Computer Science ( D9) XII - Paper –II

Unit No. 5 – Networking Technology

The electromagnetic spectrum consists of several categories of waveforms, including radio

frequency waves, microwave transmissions, and infrared light.

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The frequency of a wave is dependent upon the number of waves or oscillations that occur
during a period of time. An example that all people can relate to is the difference between a
high-pitched sound, such as a whistle, and a low-pitch sound such as a fog horn. A high-
pitched sound has a very high frequency; in other words, numerous cycles of oscillation (or
waves) occur each second. Whereas, a low frequency sounds, such as the fog horn, is based
on relatively few cycles or waves per second. Although sound is not an example of
electromagnetic energy (it's mechanical energy), the principles are similar.

TRANSMISSION MEDIA CHARACTERISTICS

1. Cost
2. Installation requirements
3. Bandwidth
4. Band usage (baseband or broadband)
5. Attenuation
6. Immunity from electromagnetic interference

These characteristics are all important. When you design a network for a company, all these
factors play a role in the decision concerning what type of transmission media should be
used.

Cost:
One main factor in the purchase decision of any networking component is the cost. The major
deciding factor is almost always price. It is a rare occasion in the computer field that the sky
is the limit for installing a network. As with nearly everything else in the computer field, the
fastest technology is the newest, and the newest is the most expensive. Over time, economies
of scale bring the price down, but by then, a newer technology comes along.

Installation Requirements:
Installation requirements typically involve two factors. One is that some transmission media
require skilled labor to install. Bringing in a skilled outside technician to make changes to or
replace resources on the network can bring about undue delays and costs. The second has to
do with the actual physical layout of the network. Some types of transmission media install
more easily over areas where people are spread out, whereas other transmission media are
easier to bring to clusters of people or a roaming user.

Bandwidth:
In computer networking, the term bandwidth refers to the measure of the capacity of a
medium to transmit data. A medium that has a high capacity, for example, has a high
bandwidth, whereas a medium that has limited capacity has a low bandwidth.
Bandwidth can be best explained by using water hoses as an analogy. If a half-inch garden
hose can carry water flow from a trickle up to two gallons per minute, then that hose can be
said to have a bandwidth of two gallons per minute. A four-inch fire hose, however, might
have a bandwidth that exceeds 100 gallons per minute.

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Data transmission rates are frequently stated in terms of the bits that can be transmitted per
second. An Ethernet LAN theoretically can transmit 10 million bits per second and has a
bandwidth of 10 megabits per second (Mbps).
Band Usage (Baseband or Broadband):
The two ways to allocate the capacity of transmission media are with baseband and
broadband transmissions. Baseband devotes the entire capacity of the medium to one
communication channel. Broadband enables two or more communication channels to share
the bandwidth of the communications medium.
Baseband is the most common mode of operation. Most LANs function in baseband mode,
for example. Baseband signaling can be accomplished with both analog and digital signals.
Although you might not realize it, you have a great deal of experience with broadband
transmissions. Consider, for example, that the TV cable coming into your house from an
antenna or a cable provider is a broadband medium. Many television signals can share the
bandwidth of the cable because each signal is modulated using a separately assigned
frequency. You can use the television tuner to select the frequency of the channel you want to
watch.

This technique of dividing bandwidth into frequency bands is called Frequency-division

multiplexing (FDM) and works only with analog signals. Another technique, called time-
division multiplexing (TDM), supports digital signals.

Multiplexing:
Multiplexing is a technique that enables broadband media to support multiple data channels.
Multiplexing makes sense under a number of circumstances:

1. When media bandwidth is costly. A high-speed leased line, such as a Tl or T3, is

expensive to lease. If the leased line has sufficient bandwidth, multiplexing can
enable the same line to carry mainframe, LAN, voice, video conferencing, and
various other data types.
2. When bandwidth is idle. Many organizations have installed fiber-optic cable that
is used to only partial capacity. With the proper equipment, a single fiber can
support hundreds of megabits—or even a gigabit or more—of data per second.
3. When large amounts of data must be transmitted through low-capacity channels.
Multiplexing techniques can divide the original data stream into several lower-
bandwidth channels, each of which can be transmitted through a lower-capacity
medium. The signals then can be recombined at the receiving end.

Multiplexing refers to combining multiple data channels for transmission on a common

medium. De-multiplexing refers to recovering the original separate channels from a
multiplexed signal.
Multiplexing and de-multiplexing are performed by a multiplexer (also called a mux), which
usually has both capabilities.
Frequency-Division Multiplexing:
Figure below illustrates frequency-division multiplexing (FDM). This technique works by
converting all data channels to analog form. Each analog signal can be modulated by a
separate frequency (called a "carrier frequency") that makes it possible to recover that signal

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during the de-multiplexing process. At the receiving end, the de-multiplexer can select the
desired carrier signal and use it to extract the data signal for that channel.

FDM can be used in broadband LANs. (A standard for Ethernet also exists.) One advantage
of FDM is that it supports bi-directional signaling on the same cable. That is, a frequency can
originate from both ends of the transmission media at once.

Time-Division Multiplexing:
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) divides a channel into time slots that are allocated to the
data streams to be transmitted, as illustrated in Figure below. If the sender and receiver agree
on the time-slot assignments, the receiver can easily recover and reconstruct the original data
streams.

Attenuation:
Attenuation is a measure of how much a signal weakens as it travels through a medium.
Attenuation is a contributing factor to why cable designs must specify limits in the lengths of
cable runs. When signal strength falls below certain limits, the electronic equipment that
receives the signal can experience difficulty isolating the original signal from the noise
present in all electronic transmissions. The effect is exactly like trying to tune in distant radio
signals.

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Signal on your radio, the sound generally still contains more noise than the sound for a local
radio station. As mentioned later, repeaters are used to regenerate signals; hence one solution
to deal with attenuation is to add a repeater.

Electromagnetic Interference:
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) consists of outside electromagnetic noise that distorts the
signal in a medium. When you listen to an AM radio, for example, you often hear EMI in the
term of noise caused by nearby motors or lightning. Some network media are more
susceptible to EMI than others.
Crosstalk is a special kind of interference caused by adjacent wires. Crosstalk occurs when
the signal from one wire is picked up by another wire. You may have experienced this when
talking on a telephone and hearing another conversation going on in the background.
Crosstalk is a particularly significant problem with computer networks because large
numbers of cables often are located close together, with minimal attention to exact
placement.

CABLE TRANSMISSION MEDIA

The following three types of network cabling media, as follows:

1. Coaxial cable
2. Twisted-pair cable
3. Fiber-optic cable

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cables were the first cable types used in LANs. Coaxial cable gets its name because
two conductors share a common axis; the cable is most frequently referred to as a "coax." A
type of coaxial cable that you may be familiar with is your television cable.

The components of a coaxial cable are as follows:

1. A center conductor, although usually solid
copper wire, is sometimes made of stranded
wire.
2. An outer conductor forms a tube
surrounding the center conductor. This
conductor can consist of braided wires,
metallic foil, or both. The outer conductor,
frequently called the shield, serves as a
ground and also protects the inner
conductor from EMI.
3. An insulation layer keeps the outer
conductor spaced evenly from the inner
conductor.
4. A plastic encasement (jacket) protects the
cable from damage.

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Types of Coaxial Cable

The two basic classifications for coaxial cable are as follows:
1. Thinnet
2. Thicknet

Thinnet
Thinnet is a light and flexible cabling medium that is inexpensive and easy to install.
Thinnet cable can reliably transmit a signal for 185 meters (about 610 feet) and
approximately .25 inches (6 mm) in thickness.

Thicknet
Thicknet is thicker than Thinnet. Thicknet coaxial cable is approximately 0.5 inches (13 mm)
in diameter. Because it is thicker and does not bend as readily as Thinnet, Thicknet cable is
harder to work with. A thicker center core, however, means that Thicknet can carry more
signals a longer distance than Thinnet. Thicknet can transmit a signal approximately 500
meters (1,650 feet).

Thicknet cable is sometimes called Standard Ethernet (although other cabling types described
in this chapter are used for Ethernet also). Thicknet can be used to connect two or more small
Thinnet LANs into a larger network.

Because of its greater size, Thicknet is also more expensive than Thinnet. However, Thicknet
can be installed relatively safely outside, running from building to building.

Twisted-Pair Cable
Twisted-pair cable has become the dominant cable type for all network designs that employ
copper cable. Among the several reasons the popularity of twisted-pair cable, the most
significant is its low cost. Twisted pair cable is inexpensive to install and offers the lowest
cost per foot of any cable type. Your telephone cable is an example of a twisted-pair.
A basic twisted-pair cable consists of two strands of copper wire twisted together. The
twisting reduces the sensitivity cable to EMI and also reduces the tendency of the cable to
radiate radio frequency noise that interferes with nearby cables and electronic components,
because the radiated signals from the twisted tend to cancel each other out. (Antennas, which
are purposely designed to radiate radio frequency signals, consist of parallel, not twisted,
wires).

Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable

Shielded Twisted-Pair cabling consists of one or more twisted pairs of
cables enclosed in a foil wrap and woven copper shielding. In Shielded
twisted-pair cable the shield performed double duty, reducing the
tendency of the cable to radiate EMI and reducing the cable's sensitivity
to outside interference.

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An STP cable includes two twisted pairs of wire within a single shield. Various types of STP
cable exist, some that shield each pair individually and others that shield several pairs.

An STP Cables as approximately 0.5 inches (13 mm) in diameter. The capacity cables of 500
Mbps and cable results in good EMI characteristics for copper cable.

Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable

Unshielded twisted-pair cable doesn't incorporate a
braided shield into its structure. However, the
characteristics of UTP are similar in many ways to STP
differing primarily in attenuation and EMI. As shown in
Figure 3.16, several twisted pairs can be bundled
together in a single cable. These pairs are typically
color-coded to distinguish them. Telephone systems
commonly use UTP cabling. Network engineers can
sometimes use existing UTP telephone cabling for
network cabling.
An STP Cable as capacity of 100 Mbps and because lacks of a shield it is more sensitive to
EMI than coaxial or STP cables.

Fiber-Optic Cable
In almost every way, fiber-optic cable is the ideal cable for data transmission. Not only does
this type of cable accommodate extremely high
bandwidths, but it also presents no problem
with EMI and supports durable cables and
cable runs as long as several kilometers. The
two disadvantages of fiber-optic cable,
however, are cost and installation difficulty.
Despite these disadvantages, fiber-optic cable
is now often installed into buildings by
telephone companies as the cable of choice.
The center conductor of a fiber-optic cable is a
fiber that consists of highly refined glass or
plastic designed to transmit light signals with little Joss. A glass core supports a longer
cabling distance, but a plastic core is typically easier to work with. The fiber is coated with a
cladding or a gel that reflects signals back into the fiber to reduce signal loss. A plastic sheath
protects the fiber

Fiber-optic cable most expensive cable to installs, greater skill is required to install fiber-
optic cables than to install other cables. Fiber-optic cable can support high data rates (200,000
Mbps) and can transmit 100Mbps signals for several kilometers. Attenuation in fiber-optic
cables in much lower than in copper cables. Because the signals in fiber-optic are not
electrical in nature, they are totally immune to EMI and hence it is perfect choice for high
security networks.

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COMPARISON OF CABLE MEDIA

Cable Type Cost Installation Capacity Range EMI

Coaxial Thinner Less than STP Inexpensive 10 Mbps 185 m Less

/easy sensitive
than UTP

Coaxial Thicknet Greater than STP, Easy 10 Mbps 500m Less

less than fiber sensitive
than UTP

Shielded Twisted-pair Greater than UTP Fairly easy 16 Mbps 100m Less
(STP) less than Thicknet sensitive
than UTP

Unshielded Twisted- Lowest Inexpensive 10 Mbps 100m Most

pair (UTP) /easy sensitive

Fiber -optic Highest Expensive 10 Mbps 10 of Insensitive

/difficult kilomete
rs

WIRELESS MEDIA
The extraordinary convenience of wireless communications has placed an increased emphasis
on wireless networks in recent years. Technology is expanding rapidly and will continue to
expand into the near future, offering more and better options for wireless networks.

Presently, you can subdivide wireless networking technology into three basic types
corresponding to three basic networking scenarios:

1. Local area networks (LANs): Occasionally you will see a fully wireless LAN, but
more typically one or more wireless machines function as members of a cable-based
LAN.

2. Extended local networks: A wireless connection serves as a backbone between two

LANs. For instance, a company with office networks in two nearby but separate
buildings could connect those networks using a wireless bridge.

3. Mobile computing: A mobile machine connects to the home network using cellular or
satellite technology.

Access Methods:
There are three most important types of Media Access methods:
1. Contention
2. Polling
3. Token Passing

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Contention:
Contention means that the computers are
contending (competing) for use of the
transmission media. Any computer in the
network can transmit at any time. This
system breaks down when two computers
attempt to transmit at the same time. At this
stage the possible of collision. When
network is busy, the collision occurs server
times.
One mechanism is used to avoid the
collision is Carrier detection and carrier
sensing together form the protocol used in
all types of Ethernet. Here each computer
listens to the network before attempting to transmit the data. If network is busy, it waits until
the computer ready to receive another signal.

In CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection), each computer
signals a warning that says it is about to transmit data, and then the other computers wait for
the broadcast. CSMA/CA adds an extra layer of order, thereby reducing collisions, but the
warning broadcasts increase network traffic, and the task of constantly listening for warnings
increases system load.

Although it sounds as if contention methods are unworkable due to the risk of collisions,
contention (in particular CSMA/CD in the form of Ethernet) is the most popular media access
control method on LANs.

Contention is a simple protocol that can operate with simple network software and hardware.
Unless traffic levels exceed about 30% of bandwidth, contention works quite well.
Contention-based networks offer good performance at low cost.

Polling:
Polling-based systems require a device (called a
controller, or master device) to poll other
devices on the network to see whether they are
ready to either transmit or receive data. This
access method is not widely used on networks
because the polling itself can cause a fair
amount of network traffic. A common example
of polling is when your computer polls its
printer to receive a print job.

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Token Passing:
Token passing utilizes a frame called a token,
which circulates around the Network. A computer
that needs to transmit must wait until it receives
the token, at which time the computer is permitted
to transmit. When the computer is done
transmitting, it passes die token frame to the next
station on the network. Figure 4.3 shows how
token passing is implemented on a token-ring
network. Token-ring networks are discussed in
greater detail later in this chapter in the

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A topology defines the arrangement of nodes, cables, and connectivity devices that make up
the network. Two categories form the basis for all discussions of topologies:
1. Physical topology: Describes the actual layout of the network transmission media.
2. Logical topology: Describes the logical pathway a signal follows as it passes
among the network nodes.
A way to think about this distinction is that a physical topology defines the way the network
looks, and a logical topology defines the way the data passes among the nodes. At a glance
this distinction may seem nit-picky, the physical and logical topologies for a network can be
very different. A network with a star physical topology, for example, may actually have a bus
or a ring logical topology.

In common usage, the word "topology" applies to a complete network definition, which
includes the physical and logical topologies and also the specifications for elements such as
the transmission medium.

Physical and logical topologies can take several forms. The most common and the most
important for understanding the Ethernet and token-ring topologies are the following:

1. Bus topologies
2. Ring topologies
3. Star topologies
4. Mesh topology

Bus Topologies:
A Bus physical topology is one in which all devices connect to a common, shared cable
(sometimes called the backbone). A bus physical topology is shown in Figure.

The bus topology ideally suited for the networks that use contention-based access methods
such as CSMA/CD. Ethernet, the most common contention-based network architecture,
typically uses bus as a physical topology.

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Most bus networks broadcast signals in both directions on the backbone cable, enabling all
devices to directly receive the signal. Some buses are unidirectional and signals travel in only
one direction and can reach only downstream devices.

Ring Topologies:
Ring topologies are wired in a circle. Each node is
connected to its neighbors on either side, and data passes
around the ring in one direction only (shown in Figure).
Each device incorporates a receiver and a transmitter and
serves as a repeater that passes the signal on to the next
device in the ring. Because the signal is regenerated at each
device, signal degeneration is low.

Ring topologies are ideally suited for token-passing access

methods. The token passes around the ring, and only the
node that holds the token can transmit data.

Ring physical topologies are quite rare. The ring topology is

almost always implemented as a logical topology. Token
ring, for example, the most widespread token-passing
network, always arranges the nodes in a physical star (with
all nodes connecting to a central hub), but passes data in a logical ring.

Star Topologies:
Star topologies require that all devices connect to a
central hub (shown in Figure). The hub receives signals
from other network devices and routes the signals to the
proper destinations. Star hubs can be interconnected to
form tree, or hierarchical, network topologies.

A star physical topology is often used to implement a

bus or ring logical topology.

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Mesh Topology:
A mesh topology (Shown in figure) is
really a hybrid model representing an
all-channel on of physical topology. It
is a hybrid because a mesh topology an
incorporate all the topologies covered
to this point. It is an all-channel
topology in that every device is
directly connected to every other
device on the network. When a new
device is added, a connection to all
existing devices must be made. This
provides for a great deal of fault
tolerance, but it involves extra work on
the part of the network administrator.
That is, if any transmission media
breaks, the data transfer can take alternative routes. However, cabling becomes much more
extensive and complicated.

NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
Network architecture is the design specification of the physical layout of connected devices.
This includes the cable being used (or wireless media being deployed), the types of network
cards being deployed, and the mechanism through which data is sent on to the network and
passed to each device.

Ethernet:
Ethernet is a very popular local area network architecture based on the CSMA/CD access
method. The original Ethernet specification was the basis for the IEEE 802.3 specifications.

Typically, Ethernet networks can use a bus physical topology, although, as mentioned earlier,
many varieties of Ethernet such as 10BASE-T use a star physical topology and a bus logical
topology.
Ethernet networks, depending on the specification, operate at 10 or l00 Mbps using baseband
transmission. The following Ethernet topologies are:
1. 10BASE2
2. 10BASE5
3. 10BASE-T
4. 10BASE-FL
5. 100VG-Any LAN
6. 100BASE-X
Note that the name of each Ethernet topology begins with a number (10 or 100). That number
specifies the transmission speed for the network. For instance, 10BASE5 is designed to
operate at l0Mbps, and 100BASE-X operates at 100 Mbps. "BASE" specifies that baseband
transmissions are being used. The "T" is for unshielded twisted-pair wiring, "FL" is for fiber
optic cable, "VG-Any LAN" implies Voice Grade, and "X" implies multiple media types.

Ethernet networks transmit data in small units called frames. The size of an Ethernet frame
can be anywhere between 64 and 1,518 bytes. Eighteen bytes of the total frame size are taken

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up by frame overhead, such as the source and destination addresses, protocol information,
and error-checking information. A typical Ethernet frame has the following sections:

1) Preamble: A field that signifies the beginning of the frame.

2) Address: A field that identifies the source and destination address for the frame.
3) Type: A field that designates the network layer protocol.
4) Data: The data being transmitted.
5) CRC: Cyclical redundancy Check for error checking.

Token Ring:
Token ring uses a token-passing architecture that adheres to
the IEEE 802.5 standard. The topology is physically a star,
but token ring uses a logical ring to pass the token from
station to station. Each node must be attached to a
concentrator called a Multi-Station Access Unit (MSAU or
MAU).

In the earlier discussion of token passing, it may have

occurred to you that if one computer crashes, the others will
be left waiting forever for the token. MSAUs add fault tolerance to the network, so that a
single failure doesn't stop the whole network. The MSAU can determine when the network
adapter of a PC fails to transmit and can bypass it.

Token-ring network interface carols can run at 4Mbps or l6Mbps. Although 4Mbps cards can
run at that data rate only, l6Mbps cards can be configured to run at 4 or 16Mbps. All cards on
a given network ring must run at the same rate. If all cards are not configured this way, either
the machine connected to the card cannot have network access, or the entire network can be
ground to a halt.

Protocols
Protocols are rules by which computer communicate. Computers can use any number of
systems for passing messages. Computer should agree on common protocols before they can
communicate. Network data is encapsulated in packets at source. It sends via the network to a
destination. At destination it is reconstructed into the appropriate file, instruction or request.

In general, network packet contains the followings:

1. Header: It contains source and destination address and time / synchronization.

2. Data: This portion contains the original data being transmitted.
3. Trailer: It marks end packet. It contains error checking (CRC) information.

TCP /IP
Transmission Control Protocol / Internet protocol is required for communicate over the
network. In transport protocols there are two main forms of address a) a node address and b)
a logical network address.

A node address is the address of the entity of device on the network. Logical network address
is the segment on the network to which node is attached.

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TCP/IP uses numbering scheme, is a set of four numbers, they can range in a value betweens
0 to 255 and each number is separated by period.

For e.g. 168.192.32.1

There are three class of address a) Class A b) Class B and c) Class C. In Class A, the number
between 1 to 127, appears before first dot. Here first set of number represent the network
address. The last three set of numbers represent the node or host number. In Class B, the first
number can range in value from 128 to 191.The first two set of numbers form network
address and last two forms host address. In Class C, the first set of number can range from
192 to 233. The first three set of number make up the network address and last number forms
the host address.

Transmission Controls Protocols:

TCP is an internet work as connection-oriented protocols. TCP provides full duplex, end to
end connections. TCP maintains a logical connection between sending and receiving
computer systems. TCP detects any problem in the transmission quickly and takes action to
correct them. TCP also provides massage fragmentation and reassembly.

Internet protocols:
IP is connectionless-oriented protocol. It is packet-switching protocol that performs
addressing and route selection. IP routes packets through internet works. It also performs
disassembly and reassembly and also performs error checking.

Connectivity Devices:
Some of the connectivity devices are Modem, Hubs, Repeater, Router and Bridge etc.

MODEM: Modulation and demodulation

Computer uses digital signals while telephone lines uses analog signals to transmit the data.
Modem is used to convert the digital signals into analog and vise verse. Converting one
signal form to another is modulation and recovering original signal is called demodulation.
Modem is used to connect computer to Internet, email, data transfer activities can be
performed by using modem. Modem is classified into two categories according to
transmission method.

1. Asynchronous modems
2. Synchronous modems

In Asynchronous transmission clock is not used for synchronization, instead it uses, bit
synchronous. Here each frame begins with a start bit that enables the receiving device to
adjust to the timing of transmitted signal. Messages are kept short and used to transmit
character data.

In synchronous transmission uses clock on transmitting and receiving devices. It uses a

synchronization signal, which is a bit pattern and can be easily recognized by the receiver. A
wide variety of data types can be transmitted. A long series of bits can also be transmitted. A
cyclic redundancy check (CRC) technique is used for error checking.

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HUBS
Hubs are provides central attachment point for network cabling. There are three types of
Hubs:
1. Passive
2. Active
3. Switching
Passive hub is used to combine the signals from several network cable segments. It doesn’t
contain any electronic component and do not process the data signal in any way. All devices
attached to passive hub receive all packets that pass through hub.

Active hub can amplify and clean up the electronic signals. The process of cleaning up is
called signals regeneration. Active hub consists of electronic components. The latest is
switching hub. It quickly routes the signals between ports of hub. These can be used in place
of routers.

Switching hub are quickly routes the signals between ports of hubs. It can be used in place of
routes.

REPEATERS
The repeaters are used to extent the range of networking cable.

A repeater is a network device that repeats a signal from one port to another port. It does not
filter or interpret. It simply regenerates a signal. This device is inexpensive and simple. By
adding repeater can increase the length the network.

ROUTERS
Routers are internetwork connectivity devices. An internetwork may consist of two or more
physical connected independent networks. These networks can be of different types. For
example they can be Ethernet or Token-ring network. Each network is logically separate and
is assigned an address. Router can use network address to assist efficient delivery of massage.
Delivering packets according to logical network address is called routing. Routers are
intelligent and use algorithms to determine most efficient path for sending a packets to any
given network.

Routers can also be used to divide large, bust LAN into smaller segments. The protocols like
IP, IPX and DDP are used to support routing functions.

Routers are of two types: 1. Static Routers and 2. Dynamic Routers

Static routers do not determine paths, but you need to specify them. Dynamic routers have
capacity to determine routers.

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Intel 8085 instruction set
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1
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2
RIM LXI H,d16 SHLD a16 INX H INR H DCR H MVI H,d8 DAA DAD H LHLD a16 DCX H INR L DCR L MVI L,d8 CMA
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3
SIM LXI SP,d16 STA a16 INX SP INR M DCR M MVI M,d8 STC DAD SP LDA a16 DCX SP INR A DCR A MVI A,d8 CMC
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4
MOV B,B MOV B,C MOV B,D MOV B,E MOV B,H MOV B,L MOV B,M MOV B,A MOV C,B MOV C,C MOV C,D MOV C,E MOV C,H MOV C,L MOV C,M MOV C,A
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------

5
MOV D,B MOV D,C MOV D,D MOV D,E MOV D,H MOV D,L MOV D,M MOV D,A MOV E,B MOV E,C MOV E,D MOV E,E MOV E,H MOV E,L MOV E,M MOV E,A
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------

6
MOV H,B MOV H,C MOV H,D MOV H,E MOV H,H MOV H,L MOV H,M MOV H,A MOV L,B MOV L,C MOV L,D MOV L,E MOV L,H MOV L,L MOV L,M MOV L,A
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------

7
MOV M,B MOV M,C MOV M,D MOV M,E MOV M,H MOV M,L HLT MOV M,A MOV A,B MOV A,C MOV A,D MOV A,E MOV A,H MOV A,L MOV A,M MOV A,A
1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 5 1 7 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------

8
ADD B ADD C ADD D ADD E ADD H ADD L ADD M ADD A ADC B ADC C ADC D ADC E ADC H ADC L ADC M ADC A
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4
SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C

9
SUB B SUB C SUB D SUB E SUB H SUB L SUB M SUB A SBB B SBB C SBB D SBB E SBB H SBB L SBB M SBB A
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4
SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C

A
ANA B ANA C ANA D ANA E ANA H ANA L ANA M ANA A XRA B XRA C XRA D XRA E XRA H XRA L XRA M XRA A
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4
SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C

B
ORA B ORA C ORA D ORA E ORA H ORA L ORA M ORA A CMP B CMP C CMP D CMP E CMP H CMP L CMP M CMP A
1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 7 1 4
SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C SZ AP C

C
RNZ POP B JNZ a16 JMP a16 CNZ a16 PUSH B ADI d8 RST 0 RZ RET JZ a16 CZ a16 CALL a16 ACI d8 RST 1
1 12/6 1 10 3 10/7 3 10 3 18/9 1 12 2 7 1 12 1 12/6 1 10 3 10/7 3 18/9 3 18 2 7 1 12
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- SZ AP C ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- SZ AP C -------

D
RNC POP D JNC a16 OUT d8 CNC a16 PUSH D SUI d8 RST 2 RC JC a16 IN d8 CC a16 SBI d8 RST 3
1 12/6 1 10 3 10/7 2 10 3 18/9 1 12 2 7 1 12 1 12/6 3 10/7 2 10 3 18/9 2 7 1 12
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- SZ AP C ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- SZ AP C -------

E
RPO POP H JPO a16 XTHL CPO a16 PUSH H ANI d8 RST 4 RPE PCHL JPE a16 XCHG CPE a16 XRI d8 RST 5
1 12/6 1 10 3 10/7 1 16 3 18/9 1 12 2 7 1 12 1 12/6 1 6 3 10/7 1 4 3 18/9 2 7 1 12
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- SZ AP C ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- SZ AP C -------

F
RP POP PSW JP a16 DI CP a16 PUSH PSW ORI d8 RST 6 RM SPHL JM a16 EI CM a16 CPI d8 RST 7
1 12/6 1 10 3 10/7 1 4 3 18/9 1 12 2 7 1 12 1 12/6 1 6 3 10/7 1 4 3 18/9 2 7 1 12
------- SZ AP C ------- ------ ------- ------- SZ AP C ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- SZ AP C -------