Computer

Networks
(CN)
 What is Computer Network ?
❑ It is a digital telecommunications network which
allows nodes to share resources.
❑ Sharing resources:
✓ Software
✓ Files and Data
✓ Storage devices
✓ Printers, Scanners, Fax and Modem

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3
 Course Objectives
1. To introduce the concept, terminologies, and
technologies used in modern data
communication and computer networking and
the functions of different layers.
2. To explain the basics of connecting devices used
and protocols used in data link layer.
3. To understand the basic concepts of addressing
and to study the various routing protocols.
4. To learn how process to process delivery is
carried out in transport layer and basic transport
layer protocols, congestion control techniques
and applications.

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 Course Outcomes
1.Understand the principles of data communication and
networking.
2.Gain knowledge of data link control, which involves flow
and error control.
3.Know two prominent wireless technologies for LANs:
IEEE 802.11 Wireless LANs, and Bluetooth, a technology
for small wireless LANs.
4.Have exposure to principles of addressing and routing.
5.Gain the knowledge of network, transport and application
layer protocols.
6.Introduced to basics of cryptography and internet security.

5
 Unit I : Physical Layer
▪ Data Communications, Networks
▪ Networks models: OSI model, Layers in OSI
model, TCP / IP protocol suite, Addressing
▪ Guided and Unguided Transmission media.
▪ Switching: Circuit switched networks, Data
gram Networks, Virtual circuit networks.
▪ Cable networks for Data transmission: Dial-
up modems, DSL, Cable TV, Cable TV for
Data transfer.

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7
 Unit II: Data Link Layer
▪ Data link control: Framing, Flow and
error control, Protocols for Noiseless
and Noisy Channels, HDLC.
▪ Multiple access: Random access and
Controlled access
▪ Wired LANS: Ethernet:- IEEE
standards, standard Ethernet, changes
in the standard, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit
Ethernet.
▪ Introduction to Wireless LANS: IEEE
802.11, Bluetooth.
▪ Connecting LANS: Connecting
devices, Backbone networks, Virtual
LANS

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 Unit III: Network and Transport Layer
▪ Logical addressing: IPv4 and IPv6
addresses.
▪ Internet Protocol: Internetworking,
IPv4, IPv6
▪ Address mapping: ARP, RARP,
BOOTP, DHCP, ICMP, IGMP.
▪ Delivery: Forwarding , Routing,
Unicast, Multicast routing protocols.
▪ TRANSPORT LAYER: Process-to-
Process delivery, User Datagram
Protocol (UDP), Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP).

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 Unit IV: Application Layer and Network
Security
▪ APPLICATION LAYER:
Domain Name System (DNS) ,
E-mail, FTP,
▪ WWW and HTTP Multimedia.
▪ Introduction to Network
Security, Services, Mechanisms
and Attacks, Symmetric Key
Cryptography, Asymmetric Key
Cryptography, Security in the
Internet, Firewalls.

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 List of Experiments
1. Study of Windows Server Operating System &
Implementation of LAN.
2. Installation and configuration of Web & FTP Services.
3. Study of Network Protocol Analyser.
4. Examine how networking packets are transferred and
exchanged in a TCP/IP network.
5. Write a program for implementation of Shortest Path
algorithm.
6. Study of wireless LANs.
7. Write a program for Encryption and Decryption.

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 Learning resources

Text Books:
1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, “Data communication
and Networking”, 4th edition, TMH, 2006
2. Andrew S. Tannenbaum, “Computer
Networks”, Pearson Education, Fourth
Edition, 2003

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Reference Books:
1. Wayne Tomasi, “Introduction to Data Communication and
Networking”, 1/e, Pearson Education
2. James .F. Kurouse& W. Rouse, “Computer Networking: A
Topdown Approach Featuring”,3/e, Pearson Education.
3. William Stallings, “Cryptography and Network Security
Principles and Practices”, PHI.
4. Greg Tomshon, Ed Tittel, David Johnson. “Guide to
Networking Essentials”, fifth edition, Thomson India
Learning, 2007.
5. William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communication”,
Eighth Edition, Pearson Education, 2000.

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 Assessment Scheme
Class Continuous Assessment (CCA): 50 Marks
Assignments Mid term Test Quizzes
A1 (10M):- U1 & 2 (U 1 & 2) (U 1 to 4)
Each unit: 5M
A2 (10M):- U3 & 4
20M 20 M 20 M

Laboratory Continuous Assessment (LCA): 50 Marks

File Practical
exam
30 20

End Term Examination: 40 M (entire syllabus)

 Chapter 1
• Introduction:
• Telecommunication: Communication at a distance.
• Examples: Telephony, Telegraphy, and TV.
• Data communications : Exchange of data between
two devices ( or Communication system)
✓ Communication system: combination of hardware
(physical equipment) and software (programs).
• Data: Information presented in whatever form is
agreed upon by the parties creating and using the
data.

1.15
 Fundamental characteristics
(Effective data communications)
❑ Delivery: The system must deliver data to the correct
destination.
❑ Accuracy: The system must deliver the data accurately.
❑ Timeliness: The system must deliver data in a timely manner.
This kind of delivery is called real-time transmission.
✓ Real-time: Audio and Video
• Blockage of channel is not acceptable
✓ Non-real time: E-mail, SMS, WhatsApp
• Blockage of channel is acceptable
❑ Jitter: It refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

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Five components of data communication

❑ 1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be

communicated.
✓ Popular forms : Text, Numbers, Pictures, Audio, and Video.
❑ 2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data
message. Examples: Computer, Workstation, Telephone
handset, Video camera.
❑ 3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the
message.
✓ Examples: Computer, Workstation, Telephone handset, TV.
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Five components of data communication

❑ 4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the

physical path by which a message travels from sender to
receiver.
❑ 5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data
communications.
✓ It represents an agreement between the communicating
devices.
✓ Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating.
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Cont.

❑ Wireline:
✓ Telephony: Coaxial cable, Optical fiber cable (OFC)
✓ RF and Microwave : Waveguides

❑Wireless (RF-link): Antenna at both ends

✓ Radio and TV
✓ Satellite Communication
✓ RADAR
✓ Mobile Communication
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 Data flow
(Simplex, Half-duplex, and Full-duplex)

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Simplex (One-way communication)

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Half duplex (walkie-talkie)

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 Full duplex
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 NETWORKS
❑ A network is a set of devices (or nodes) connected by
communication links (wired or wireless) and capable of
communication.
❑ Examples of devices or nodes:
✓ Large computer
✓ Desktop
✓ Laptop
✓ Cellular phone
✓ Router (which connects the network to other networks)
✓ Switch (which connects devices together)
✓ MODEM (which changes the form of data)
❑ Most networks use distributed processing. It means dividing a
task among multiple computers.
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 Network Criteria
❑ A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria.
1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Security

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1. Performance
❑ It can be measured in many ways, including transit time and
response time.
❑ Factors:
✓ Number of users
✓ Type of transmission medium
✓ Capabilities of the connected hardware
✓ Efficiency of the software
❑ It is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput
and delay.
• Expected: more throughput and less delay.

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 Performance
• One important network issue is the
performance of the network. Following are
the important parameters of Performance.
1. Bandwidth
2. Throughput
3. Latency
4. Bandwidth delay product
5. Jitter
 Bandwidth
• BW in Hz
Range of Frequencies in composite signal or range
of frequencies a channel can pass.
– e.g. Telephone line BW is 4KHz
– BW in bps
Number of bps that a channel, a link, or even
network can transmit
It refers speed of bit transmission in a channel or
link.
– E.g. BW of Fast Ethernet network is 100 Mbps
 Throughput
• It is a measure of how fast we can actually send
data through a network.
• BW and Throughput both are in bps but they are
different
• A link may have BW of B bps, but we can only
send T bps through this link with T always less
than B.
• BW is potential measurement of link and the
throughput is an actual measurement of how fast
we can send data.
• e.g. BW is 2Mbps but throughput is 200Kbps
 Latency (delay)
• The latency defines how long it takes for an
entire message to completely arrive at the
destination from the time the first bit is sent
out from the source.

• Latency = propagation time + transmission

time + queuing time + processing delay
• Propagation time:
It measures the time required for a bit to travel
from source to the destination.

Propagation time = Distance / Propagation

speed
• Transmission Time:
It is depend on message size and bandwidth of
channel.
In one message 1st bit may leave sender earlier
and reach earlier, but last bit may leave later and
arrive later.

Transmission Time = Message Size / Bandwidth.

• Queuing Time:
– The time required for each intermediate or end
device to hold the message before it is processed.
– Queuing time is not fixed, it changes with load
imposed on a network. When there is a heavy
traffic on the network, queuing time increases.
• Processing time:
– It is the time required to process the data.
• Bandwidth delay Product:
BW delay product defines the number of
bits that can fill the link.
5 x 5 = 25 bits
 Jitter
– Jitter is a problem if different packets of data
encounter different delays and application using
the data on receiver side is time sensitive (e.g.
Audio and Video)
❑ Reliability : It is measured by the frequency of failure, the
time it takes a link to recover from a failure.
• Reliability is the measure of how often a network is useable.
• Network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure,
the time it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the
network’s robustness.
• MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures) is a measure of the
average time a component is expected to operate between
failures. Normally provided by the manufacturer.
• A network failure can be: hardware, data carrying medium
and Network Operating System.

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❑Security:
• Security is the protection of Hardware, Software and Data
from unauthorized access.
• Implementing policies and procedures for data recovery and
losses.
• Restricted physical access to computers, password protection,
limiting user privileges and data encryption are common
security methods.
• Anti-Virus monitoring programs to defend against computer
viruses are a security measure.

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 Physical Structures
1. Point-to-Point:
▪ Dedicated link between two devices.
▪ The entire capacity of link is reserved between those two
devices.

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 2. Multipoint (or Multidrop)
❑ More than two specific devices share a single link
❑ The capacity of a channel is shared either Spatially
(simultaneously) or Temporally (turn by turn basis)

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 Physical Topology
▪ Physical topology: Physical layout of the network (or
geometrical representation of the links and nodes)
▪ 2 or more devices connect to a link.
▪ 2 or more links form a topology.

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 1. Mesh
❑ Every device has a dedicated point-to-
point link to every other device.
❑ Dedicated: Link carries traffic only
between the two devices it connects.
❑ Physical links: n(n - 1)
❑ Duplex-mode links: {n(n - 1)}/2
❑ Input/output ports: n -1
Example: n = 5
❑ Physical links: 20
❑ Duplex-mode links: 10
❑ Input/output ports: n -1: 4

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Advantages

✓ Eliminating the traffic problems (dedicated links).

✓ Robust: If one link becomes unusable, it does not disable the
entire system.
✓ Privacy or Security: Intended recipient sees it and others can
not have access (physical boundaries prevent).
✓ Finally, point-to-point links make fault. Identification and
Fault isolation is easy.
✓ Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems.
✓ This will handle by N/W manager.

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Disadvantages

▪ Amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.

✓ First: Installation and reconnection are difficult.
✓ Second: The wiring is larger than the available space (in walls,
ceilings, or floors).
✓ Finally: Expensive (I/O ports and cable)
▪ Implemented in a limited fashion: acts as a backbone (several
other topologies can be connected).
▪ Practical example : Telephone regional offices.

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2. Star

❑ Each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a

central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not
directly linked to one another.
❑ Unlike a mesh topology, It does not allow direct traffic
between devices.
❑ Hub or controller is a exchange.

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 Advantages
• Less expensive than a mesh topology.
• Each device needs only one link and I/O
port. Easy installation and
reconfiguration.
• Less cabling is needed.
• Robustness: If one link fails, only that
link is affected. All other links remain
active. Easy fault identification and
isolation.
• Hub working: used to monitor link
problems and bypass defective links.

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 Disadvantages
❑Dependent on hub, If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
❑More cabling is required than Ring or Bus topology.
Application: LANs

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 3. Bus

❑ It is an example of multipoint connection.

❑ One long cable acts as a backbone.
❑ Nodes are connected to link by drop lines and taps.
❑ Signal strength is a function of cable length which limits the
number of taps.

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 Advantages
• Ease of installation.
• Backbone cable can be laid along the most efficient
path.
• It uses less cabling than Mesh or Star topologies.

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Disadvantages

❑ Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.

❑ It is usually designed optimally efficient at installation.
❑ It can therefore be difficult to add new devices.
❑ Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality
(solution: limits the number and spacing of devices).
❑ Adding new devices: Requires modification or replacement of
the backbone.
❑ Fault of break in bus: Stops all transmission.
❑ It was one of the first topologies used in the design of early
LANs.
❑ Application: Ethernet LANs
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4. Ring

❑Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection

with only the two devices on either side of it.
❑A signal is passed along the ring in one direction.
❑Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater.
❑When a device receives a signal intended for another
device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes
them along.

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Advantages

❑ Easy to install and reconfigure.

❑ Each device is linked to only its immediate neighbors (either
physically or logically).
❑ To add or delete a device requires changing only two
connections.
❑ The only constraints are media and traffic considerations
(maximum ring length and number of devices).
❑ In addition, fault isolation is simplified.

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 Disadvantages

❑ Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.

❑Break in the ring (disabled station) can disable the
entire n/w.
❑ Solution: Dual ring
❑ Less popular.

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Hybrid

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 Categories of Networks
❑ Two primary categories: (based on its length and topology)
1. Local Area Networks (LANs) : < 2miles
2. Wide Area Networks (WANs) : worldwide
3. Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs): 10 miles
❑ Order of sequence: LAN, MAN and WAN

Limited MAN connects WAN connects MANs in a large

geographical area LANs in city or geographic area. Internet is
such as home or town world’s largest WAN
office building 55
 1. LAN
❑ Where? Office, Building, or Campus.
❑ Home office: Two PCs and a printer.
❑ Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
❑ LANs are designed to share resources:
✓ Hardware (e.g., a printer)
✓ Software (e.g., an application program)
✓ Data.
❑ LAN topologies: Bus, Ring, and Star.
❑ LAN : Size, Transmission media and Topology
❑ Early LANs : 4 to 16 Mbps .
❑ Today’s LANs: 100 or 1000 Mbps.
❑ Wireless LANs : Newest evolution in LAN technology.
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 3. WAN
❑ Long-distance transmission of information.
❑ Where? Over large geographic areas (Country, a
Continent, or even the whole world).
❑WAN can be:
✓ as complex as the backbones that connect the
Internet
✓ as simple as a dial-up line that connects a home
computer to the Internet.

57
58
❑ Early switched WAN : X.25 (Packet-switching)
❑ X.25 is being gradually replaced by Frame relay
(high-speed and more efficient network).
❑ Example of switched WAN:
✓ asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network (fixed-
size data unit packets called cells).
✓ wireless WAN (more popular).

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 2. MAN
❑ Size: LAN < MAN < WAN.
❑ Where? Town or City.
❑ High-speed connectivity.
❑ Examples:
✓ Telephone Company network ( high-speed DSL line
to the customer).
✓ Cable TV network (high-speed data connection to the
Internet).

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Heterogeneous Network

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 Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
❑ It allow users access
to networks to
establish Internet connectivity.
❑ Local
❑ Regional
❑ National
❑ International

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 Protocols and Standards
❑Protocols OR Rules
❑Standards: Agreed upon rules

63
 Protocols
❑ Key elements of a protocols are:
1. Syntax: Structure or format of the data, meaning in which they
are presented.
✓ Example: Protocol (first 8 bits of the data - address of the
sender, second 8 bits of the data - address of the receiver, and
rest bits are data (or message).
2. Semantics: Meaning (or interpretation) of each section of bits.
3. Timing: When data to be sent and how they can be sent.
✓ Example: Sender - 100 Mbps, Receiver - 1 Mbps.

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 Standards
❑ These are essential in creating and maintaining an open competitive
market for equipment manufactures and in guaranteeing National and
International interoperability of data and telecommunications
technology and processes.
❑ It provide guidelines to manufactures, vendors, government agencies,
and other service providers.
❑ Data communication standards fall into two categories:
1. de facto ( meaning “by fact”)
2. de jure (meaning “ by law” or “by regulation”)
❑ Standards Organizations:
1. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
2. International Telecommunication Union – Telecommunication (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
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❑ TRAI: Telecom Regularity Authority of India.
❑ FCC: Federal Communications Commission, US govt. agency.
❑ ITU: The International Telecommunication Union is an agency
of the United Nations, coordinate telecommunication operations
and services throughout the world.

66
 Network Models
❑ Two models haven been devised to define CN operations.
1. The OSI model – 7 layer n/w (1.Never implemented in
practice, 2. Reference model)
2. The Internet model (TCP/IP) - 5 layer n/w (1. Implemented
in practice, 2. CN syllabus is framed)

67
 Protocol Layering
• Simple communication: Only one simple protocol

• Complex communication: Divide the task between different

layers and we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol
layering.

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❑ Advantages:
✓ It allows us to separate the services from the implementation.
✓ Internet: Communication does not always use only two end
systems: there are intermediate systems that need only some
layers, but not all layers.
❑ Principles of Protocol Layering:
1. Bi-directional communication at each layer.
2. The two objects under each layer at both sites should be
identical.

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Logical ( or Imaginary) Connections
between Peer layers

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 The OSI Model

❑ OSI: Open Systems Interconnection ( introduced in the late

1970s)
❑ International Standards Organization (ISO: 1947) is a
multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement on
international standards.
❑ ISO standard covers: all aspects of n/w communications.
❑ The OSI model is not a protocol.
❑ It is a model for understanding and designing a network
architecture that is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

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ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model. 71
7- layers of the OSI model

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Headers and Trailers

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Interaction between layers

▪ Software layers: 7, 6, and 5

▪ Hardware + Software layers: 4, 3, and 2
▪ Hardware layer: 1 74
Summary of layers

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 1. Physical Layer
❑ It is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to
the next.

76
• Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: type of
transmission medium
• Representation of bits: Define type of encoding or data
formats ( digital data into digital signal conversion).
• Date (or Transmission) rates: Number of bits sent per second
(Nb) and Tb (bit duration). Tb = 1/Nb
• Synchronization of bits: To sync sender and receiver clock.
• Line configuration: Point-to-Point OR Point-to-multipoint.
• Physical topology: Mesh, Star, Ring, Bus, or Hybrid.
• Transmission mode: Simplex, Half-duplex, or Full-duplex.
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2. Data Link Layer

It is responsible for moving frames from one node to the next.

78
• Framing: It divides the stream of bits into data units called
frames.
• Physical addressing: If the frames are to be distributed to
different systems on the network, It adds a header to the frame
to define the sender/or receiver of the frames.
• Flow control: If Date rate (Tx) > Date rate (Rx), the data link
layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
• Error control: It adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanism to detect & retransmit damaged or lost
frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate
frames. It is normally achieved through a trailer added to the
end of the frame.
• Access control: When two or more devices are connected to
the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any given
time .
Hop – to - hop (node - to - node) delivery
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3. Network Layer

It is responsible for the delivery of the individual packets

from the source host to the destination host.
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• Logical addressing: It adds a header includes logical address
of the sender and receiver.
• Routing: When independent networks or links are connected
to create internetworks (networks of network) or a large
network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches)
route the packets to their final destination.

83
Source-to-destination delivery 84
4. Transport Layer

It is responsible for the delivery of a message from one

process to another. 85
• Service-point address: Computers often run several programs
(specific process) at the same time. Transport layer header
must contain source-point address (or port address).
• Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into
segments, with each segment containing a sequence number.
These numbers are used to reassemble the message and to
identify and replace packets that were lost in transmission.
86
• Connection control: The transport layer can be either
connectionless or connection oriented. A connection –
oriented:- Prior connection must be established. A
connectionless:- No prior connection is established.
• Flow control: Similar to the data link layer. However, flow
control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across
a single link.
• Error control: Similar to the data link layer. However, error
control at this layer is performed process to process rather than
across a single link. Error correction is usually achieved
through retransmission for damage, loss, or duplicate frames. 87
 5. Session Layer

It is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

88
• Dialog control: It allows the communication between two
process to take place in either half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: It allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points to a stream of data.

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 6. Presentation Layer

It is responsible for translation, compression, and encrytion.

90
• Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two.
• Translation: The process (running programs) in two systems are
usually exchanging information in the form of character strings,
numbers, and so on. The presentation layer at the sender changes the
information from its sender-dependent format into a common
format. The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the
common format into its receiver-dependent format.
• Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able
to ensure privacy. Cryptography (Encryption and Decryption).
• Compression: Data compression reduces number of bits contained
in the information. Data compression becomes particularly
important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video. 91
 7. Application Layer

It is responsible for providing services to the user.

▪ X.500: (Directory service; Electronic directory of people)

▪ FTAM: File Transfer and Access Management
▪ X.400: Messaging standard specified by ITU-T
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• It enables the user, whether human or software, to access the
network.
• It provides user interfaces and support for services such as e-
mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information
services.

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Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

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• Which one of the following is not a
client server application?
(A) Internet chat
(B) Web browsing
(C) E-mail
(D) ping

• ping

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• In the following pairs of OSI protocol layer/sub-
layer and its functionality, the INCORRECT pair is
A. Network layer and Routing
B. Data Link Layer and Bit synchronization
C. Transport layer and End-to-end process
communication
D. Medium Access Control sub-layer and Channel
sharing
Data Link Layer and Bit synchronization
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 TCP/IP Protocol Suite
❑ The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the
OSI model.
• It is a protocol suite (a set of protocols organized in different layers) used in
the Internet today.
• Upper level protocol is supported by the 1 or 2 lower level protocols.
• Original TCP/IP: 4 layers
• Updated TCP/IP: 5 layers

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Layered Architecture

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Communication through an internet

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 Logical connections between layers of the TCP/IP
protocol suite

▪ Duty of application, transport, and network layers : End-to-End

(internet).
▪ Duty of data-link and physical layers: Hop-to-Hop (link).
▪ Top 3 layers: The data units should not be changed by any router or
switch.
▪ Bottom 2 layers: The data units can be changed only by the routers, not
by the switches.
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Identical objects in the TCP/IP protocol suite

101
TCP/IP and OSI model

102
❑ Physical and Data Link Layers:
✓ TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol but it supports all the
standard and proprietary protocols.
✓ A network in a TCT/IP internetwork can be a LAN or a WAN.
❑ Network Layer (or internetwork layer):
• TCP/IP supports the Internetworking Protocol (IP). In turn, uses 4
supporting protocols: ARP, RARP, ICMP, and IGMP
• IP: It is an unreliable and connectionless protocol – best effort delivery
service. IP transports data in packets called datagrams.
1. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): It obtains the physical address
from the logical address.
2. Reverse ARP: It obtains the logical address from the physical address.
3. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP): It gives notification of
datagram problems back to the sender. It also sends query and error
reporting messages.
4. Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP): It is used to facilitate
the simultaneous transmission of a message to a group of recipients.
❑ Transport Layer:
• Two main protocols - TCP and UDP
• IP :- Host – to – host protocol (delivery of a packet from one physical
device to another).
• UDP and TCP:- Delivery of a message from one process (running
program) to another process.
1. User Datagram Protocol (UDP):
✓ It is the simpler of the two standard TCP/IP transport protocols.
✓ It is a process – to – process to protocols that adds only port address,
checksum error control, and length information to the data.
2. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
✓ It provides full transport – layer services to applications.
✓ It is a reliable stream (or connection – oriented) transport protocol.
3. Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP):
✓ It provides support for voice over the Internet.
✓ It combines the best features of UDP and TCP.

104
❑ Application Layer:
✓ SMTP : Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
✓ FTP : File Transfer Protocol
✓ HTTP : Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
✓ DNS : Domain Name System
✓ SNMP : Simple Network Management Protocol.
✓ TELNET : Terminal Network.

105
Encapsulation/Decapsulation

https://rb.gy/us3wv
106
 Addressing
❑ Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing the
TCP/IP protocols.

107
 1. Physical addresses
❑ Also known as Link address
❑ It is the address of a node as defined by its LAN and WAN
❑ It is included in the frame used by the data link layer
❑ It is lowest-level address.
❑ Size and Format vary depending on the network.
❑ Example: Ethernet uses a 6-byte (or 48-bit or 12 hexadecimal
digits) physical address (imprinted on the NIC)
07:01:02:01:2C:4B

108
❑ IMSI = MAC (NIC)
❑ Mobile Number = IP address

109
2. Logical Addresses

110
 Logical Addresses

rb.gy/la5k2
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses111
 3.Port Addresses

The physical addresses change from hop to hop, but the logical
and port addresses usually remain the same. 112
4.Specific Addresses

113
Chapter 7: Transmission Media

114
Classes of transmission media

115
 Twisted-Pair Cable

❑ Wire carries signal.

❑ It also carries: Interference (noise) and Crosstalk and create
unwanted signals.
❑ If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these unwanted
signals is not the same in both wires because they are at
different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources
(e,g., one is closer and the other is farther).
❑ This results in a difference at the receiver.
❑ By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained.
❑ The unwanted (noise or cross talk) signals are mostly
canceled out. 116
 UTP and STP cables

❑ The most common twisted-pair cable is unshielded twisted-

pair (UTP).
❑ IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its
use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
❑ Metal shield improves the quality of cable by preventing the
penetration of noise.
❑ It is bulkier and more expensive.
117
 Categories of UTP cables
❑The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has
developed standards to classify UTP cables.

118
 UTP connector
❑RJ 45 (Ethernet 802.3)

119
▪ 1000Base T: (Gigabit Ethernet)
✓ It need all 8 pins.
✓ It use 4 pairs (each transmits
250Mbps duplex) of wires.
✓ Parallel transmissions. 120
UTP performance

121
 Applications
❑ Telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
❑ The local loop line: Subscribers to the central
telephone office.
❑ The DSL lines: Used by telephone companies to
provide high-data-rate (or high-bandwidth)
connections.
❑ LANs : 10Base-T and 100Base-T.

122
 Coaxial cable
❑ It carries HF signals than UTP cables.
❑ Larger BW is available.

123
 Categories of coaxial cables

❑ Each RG number denotes a unique

set of physical specifications:
✓ Wire gauge of the inner conductor
✓ Thickness and type of the inner
insulator
✓ Construction of the shield
✓ Size and Type of the outer casing
124
10Base2/5

125
 BNC connectors
(Bayonet Neill–Concelman)

126
 Coaxial cable performance

❑ Attenuation is much higher in coaxial cables than in UTP cable.

❑ More number of repeaters are needed.
127
 Applications
❑ Telephone networks:
✓ Analog: carry 10,000 voice signals simultaneously.
✓ Digital: support 600 Mbps data rate.
✓ Coaxial cables are replaced by fiber-optic cable.
❑ Cable TV networks :
✓ RG - 59.
✓ Coaxial cables are replaced by fiber-optic cable.
❑ Ethernet LAN:
✓ 10Base2 or Thin Ethernet (RG -58).
✓ 10Base5 or Thick Ethernet (RG -11).
128
 Fiber-Optic Cable
❑ It carries the signal in terms of light.
❑ It is made of glass or plastic.
❑ It has huge bandwidth (30 THz)
❑ Broadband communication system (BCS):
✓ Optical fiber communication (backbone of the
telecommunication technology)
✓ Satellite communication.

129
 Principle of light ray

❑ Light travels in a straight line: moving through a single

uniform substance.
❑ Light changes direction: moving from a more dense to a less
dense substance.
130
Construction

❑ Core (glass or plastic) is more dense than Cladding (plastic).

❑ Dcore (50 μm) < Dcladding
❑ Plastic buffer coating: to cushion the fiber.
❑ Inside jacket: Kevlar (strong material used in the fabrication
of bulletproof vests ) to strengthen the cable.
❑ Outer jacket: made of either PVC or Teflon.

131
 Operating principle

❑ It uses total internal reflection principle to guide light.

❑ Refractive index of the core (n1) > the cladding (n2).

132
Types

133
134
❑ Multimode: Support multiple beams
✓ Step-index : Density of the core remains constant from the center to the
edges.
✓ Graded-index: Varying densities (Density is highest at the center of the core
and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge).
❑ Single-mode: It uses step-index fiber and carries a highly focused source
of light.
135
Fiber types

136
 FOC connectors

❑ SC (Subscriber channel): used for cable TV. It uses a

push/pull locking system.
❑ ST (Straight-tip): used for connecting cable to networking
devices.
❑ MT-RJ: similar in size to RJ45.
137
 Optical fiber performance

❑ Attenuation is flatter than in the case of UTP and coaxial cable.

❑ Need 10 times less repeaters.
138
 Applications

❑ Backbone networks: wide BW

❑ WDM: wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) -1600Gbps.
❑ SONET n/w: (Synchronous Optical Network)
❑ Hybrid n/w: Cable TV companies use a combination of optical
fiber (backbone structure) and coaxial cable (connections to
users: Narrow BW).
❑ LAN:
✓ 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet)
✓ 1000Base-X (use FOC).

139
 Advantages
❑ Higher BW ( or higher data rates) than UTP and coaxial cable.
✓ BW utilization are limited by the signal generation and
reception technology available.
❑ Less signal attenuation:
✓ FOC: 50 km without repeater.
✓ UTP or coaxial cable: need repeaters every 5 km.
❑ Immunity to EM interference: EM noise cannot affect FOC.
❑ Resistance to corrosive materials. Glass is more resistant to
corrosive materials than copper.
❑ Light weight:
❑ Greater immunity to tapping:
✓ Signal tapping is difficult in FOC than copper cables.
✓ Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.140
 Disadvantages
❑ Installation and maintenance:
✓ FOC is a relatively new technology.
✓ Installation and maintenance require expertise that is not yet
available everywhere.
❑ Unidirectional light propagation: Two fibers are needed for
bidirectional communication.
❑ Cost: The cable and the interfaces are more expensive.

141
 Unguided media: Wireless
❑ Transmission of EM waves without using a physical
conductor.
❑ Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are
available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving
them.

142
RF wave propagation

143
Propagation methods

144
Frequency Bands

7.145
Wireless transmission waves

7.146
 RF waves: Omnidirectional antenna
(360˚ coverage)

❑ Applications:
Multicasting:
✓ AM and FM radio
✓ TV
✓ Cordless phones.

7.147
Radio Waves
■ Waves ranging in frequencies between 3KHz to 1GHz
are normally called Radio waves.

■ Radio waves are omnidirectional. i.e. when an

antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated
in all directions.

■ So Transmitting and Receiving antenna do not have to

be aligned.

■ Omnidirectional signal by one antenna are susceptible

to interference by another antenna that may send
signals using the same frequency or band
■ Low and medium frequency radio waves can
penetrate walls.

■ Radio wave band is narrow (1GHz) compared

to microwave (299GHz). Data rate is less.

■ Radio waves with sky wave propagation can

travel long distance. e.g. AM radio.
■ Applications:
1. AM radio
2. FM radio
3. Television
4. cordless phones
5. Paging
 Note

Radio waves are used for multicast

communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems. They
can penetrate through walls.
Highly regulated. Use omnidirectional
antennas

4.151
 Microwaves: Unidirectional antennas

❑ Applications
✓ Point-to-point link or
Microwave link (LoS)
✓ Cellular phones
✓ Satellite networks
✓ Wireless LANs
7.152
Microwaves
■ Frequencies between 1GHz to 300 GHz

■ Microwaves are unidirectional

■ Transmitting and receiving antenna needs to be

aligned.

■ Due to unidirectional property pair of aligned antenna

can transmit signal without interfering another pair of
aligned antenna

■ Microwave propagation is line-of-sight.

■ Repeaters are often needed for long distance

communication.
■ VHF microwaves can not penetrate walls.

■ Band is relatively wide around 299GHz. So

high data rate is possible

■ Applications:

1. cellular phones

2. Wireless LANs

3. Satellite networks
 Note

Microwaves are used for unicast

communication such as cellular
telephones, satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.
Higher frequency ranges cannot
penetrate walls.
Use directional antennas - point to point
line of sight communications.
4.155
 Infrared (Ir) signals
❑These can be used for short-range communication in
a closed area using line-of-sight propagation.
❑The Infrared Data Association (IrDA): provides
specifications for a complete set of protocols for
wireless infrared communications.

156
Infrared
■ Infrared waves with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400
THz (1mm to 770nm wavelength)

■ It can be used for short range communication.

■ These frequency waves can not penetrate walls.

■ Can not be used for long distance communication.

■ Also can not used outside buildings as sun’s rays also

contains infrared waves, which can interfere with
infrared signals which we are using.
■ Applications:
1. Some manufacturer provide special port called
IrDA (Infrared Data Association) port that
allows wireless keyboard to communicate with
PC (up to 8 meter).

1. Infrared remote control.

 Note

Infrared signals can be used for short-

range communication in a closed area
using line-of-sight propagation.

4.159
160
161
162
Switching
❑ A network is a set of connected devices.
❑ How to connect multiple devices?
❑ Solution 1: Point-to-Point connection
between each pair of devices (a Mesh
topology) or between a central device and
every other device(a Star topology).
❑ Drawbacks:
✓ Impractical and wasteful when applied to
very large networks.
✓ The number and length of links require too
much infrastructure to be cost-efficient.
✓ The majority of those links would be idle
most of the time.
163
❑ Solution 2: Multiconnections (a Bus topology)
❑ Drawback:
✓ Distance between devices and the total number of devices
increase beyond the capacity of the media and equipment.

164
❑ Better solution: Switching

165
• Assume that source S and destination D are connected
through two intermediate routers labeled R. Determine how
many times each packet has to visit the network layer and the
data link layer during a transmission from S to D.

1. Network layer – 4 times and Data link layer – 4 times.

2. Network layer – 6 times and Data link layer – 4 times.
3. Network layer – 4 times and Data link layer – 6 times.
4. Network layer – 6 times and Data link layer – 6 times.

166
 Taxonomy of switched networks

4.167
■ Networks are used to interconnect many devices.

■ We have checked with Local Area Networks.

■ Now, wide area networks

■ Since the invention of the telephone, circuit switching has
been the dominant technology for voice communications.
■ Since 1970, packet switching has evolved substantially for
digital data communications. It was designed to provide a
more efficient facility than circuit switching for bursty data
traffic.
■ Two types of packet switching:
■ Datagram (such as today’s Internet)
■ Virtual circuit (such as Frame Relay, ATM)
 CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches

connected by physical links. A connection between two
stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
However, each connection uses only one dedicated
channel on each link. Each link is normally divided
into n channels by using FDM or TDM.

Topics discussed in this section:

Three Phases
Efficiency
Delay

4.169
 Circuit Switching
■ Circuit switching in a network operates almost the same way as
the telephone system works.
■ A complete end-to-end path must exist before communication can
take place.
■ The computer initiating the data transfer must ask for a connection
to the destination.
■ Once the connection has been initiated and completed to the
destination device, the destination device must acknowledge that it
is ready and willing to carry on a transfer.

■ https://rb.gy/hmx74
 A trivial circuit-switched network

4.171
■ There is a dedicated communication path between
two stations (end-to-end)

■ The path is a connected sequence of links between

network nodes. On each physical link, a logical
channel is dedicated to the connection.

172
■ Communication via circuit switching has three phases:
■ Circuit establishment called Setup Phase
■ Routing & resource allocation (FDM or TDM)

■ Data transfer Phase

■ Circuit disconnect called Teardown Phase
■ Deallocate the dedicated resources

■ The switches must know how to find the route to the

destination and how to allocate bandwidth (channel)
to establish a connection.
 Note

In circuit switching, the resources need

to be reserved during the setup phase;
the resources remain dedicated for the
entire duration of data transfer until the
teardown phase.

4.174
Efficiency

■ Less efficient compared to other

switching techniques.
 Delay in a circuit-switched network

4.176
 Note

Switching at the physical layer in the

traditional telephone network uses
the circuit-switching approach.

4.177
 Advantages:
• The communication channel (once established) is dedicated.
• No overheads once connection establishes
Disadvantages:
• Possible long wait to establish a connection, (10 seconds, more
on long- distance or international calls.) during which no data can
be transmitted.
• More expensive than any other switching techniques, because a
dedicated path is required for each connection.
• Inefficient use of the communication channel, because the
channel is not used when the connected systems are not using it.

4.178
 Message Switching
■ Message switching is a connectionless network
switching technique where the entire message is
routed from the source node to the destination node,
one hop at a time.
■ Message switching was a technique developed as an
alternate to circuit switching, before packet switching
was introduced.
■ In message switching, end users communicate by
sending and receiving messages that included the
entire data to be shared. Messages are the smallest
individual unit.
■ With message switching there is no need to establish
a dedicated path between two stations.
■ When a station sends a message, the
destination address is appended to the
message.
■ The message is then transmitted through the
network, in its entirety, from node to node.
■ Each node receives the entire message, stores
it in its entirety on disk, and then transmits
the message to the next node.
■ This type of network is called a store-and-
forward network.
■ Store and forward –
The intermediate nodes have the responsibility
of transferring the entire message to the next
node. Hence, each node must have storage
capacity. A message will only be delivered if
the next hop and the link connecting it are
both available, otherwise it’ll be stored
indefinitely. A store-and-forward switch
forwards a message only if sufficient resources
are available and the next hop is accepting
data. This is called the store-and-forward
■ Message delivery –
This implies wrapping the entire information in a
single message and transferring it from the
source to the destination node. Each message
must have a header that contains the
message routing information, including the
source and destination.
 A message-switching node is typically a general-
purpose computer. The device needs sufficient
secondary-storage capacity to store the incoming
messages, which could be long. A time delay is
introduced using this type of scheme due to store-
and-forward time, plus the time required to find the
next node in the transmission path.
4.183
Delay
■ Advantages
■ Sharing of communication channels ensures better
bandwidth usage.
■ It reduces network congestion due to store and
forward method. Any switching node can store the
messages till the network is available.
■ Broadcasting messages requires much less bandwidth
than circuit switching.
■ Messages of unlimited sizes can be sent.
■ It does not have to deal with out of order packets or
lost packets as in packet switching.
■ Disadvantages
■ In order to store many messages of unlimited
sizes, each intermediate switching node
requires large storage capacity.
■ Store and forward method introduces delay at
each switching node. This renders it
unsuitable for real time applications.
 Applications
The store-and-forward method was implemented
in telegraph message switching centres. Today,
although many major networks and systems are
packet-switched or circuit switched networks,
their delivery processes can be based on
message switching.
Packet Switching

■ Packets handled in two ways

■ Datagram switching
■ Virtual circuit switching
 DATAGRAM NETWORKS

In data communications, we need to send messages

from one end system to another. If the message is
going to pass through a packet-switched network, it
needs to be divided into packets of fixed or variable
size. The size of the packet is determined by the
network and the governing protocol.

Topics discussed in this section:

Routing Table
Efficiency
Delay
Datagram Networks in the Internet
4.189
Datagram Switching

■ Each packet treated independently

■ Packets can take any practical route
■ Packets may arrive out of order
■ Packets may get lost or delayed
■ Up to receiver to re-order packets and recover
from missing packets
■ https://rb.gy/g5ssn
 A datagram network with four switches (routers)

4.191
 Routing table in a datagram network

4.192
 Note

A switch in a datagram network uses a

routing table that is based on the
destination address.

4.193
 Note

The destination address in the header of

a packet in a datagram network
remains the same during the entire
journey of the packet.

4.194
 Delay in a datagram network

4.195
 Note

Switching in the Internet is done by

using the datagram approach
to packet switching at
the network layer.

4.196
 VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS

A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-

switched network and a datagram network. It has
some characteristics of both.

Topics discussed in this section:

Addressing
Three Phases
Efficiency
Delay
Circuit-Switched Technology in WANs

4.197
Virtual Circuit

■ Preplanned route established before any

packets sent
■ Call request and call accept packets establish
connection (handshake)
■ Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier
instead of destination address
■ No routing decisions required for each packet
■ Clear request to drop circuit
■ Not a dedicated
Internal
Virtual
Circuit and
Datagram
Operation
 Virtual-circuit network

4.200
Virtual-Circuit Identifier
■ The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is
called the virtual-circuit identifier (VCI).
■ A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that
has only switch scope. It is used by a frame between
two switches.
■ When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when
it leaves, it has a different VCI.
■ The following figure show how the VCI in a data
frame changes from one switch to another.
■ Note that a VCI does not need to be a large number
since each switch can use its own unique set of VCIs.
 Addressing

❑ Two types of addressing are involved:

1. Global
2. Local VCI (virtual-circuit identifier).

202
 Global Addressing
❑A source or a destination needs to have a global
address - an address that can be unique over world
wide.
❑ Used only to create a VCI.

203
 Virtual-circuit identifier (VCI)

❑ It is used for data transfer.

❑ When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI; when it leaves, it
has a different VCI.

8.204
 Three Phases

1. Setup phase: The S and D use their global addresses

to help switches make table entries for the
connection.
2. Data transfer
3. Teardown phase: The S and D inform the switches
to delete the corresponding entry.

205
Setup Phase
■ In the setup phase, a switch creates an
entry for a virtual circuit.
■ For example, suppose source A needs to
create a virtual circuit to B. Two steps
are required: the setup request and
the acknowledgment.
■ Setup Request: A setup request frame
is sent from the source to the
destination. The following figure shows
the process.
■ Source A sends a setup frame to switch 1.
■ Switch 1 receives the setup request frame. It knows
that a frame going from A to B goes out through port
3. The switch, in the setup phase, acts as a packet
switch and it has a routing table which is different
from the switching table. For the moment, assume
that it knows the output port. The switch creates an
entry in its table for this virtual circuit, but it is only
able to fill three of the four columns. The switch
assigns the incoming port (1) and chooses an
available incoming VCI (14) and the outgoing port (3).
It does not yet know the outgoing VCI, which will be
found during the acknowledgment step. The switch
then forwards the frame through port 3 to switch 2.
■ Switch 2 receives the setup request frame. The same
events happen here as at switch 1 and three columns
of the table are completed: in this case, incoming port
(1), incoming VCI (66), and outgoing port (2).
■ Switch 3 receives the setup request frame. Again
three columns of table are completed: in this case
incoming port (2), incoming VCI (22), and outgoing
port (3).
■ Destination B receives the setup frame, and if it is
ready to receive frames from A, it assigns a VCI to the
incoming frames that come from A, in this case 77.
This VCI lets the destination know that the frames
come from A, and no other sources.
209
 Setup request in a virtual-circuit network

4.210
Acknowledgment
■ A special frame, called the acknowledgment frame,
completes the entries in the switching tables. The
following figure shows the process.
■ The destination sends an acknowledgment to switch
3. The acknowledgment carries the global source and
destination addresses so the switch knows which
entry in the table is to be completed. The frame also
carries VCI 77, chosen by the destination as the
incoming VCI for frames from A. Switch 3 uses this
VCI to complete the outgoing VCI column for this
entry. Note that 77 is the incoming VCI for destination
B, but the outgoing VCI for switch 3.
■ Switch 3 sends an acknowledgment to switch 2 that
contains its incoming VCI in the table, chosen in the
previous step. Switch 2 uses this as the outgoing VCI
in the table.
■ Switch 2 sends an acknowledgment to switch 1 that
contains its incoming VCI in the table, chosen in the
previous step. Switch 1 uses this as the outgoing VCI
in the table.
■ Finally switch 1 sends an acknowledgment to source A
that contains its incoming VCI in the table, chosen in
the previous step.
■ The source uses this as the outgoing VCI for the data
frames to be sent to destination B.
Setup acknowledgment in a virtual-circuit network

213
Data Transfer Phase
■ To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all
switches need to have a table entry for this virtual
circuit.
■ The table, in its simplest form, has four columns. This
means that the switch holds four pieces of information
for each virtual circuit that is already set up.
■ Each switch has a table with entries for all active
virtual circuits.
■ The following figure shows a frame arriving at port 1
with a VCI of 14. When the frame arrives, the switch
looks in its table to find port 1 and a VCI of 14. When
it is found, the switch knows to change the VCI to 22
and send out the frame from port 3.
 Switch and tables in a virtual-circuit network

4.215
■ To elaborate data transfer in one
complete network, consider transfer of
packet from source to destination as
shown in next figure
 Source-to-destination data transfer in a virtual-circuit network

4.217
Teardown Phase

In this phase, source A, after sending all

frames to B, sends a special frame called a
teardown request. Destination B responds
with a teardown confirmation frame. All
switches delete the corresponding entry
from their tables.
 Note

In virtual-circuit switching, all packets

belonging to the same source and
destination travel the same path;
but the packets may arrive at the
destination with different delays
if resource allocation is on demand.

4.219
 Efficiency

❑ Resource reservation can be made:

1. During the setup: Delay for each packet is the same.
2. On demand during the data transfer phase: each packet may
have different delays.
❑ Big advantage: Resource allocation is on demand.
❑ The source can check the availability of the resources, without
actually reserving it.

220
 Delay in a virtual-circuit network

4.221
 Note

Switching at the data link layer in a

switched WAN is normally
implemented by using
virtual-circuit techniques.

4.222
 S(witched)VC vs. P(ermanent)VC setup

A virtual circuit can be either switched or permanent.

If permanent, an outgoing VCI is given to the source,

and an incoming VCI is given to the destination.

The source always uses this VCI to send frames to this

particular destination.

The destination knows that the frame is coming from

that particular source if the frame carries the
corresponding incoming VCI.

If a duplex connection is needed, two virtual circuits

are established.
4.223
 S(witched)VC vs. P(ermanent)VC setup

A PVC has several drawbacks:

1. Always connected, so always paying

2. Connection is between two parties only. If you

need a connection to another point, you need
another PVC.

Don’t like these disadvantages? Use an SVC.

4.224
Circuit Switching and Packet
Switching
In Summary

■ What are the differences between a circuit

switched network and a packet switched
network?
■ What are the differences between datagram
packet switched and virtual circuit packet
switched?
■ What are the differences between a circuit
switch and a packet switch?
 Using Telephone and Cable Networks
for Data Transmission
❑Telephone networks (late 1800s) : Based on circuit
switching
✓ First: analog voice communication.
✓ Second: Digital-voice (using PCM)
✓ Third: Digital data using dial-up modem (existing
but slow)
✓ Fourth: Digital subscriber line (DSL): High-speed
downloading and uploading.
❑Cable networks:
✓ First: TV programs.
✓ Second: Internet with high-speed.
9.229
 A telephone system

❑ PSTN: Public Switched Telephone Network

❑ Local-loop: Twisted-pair cable with BW of 4 kHz.
❑ Trunks: Optical fiber or Satellite link (supports large number
of voice conversations simultaneously)

9.230
 Functionalities

1. Signaling: Dial tone, Ringing tone, and Busy tone

2. Transferring telephone numbers between offices
3. Maintaining and monitoring the call
4. Keeping billing information
5. Maintaining and monitoring the status of the
telephone network equipment
6. Providing other functions such as caller ID, voice
mail, and so on

231
 Data signals require a higher degree of
1. Dial-up modems accuracy to ensure integrity. For
safety’s sake, therefore, the edges of
this range are not used for data
communications

232
 MODEM Standards (ITU-T)

❑ The modem uses a combined modulation and encoding

technique called trellis coded modulation (TCM).
❑ Trellis is essentially QAM plus a redundant bit (used for error
detection).
❑ Basic data rate: 2.4 kbps
❑ V.32:- 32-QAM (5-bits):
✓ 4 - bits for date and 1 bit for error detection
✓ Resulting data rate= 4 x 2.4 = 9.6 kbps
❑ V.32 bis:- First ITU-T standard: 128 - QAM (7 bits)
✓ 6 bits for data and 1 bit for error detection
✓ Resulting data rate= 6 x 2.4 = 14.4 kbps

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❑V.34bis:
✓ 28.8 kbps with 960 - point constellation.
✓ 33.6 kbps with 1664 - point constellation.
❑V.90 : 56 k modems: (world-wide telephone
companies)
✓ fs = 8000 sps
✓ n = 8 bits per sample.
✓ 7 bits for data and 1 bit for control purpose.
✓ Total bit rate: 8000 x 7 = 56 kbps.
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Uploading and downloading in 56K modems

9.235
 2.Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
❑It provides higher-speed than exiting local lines
(Modems) to access the Internet.
❑ DSL technologies: SDSL, ADSL, HDSL, and VDSL.
✓ called: xDSL (where x can be replaced by A, V, H, or
S)
▪ ADSL: Asymmetric DSL
▪ HDL: High-bit-rate DSL
▪ VDSL: Very high-bit-rate DSL
▪ SDSL: Symmetric DSL

236
 ADSL
❑Asymmetric DSL.
❑Different uploading and downloading speed.
❑Designed for residential users and not for businesses.

The existing local loops can handle bandwidths up to 1.1 MHz

237
 Adaptive Technology

❑ Theoretical bandwidth of the local loop is 1.1 MHz.

❑ Factors affecting the bandwidth:
✓ Distance between residence and the switching office
✓ The size of the cable
✓ The signalling used
❑ Date rate of ADSL is not fixed, it changes based on the
condition and type of the local loop cable

238
Discrete Multitone Technique (DMT)
(QAM and FDM)

9.239
❑ Channel 0: Voice channel
❑ Idle channels: 1 to 5 are not used and provide a gap between voice and
data communication.
❑ Upstream data and control:
✓ Channels: 6 to 30 (25 channels)
✓ 24 for data + 1 for control
✓ Total bit rate: 24 x 4 KHz x 15 = 1.44 Mbps
✓ Actual: below 500 kbps
❑ Downstream data and control:
✓ Channels: 31 to 255 (225 channels)
✓ 224 for data + 1 for control
✓ Total bit rate: 224 x 4 KHz x 15= 13.4 Mbps.
✓ Actual : below 8 Mbps

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Customer site: ADSL modem

Telephone company site:

DSL access multiplexer
9.241
Summary of DSL technologies

9.242
 3. Cable TV network

Communication in the traditional

cable TV network is unidirectional.

243
 Hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) network

Communication in an HFC cable TV

network can be bidirectional. 9.244
 4.Cable TV for Data transfer

❑Cable companies are now competing with telephone

companies for the residential customer who wants
high-speed data transfer.
❑DSL (high-data-rate connections) for residential
subscribers using UTP cable, which is very
susceptible to interference.
❑ Solution: Cable TV network.

245
 Bandwidth

❑ Video band:
✓ RF band: 54 to 550 MHz.
✓ Each TV signal has BW of 6 MHz.
✓ RF BW = (550 - 54) MHz= 490 MHz.
✓ Number of TV channels = 490 MHz/6 MHz = 80.

9.246
 Bandwidth

❑ Downstream Data Band

❑ RF band: 550 to 750 MHz. This band is divided into 6-MHz channels.
❑ Modulation: 64-QAM (N = 6 bits/symbol) or possibly 256-QAM.
❑ 5 bits for data and one bit for FEC.
❑ Data rate:
✓ 30 Mbps (5 bits/Hz × 6 MHz).
✓ With 1OBase-T cable, this limits the data rate to 10 Mbps.

9.247
❑ Upstream Data Band
❑ 5 to 42 MHz. This band is also divided into 6-MHz channels.
❑ Modulation:
✓ LF are more susceptible to noise and interference. For this reason, the
QAM technique is not suitable for this band.
✓ A better solution is QPSK.
❑ Data Rate:
✓ 2 bits/symbol in QPSK.
✓ 12 Mbps (2 bits/Hz × 6 MHz)
✓ However, actual data rate is less than 12 Mbps.
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 Sharing
❑ Upstream:
✓ RF BW = (42 – 5) MHz = 37 MHz
✓ Channels = 37 MHz/6MHz = 6.
✓ How 1000, 2000, or even 100,000 subscribers can be served with 6
channels.
✓ Solution: FDM/TDM sharing.
❑ Downstream:
✓ RF BW = (750 – 550) MHz = 200 MHz
✓ Channels = 200 MHz/6 MHz = 33 channels
✓ Solution: FDM/TDM sharing.

249
 CM and CMTS

CM : Cable Modem

CMTS: CM Transmission system

250
 Data Transmission Schemes: DOCSIS

❑ Several schemes have been designed to create a

standard for data transmission over an HFC network.
❑ Multimedia Cable Network Systems (MCNS), called
Data Over Cable System Interface Specification
(DOCSIS).
❑It defines all the protocols necessary to transport data
from a CMTS to a CM.

251