: to eradicate poverty from the world.
• Muhammad Yunus, the Bangladeshi economist, widely known as the Father
of Microfinance founded the Grameen Bank to make small loans to the poor
in Bangladesh
• Dr Yunus was greatly influenced by his mother who was known to never turn
away anyone in need.
• The famine that hit Bangladesh in 1974 pushed him to do something about
poverty.
• During his visits to the poorest households in the village of Jobra, he realised
that a small loan can make a big difference to a poor person.
• He made his first loan to 42 women in the village, with just USD $27 from his
own pocket. With this money, the women were able to make baskets, sell them
and quickly repay the money they borrowed from him.
• He began to see that small loans would not only help them survive, but create
in them the spark of enterprise and this could empower them and pull them out
of poverty.
• Since traditional banks refused to make small loans to the poor, the idea for
Grameen Bank was born.
• In 1976, Dr Yunus launched the activities of Grameen bank, giving out
microloans to the poor.
• In 1983, Grameen Bank was officially formed. The borrowers typically
repay back the loan in small weekly installments.
• In small villages with no access to banks, Grameen has brought banking to
people’s homes.
• The bank’s 22,149 staff serve 8.37 million borrowers at their door-step in
81,379 villages all over Bangladesh, every week. So far, Grameen Bank has
disbursed USD $11 billion in loans
• The success of the Grameen microfinance model has inspired
hundreds of countries throughout the world, including the USA.
Grameen Bank and Dr Yunus jointly won the Nobel Peace Prize in
2006