Geography for Form 1

Written and compiled by

J.H. Holly
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Table of Contents

Unit 1 Map and its Elements …………………………………………………………………………..3

Unit 2 The Solar System ……………………………………………………………………………...13

Unit 3 Hydrosphere …………………………………………………………………………………...22

Unit 4 The Atmosphere ……………………………………………………………………………….25

Unit 5 Weather and Climate …………………………………………………………………………28

Unit 6 Biosphere ………………………………………………………………………………………42

Unit 7 Environment …………………………………………………………………………………...44

Unit 8 Ecosystem ……………………………………………………………………………………...46

Unit 9 Natural Resources …………………………………………………………………………….48

Unit 10 Natural Disasters ……………………………………………………………………………...50

Unit 11 Population ……………………………………………………………………………………..56

References …………………………………………………………………………………………………….67

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UNIT 1

MAP AND ITS COMPONENTS

Success criteria
Students must be able to:
1. Explain the term map
2. Explain the components of a map
3. Differentiate a map from aerial photograph
4. Explain different types of maps
5. Explain ways of expressing scale
6. Interpret symbols and signs of a map
7. Interpret a map using different symbols and signs
8. Locate features and places on topographic map using four/six figure grid reference
9. Explain the compass points in relation to cardinal points
10. Explain True North, Grid North and Magnetic North

MAP
 A map is a representation of all or part of the
Earth‟s surface, drawn to scale on a flat surface.
E.g. chalkboard e. Distribution map
 A person who makes maps is called a It shows how various things are distributed in
cartographer. the area such as vegetation, soil, rainfall,
 Atlas is a book of maps. population and temperature.
f. Land use map
Types of Maps It shows different ways how land is used in a
a. Political map particular area. Land can be used for settlement,
It shows national and international political forestry, industries, agriculture and roads.
boundaries.
b. Economic or resource map Maps, Pictures and Plans
It shows information about important economic  A picture is a visual representation or image
elements such as agriculture, industries, painted, drawn, photographed or otherwise
communications and transport links and other rendered on a flat surface.
places of economic interest.  Plans are focused and only show a small part of
c. Tourist map a place, feature or object.
It shows information of places that attract  Plans are also called planimetric or
tourists in the country like lakes, rivers, planographic maps.
mountains, historical sites, game reserves and
national parks. It also shows hotels, shops, SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PICTURES AND
museums and police. MAPS
d. Topographic map Similarities Differences
It shows shapes and position of physical features Both describe features Pictures show 3-
in the country such as rivers, valleys, mountains, such as relief and human dimensional objects
lakes and coastal features. Human features are activities while maps show them
also indicated on this map such as roads, as flat surfaces.
bridges, boreholes, settlement and power lines. Maps are produced from The side of an object
Topographic maps are used for map reading in pictures taken from the facing the camera is
schools. air clearly displayed on the
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camera whereas objects Features on maps and Plans are produced for
on the map are displayed plans appear to be seen the purpose of planning
as symbols viewed from from above for land use, while maps
above. are mainly drawn to
show the distribution of
A variety of information Map shows more facts physical and human
can be displayed on both about a given feature in features on the Earth`s
pictures and maps. E.g. terms of space occupied, surface
both show types of location and position on
vegetation and the Earth`s surface, Pictures and Plans
landforms in the given while a picture mainly
area concentrates on the Similarities Differences
appearance of an object. Both describe features in A picture mainly
Pictures are produced details by showing the concentrates on features
according to size unlike shape and appearance on the vicinity and the
maps which are drawn to front part an object while
scale. a plan shows detailed
It is easy to determine position and direction of
direction of features on a all features related to it.
map due to the presence
of a compass direction Both are smaller than A picture is produced
but the same is unlikely real objects they according to size; a plan
for pictures represent is produced according to
Maps display a given scale.
information over a large A plan gives an outline
surface area, while an object/feature, while a
pictures show picture shows the object
information over a as it appears in real life.
relatively small area.
Components of a Map
Differences between Maps and Plans The following are components of a map:
 Title of the Map
Similarities Differences It shows name covered on the map the purpose of
Both are drawn to scale Plans represent much the map. E.g. Mining Centres in Malawi
after accurate smaller area of the Tells what the map is all about. It is written at the
measurements of theEarth`s surface like a top or bottom of a map.
ground have been taken homestead, a town or a  Key or legend– collection of symbols and signs
house, whereas maps used on the map representing features
represent much larger
 Scale - Relationship between distance on the map
areas on the Earth`s
and the corresponding on the actual ground
surface, such as district
 Symbols – they are signs and pictures that
or country or continent.
represent features on a map
They are much smaller Plans show more details
than the real area they than maps.  Margin – forms the boundary of an area
are representing  North Direction- indicates the direction from
Details about the size Plans are more specific, which other points can be established
and location of objects unlike maps, which may  Map Reference and Number
are represented in both give general information It shows the date of publication. The information
maps and plans on relief, land use and helps the reader to identify changes that have
other details.
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taken place on a map so that they may be declination is everywhere less than 10 and therefore,
updated. it may be ignored in practical map reading.

True North
This is the direction of the geographical North Pole
that marks the end of the axis where all lines of
longitudes are aligned. It points to a North Star.

Magnetic North
This is the point in the far north of Canada where a
compass needle points when balanced. It is called
magnetic north because it is attracted by the
magnetic field originating from the Earth`s most
internal part called core or barysphere. Bearings
measured form magnetic north is called magnetic
bearing.

Conventional signs
These are universally accepted signs and symbols
that represent real features on a map. Conventional
symbols are categorized into the following groups:

a. Water features

b. Boundaries

c. Land routes
Magnetic Variation, Magnetic North, True North
and Grid North

d. Buildings and other constructed features

 Colours are also used to represent physical
features on a map such as
 Red represents boundaries of districts and
regions and countries, transport an d
communication links
 Black represents constructed features like
settlement and
Grid North  Green represents vegetation
It is indicated on the maps which are normally  Blue colour shows all water features
drawn inside the grid. The angle between directions
of True North and Grid North often called grid
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Maps and Aerial Photograph

Photograph is an image or picture created by a
camera

Difference between a map and aerial photograph

Map Photograph c. There are two types of oblique aerial
It is true to scale It is not true to scale. photographs such as low oblique and high
Scale is reduced with oblique aerial photographs.
distance from camera. d. High oblique shows horizon while low oblique
Maps show features only Pictures include a lot of does not show horizon. Horizon is the meeting
put by map makers details of which some point of the Earth`s surface and the sky.
are not required
Maps take a long time to Aerial photographs can Satellite images
draw be taken within a short  Satellite is a man – made object that is placed in
period of time orbit around the earth or planet in order to
Maps have labels and Aerial photographs do collect and transmit information.
symbols that represent not have names of places  Satellite image is the image of the whole or part
real ground features and heights of places of the earth taken by artificial satellites. They are
It is easy to interpret Features are difficult to photographs of the earth from space.
ground features on maps identify and interpret  The modern technique of observing the earth
using symbols and signs without symbols space using satellite sensors and aircraft cameras
is called remote sensing. Remote sensing
Maps show only those Photographs show a lot means sensing things from a distance.
features that are of detail viewed through  Aerial photographs and satellite images are used
important for the the camera. by cartographers to make maps.
purpose of the map.  Cartography is the art of making maps;
therefore, cartographers are the map makers.
Aerial Photograph  Computer software used to view satellite images
 It is a photograph which is taken high up in the of the earth is called Google Earth. This allows
air by aeroplanes or satellites. people to zoom and glide over the photographs
of the earth‟s surface and explore every part of
Types of Aerial Photographs the earth.
a. Vertical Aerial Photograph
It is taken at the right angle to the ground. Differences between satellites images and aerial
There is no hidden ground. photographs
There are also two types of oblique  Aerial photographs are taken at lower
photographs such as high and low oblique. altitudes in the atmosphere using aeroplanes
while satellite images are taken at higher
altitudes above the earth‟ atmosphere using
the satellites.
 Aerial photographs are taken by a camera in
an aeroplane while satellite images are
recorded by electronic canners.

b. Oblique Aerial Photograph Advantages and disadvantages of aerial

It is taken at an inclined angle to the ground. It photographs and satellite images
has hidden ground and the landscape is not true  They are taken within a short period of time
to scale because pictures near the camera look  They are taken at any part of the earth
bigger than those away from the camera.  They have the lens closer to the ground

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Disadvantages and disadvantages of aerial Representative Fraction

photographs and satellite images This type of scale can be expressed in two ways:
 Satellite images have lower picture quality than It is expressed as a fraction such as 1/50000 or as
aerial photographs ratio such 1: 50,000
 Thick clouds prevent aerial photography
 It is very expensive since aeroplanes are Note that the figures in the numerator and
required to fly back and forth in „runs‟ to take a denominator should be in the same units.
series of overlapping photographs.
 Aeroplanes may not fly in foreign air space The numerator should always be 1. For example,
without seeking prior permission 1: 50,000, means that one unit on the map represents
50,000 of the same units on the actual ground.
Uses of maps Note that in R.F., any units can be used, such as
 Help to calculate local time centimeters or inches.
 Show the shape of the country and boundaries
Linear scale
between states, provinces and districts. This is a type of scale where a line is drawn and
 Give information on the division of land divided into sections. Each one these sections
 Provide information for planning on represents a unit or a unit or units of measurement
development e.g. irrigation on the actual ground.
 Show natural features and human activities
which are helpful in intelligence services
 Provide historical records and are therefore
useful for research The left hand side of the linear above is further
 Show the location of places and features on subdivided into smaller units representing fractions
earth‟s surface of a kilometer. This part is called a Secondary
Section while the right hand side is called the
 Show various routes leading to places
Primary Section.
 Show direction of places and features You may use a string, a straight edge of a paper or a
 Show and describe the distribution of physical pair of dividers.
and human features on the earth‟s surface
Conversion of scales
Map scales In conversion of scales one needs to know the
A scale is a relationship between two points on the standard units of different levels and amount of units
map and the corresponding points on the actual required to get to another unit.
ground.
For example:
Types of Scale 100 centimeters = 1 metre
There are three types of scales namely: 1000 metres = 1 kilometer
a. Statement scale 50,000 centimeters =0.5 kilometers
b. Representative fraction scale 100, 000 centimeters =1 kilometer
c. Linear Scale Below are given examples of scale conversion

Simple Statement Scale Example 1

This scale is expressed as a statement or words. Converting statement scale to R.F scale
E.g. one centimeter represents five metres Given 1 cm represent 1 km
One centimeter represents 50 kilometers We know that 1km =100,000 cm
NB: Never say one centimeter equals five metres Therefore 1 km represents 100,000cm
Convert 1 to centimeters, that is:
1km x 100,000= 100,000cm

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Therefore the R.F. is 1: 100,000 (written as a ratio) Small Scale Maps

1/100,000  They have large denominators
 They show small area but not in details
Example 2
Converting R.F. to linear scale Map scales are used in plans, atlas maps and
Given F.R as 1:50,000 topographical maps to represent larger area of land
Convert R.F. to statement scale, that is: or country on a small piece of paper.
1 cm represents 50,000cm
Convert the 50,000 cm to km, that is Uses of scales
50,000÷100,000 =0.5 Scales are used for:
50,000cm 0.5km  Measuring distance
Therefore 1 cm represents 0.5km
Diagram of linear scale (2cm representing 1km)  It helps in drawing accurate maps
 It helps in the construction of various
Example 3 infrastructures
Converting R.F to statement
Given 1:50,000 Measuring distances
1 cm represents 50,000 cm Distance is length measured two points.
Convert the 50,000 cm into kilometers and gives A distance can be measured along a straight line, or
0.5km a curved line like along the road, railway line, and
Therefore 1 cm represents 0.5km river or coast line.

Example 4 Measuring straight distances

Converting statement scale to linear scale
Given the statement scale: 1cm represents 4km 1. Using a Piece of Paper
Draw a line subdivide the line into distances of 1cm  Draw a straight line joining Y and W
apart. Each represents 4km. this forms the primary  Get a piece of paper with a suitable length
section. and a straight edge
For the secondary section, convert the kilometers
into metres by multiplying the 4km by 1000m, that  Place a straight edge of the piece of paper
is,4kmx 1000=4000m. Therefore, 1cm represents next to the line joining the two points.
4000m  Mark the end W on a paper at the point
Diagram of linear scale where W is and Y where Y is.
 Transfer the measurements to a scale where
Maps and scale sizes
they are converted into kilometers
Maps have different scales. There are three groups
of scales as below:

Large-Scale Maps
 They have small denominators
 They represent small area with a lot of details
 Such maps have their lengths reduced and their
ratio made smaller 2. Using a Divider
 Draw a straight line joining Y and W.
Medium Scale Maps  Open a pair of dividers to obtain the
They exist between large and small scale maps distance between the two points.

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 Use dividers to read the distances from the

linear scale. Make sure you not change the
span until you have read the distance in the
linear scale

Measuring curved or winding distances

The best way is to use a thread. Use the thread that  Draw the new grid for the map. Make each side
does not elasticize to avoid false readings. of block twice as big as it was before
 Copy the details from each block of the original
Diagram on page 13
into the new block
 Lay a piece of string along the route to measure
 The scale should also be enlarged as shown
following the curves carefully. below.
 Nark a string with a pencil or pen where the line
ends. Then transfer the measurements to a
linear scale
 Spread the thread on the linear scale
 Find the length by reading on the linear scale.
Remember that do not use elastic or stretchy
string. Use a white thread.

Map enlargement
Map enlargement is done using the following
procedures:

Example: enlarge the map of Malawi twice its

original size.

Map reduction
Follow the following procedures when reducing the
map:
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1. Draw the new grid for the map. Make each side  Geometric Method
of block half of its original size.  Use of grid Squares
2. Copy the details from each block of the original
 Strip Method
into the new block
3. The scale should also be reduced.
Geometric Method
 Divide the irregular shaped figure into regular
Calculating areas of regular and irregular shapes
shapes like rectangles, triangle and shapes.
Areas of regular shapes the following are regular
 Measure the dimensions of the shapes that are
shapes:
rectangles, triangles or squares.
 Triangles
 Using scales, convert these dimensions into the
 Rectangles
ground distance.
 Squares
 Find the areas of each shape and add them
together.
The graph or Tracing Method
When finding areas of such figures mathematical
formulas are used.

Using the scale, 1cm represents 0.5km. So 6cm will

be (6x0.5) km or 3km and 5cm (5 x0.5) km or
2.5km.

Area of a triangle = ½ base x height. Use Grid Squares

Each square grid on most topographical maps
measures 2cm x 2cm and has a scale of 1: 50,000.
Each square has a length of 1km and width of 1km.

= (½ X 8 X 12) = 48cm2

Area of a circle

The area of a circle is Area = full squares +

= (3.114 X 132) =5+

= 526.3cm2
= 12
Area of irregular shapes
There are three methods that are used to calculate = 1km2 X 11
area of irregular shapes such as:
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Therefore Area of Kamwambe Estate is 12 km2

Strip Method
Follow the steps below:

 Draw strips of uniform width to cover the

whole area
Bearing
 Make sure that the area left out balance with It is the amount of turn measured in degrees from
area included. north in clockwise direction. All points of a compass
 Measure the lengths of the strips add up to 3600.
 Find the areas of the strips
 Add the areas of the strips Locating of Features on a Map Using Compass
Directions
 The result obtained in step 5 is the area of the Example: calculate the bearing of M from N
irregular-shaped figure.

The Graph Method

Use the same process used in the grid method.
Scales are important in map work for interpreting
sizes of various features on maps.

Direction and bearings

Calculation
Direction refers to the cardinal points that indicate
 Join the two points (M and N) with a straight
where something is. The basic points on the compass
line
are North, South, East and West.
 Draw a straight line pointing to North through
point N
 Measure the angle between M and N in
clockwise direction from North

Compass direction are further divided into smaller Grid reference system
units of directions  Grid refers to the squares made by the
intersection of Eastings and Northings.

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 Grid lines are vertical lines called Eastings and  1189

horizontal lines called Northings on a map  1288
 Grid reference is a set of numbers on Eastings  1086
and Northings which is used for locating places  1286
or features on a map.
How to calculate four – figure grid reference
Properties of Eastings a. Consider the lines that intersect at the left –
 Their values increase eastwards, hence the bottom tip of a square that contains the feature.
name Eastings. b. Write Eastings first and then Northings.
 Their values are shown at the bottom and top of
the map. Limitations of Four – figure Grid Reference
They are not accurate as they just describe the
Properties of Northings position of a square, and not exact point of a feature.
 Their values increase northwards, hence the
name Northings. Six – figure Grid Reference
 Their values are shown on the left and right
edges of the map.
The Procedure for Calculating Six – figure Grid
Types of Grid References Reference
 Four– figure grid reference  Cut the square into two equal halves or ten parts
 Six – figure grid reference using along the Eastings and the Northings
that cross each other. this helps to figure out the
Four – figure grid reference fraction of a whole number
The number has four digits of which the first two  Firstly, write the Easting whole number (e.g.
numbers are Eastings followed by the two 19) and a fraction or a number of a small line
Northings. (e.g. 9) to come up with 199.
 Then, do the same with northing whole number
Example: Give the four figure grid reference of A, B, (e.g. 86) and its fraction (e.g. 4) to make 864.
C and D.  Finally, put together all the figures to make a
six – figure grid reference such as 199864.

Make sure that you begin with the Eastings and

then Northings.

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UNIT 2

THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Success criteria
Students must be able to:
1. Explain the term solar system
2. Explain new developments in the Solar System
3. Relate position of the Earth in relation to sun
4. Explain the shape of the Earth
5. Explain movements of the Earth
6. Explain the results of the Earth‟s movement

Solar system refers to heavenly bodies that float in Removal of Pluto from the List of the Planets
greater space. It is the arrangement of planets in  Pluto and other dwarf planets were removed in
space in relation to the position of the sun. the group of planets in the Solar System due to
the following reasons:
New developments in the solar system  They are too numerous and too small to be
There are new developments as related to solar called planets
system which are:  They lack gravitational power to sweep up and
 Shifting of the poles scatter objects near their orbits. They tend up to
 Inclination of the planets orbit sun in zones of similar objects such as the
 Removal of Pluto from the solar system asteroid and Kuiper belts. There are about five
official dwarf planets which include Eris, Pluto,
Shifting of the Earth`s Magnetic Poles Makemake, Ceres and Haumea.
 The geographical location of the Poles (South
and North) keeps on changing constantly due to Eris
the Earth‟s molten core (the most inner part of  The largest and most distant dwarf planet of our
the Earth) which contains iron. This discovery solar system
was made in 1831 but its current speed is very  It is 3 times farther out than Pluto
unusual faster than before  It was discovered in 2005
 The scientists have discovered that the entire  It takes 557 Earth years to make a complete
Earth‟s magnetic field may reverse so that the revolution around the sun
North Pole becomes South Pole and vice –
versa. Pluto
 The discoveries show that these reversals  It is the second largest dwarf planet.
typically occur once every 400,000 years or so,  It was thought as the farthest planet from the sun
and there has been 780,000 years the last  In 2006, Pluto was discovered as a dwarf planet.
reversal occurred. It makes a complete revolution around the sun in
248 Earth tears.
Inclination of the Planets  Its orbit is very unusual as it swings inside the
 All planets follow elliptical orbits around the orbit of Neptune once every 248 years. It stays
sun, but these orbits do not all lie in the same there for twenty years when it is closer to the
plane; they are usually tilted in respect to each sun than Neptune.
other. Some planets move in orbits that are more  It takes about 6.5 days to turn to its axis.
inclined than others.  A dwarf planet has one large moon and two
 Note that orbital inclination is not the same as small moons.
the tilt of a planet`s axis relative to the orbit.
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Makemake  Their revolutions around the sun take a

 It is the third largest dwarf planet behind Eris short time
and Pluto.  They are quite closer to the sun
 It was discovered in 2005.
 It is located in Kuiper Belt like Ceres and b. The Outer Planets
Haumea. Kuiper Belt is an area of gas, dust and  They orbit far from the sun: Jupiter, Saturn,
rocky debris Uranus and Neptune.
 It makes a complete orbit around the sun in 310  They are all made up of gas
Earth years. At this time, no moons have been  They are so huge; hence they are called
discovered in orbit around Makemake. Giant Gas.
 They have rings around them
Ceres  They have large numbers of moons
 It is located in the asteroid belt between the  They are separated from the outer planets
orbits of Mars and Jupiter. by the Asteroid Belt (a belt which contains
 It is 415 million kilometers from the sun. chunks of rock and metal that orbit around
 It was the largest known asteroid in our Solar the sun.
System from 1806 to 2006.
 Right now, Ceres is the smallest dwarf planet. The components of the solar system
There are two main components of the solar system
Haumea namely sun and the planets.
 It was discovered in 2004 and named a dwarf
planet in 2008. Sun
 It spins very rapidly as it orbits around the sun.  It is a bright star of hot gases
 It was made of burning gases, such as helium
What makes heavenly bodies to be called planet and hydrogen. It has inner core where fusion
Any heavily object must be called a planet when occurs. Nucleus of hydrogen atoms split to
meets the following conditions: produce the hot helium gases
 A planet must orbit the sun. Pluto revolves  It forms the central body of the solar system and
around the sun in an orbit that is not exactly other bodies revolve around it
circular like the rest of the planets, so according  It was formed 4 to 6 million years ago when the
to this rule, Pluto may be a planet. solar system came into being.
 A planet must be spherical, pulled into that  It also forms 99% of the mass within the solar
shape by its gravity – Pluto meets this system
requirement, so it may be a planet.  Solar radiation is important in different ways
 A planet must dominate the neighborhood and such as:
„‟sweep up‟‟ asteroids, comets and other debris,  It influences weather and climate on the earth‟s
clearing a path along its orbit – according to this surface
rule, Pluto is not a planet. Pluto shares its space  It helps green plants in food manufacturing
with many other objects similar to itself, and it is through photosynthesis
not to clear its orbit.  It provides vitamin D from to animals
 It is source of solar energy
Groups of planets  Sun`s heat is used for drying thing
a. The Inner Planets
 They are four closest planets to the sun: Components of the solar system
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars The solar system comprises the sun at the centre, the
 They are similar and smaller in size as planets, moons, planetoids or asteroids, meteors,
compared to outer planets comets, dust particles and gases revolving around it.
 They have smaller number of moons

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 There are also topographical features like

valleys and craters

Earth
 It is the third planet from the sun
 It is about 149.6km away from the sun
 Its average temperature is about 150C
 Its diameter is about 12,742km
 It is the only planets that supports life
 It makes a complete revolution around the sun in
365.25 days
The Sun  It is surrounded by a thin layer of gases called
 The sun is a bright star. A star is a sphere of hot atmosphere which held on it by the gravitational
gases. force.
 The sun was made up of the hot gases of
hydrogen and helium. It has an inner core Mars
where fusion occurs.  It is the fourth planet from the sun
 It was formed 4 to 6 million years ago when the  It is about 227.9km away from the sun
solar system started.  Its average temperature is about
 The sun forms the centre of a solar system.  Its average temperature is about -55oC
 It makes a complete revolution around the sun in
Planets 687 days
The solar system had eight major planets. Mercury,  Its diameter is about 6,779km
Venus, Earth and Mars are known as the inner
 It has 2 moons
planets as they were made of solid bodies. The rest
 It has a reddish colour due to the presence of
of the planets are in gaseous form.
iron oxide on it.
Mercury  Its diameter is about
 It is nearest to the sun  It appearance resemble that of the desert
landscape on the Earth that is rough and bare
 It is about 57.9km away from the sun
 It makes a complete revolution around the sun in
 It is second smallest planet and its diameter is
687 days
about 4,879.4km
 It has two moons that revolve around it
 It has craters, hills and valleys on its surface
 There are rifts and volcanoes with craters
 It makes a complete revolution around the sun in
88 days  There are deep valleys that had been cut by
water. Scientists believe that there was once
 Its average temperature ranges from 370C at
water.
daytime to 1380C at night
 Its atmosphere has fog, clouds and dust particles
Venus
 It is second planet away from the sun Jupiter
 It is the fifth planet away from the sun
 It is about 108.2km away from the sun
 It is about 778.3km from the sun
 It is similar to the earth in size, shape and mass
 Its average temperature is about -145oC
 Its diameter is about 1,2103.6km
 It is the largest planet in the solar system
 It makes a complete revolution around the sun in
88 days  It makes a complete revolution around the sun in
11.86 years
 Its atmosphere contains 97% carbon dioxide
 It diameter is about 139,882km
 It has a yellow appearance due to the presence of
sulphur and sulphuric acids  It has about 62 moons
 Temperature ranges up to 4000C.  It is in gaseous form (it consists hydrogen in
liquid form and helium in solid form)
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 there are alternating bands of reddish brown  Its distance from the sun is almost forty times
colours the distance of the earth from the sun
 It has a ring around it  It is made up frozen gases and rock.
 It has also a red spot that looks like a storm  It was discovered that it is a satellite of Neptune
as its orbit follows that of Neptune
Saturn  It identified as the ninth, coldest (average
 It is the sixth planet away from the sun temperature is below -2100C) and the farthest
 It is about 1429.4km away from the sun planet from the sun
 It is in gaseous nature  Some discoveries discovered that Pluto was
 It has 53 moons around it, of which the largest is identified as a dwarf plate
called Titan  It lies on the edge of the solar system
 It makes a complete revolution around the sun in
29.46 years Other minor objects in the solar system
 Its average temperature is about -176oC
 Its diameter is about 116,464km Asteroids or planetoids
 It has three major rings around it which in turn  These are small rocky bodies that revolve
contain several other smaller rings which are around the sun between Mars (the rocky planet)
hundreds of thousands kilometers wide and they and Jupiter (the gaseous planet).
resemble a record player disc  Asteroids are fragments of matter similar to
 Its atmosphere experiences storms planets.
 Sizes of Asteroids vary from largest to smallest
Uranus which are hundreds of kilometers apart.
 It is the seventh planet away from the sun Therefore, it is difficult to see small ones.
 It is about 2870.9km away from the sun
 Its average temperature is about -2130C Comets
 It has a green colour due to the presence of  Comet is a frozen snowball that revolves
methane gas on it. around the sun along elongated orbit. It
sometimes it goes beyond Pluto
 It makes a complete revolution around the sun
in 84.1 years  Comet has a head which is made up ice crystals
 Its diameter is about 50,724km and a tail that extends for million kilometers. A
tail points away from the sun.
 It has 27 moons (or satellites)
 As the comet moves away from the sun, the
 It is the only planet whose axis lies horizontally
gases start condensing and the tail disappears.
on its orbital plane
One famous comet is Halley`s Comet that orbit
 Voyager 2, an American spacecraft, discovered
the sun every 76 years. But other comets take
that Uranus is surrounded by rings of debris
thousands of years to complete revolution
which revolve around it. around the sun.
Neptune Meteor or a shooting star
 It is the eight planet away from the sun It a heavenly body that burns up as it reaches the
 It makes a complete revolution around the sun in earth`s atmosphere.
164.79 years
 Is about 4504km from the sun Meteorite
 It has 13 moons It is a meteor that lands on the earth`s surface.
 Its average temperature is about -225oC Galaxy
 Its diameter is about 49,244km This refers to the clustered stars which are seen in
the sky.
Pluto
 It is not a planet but it was believed to be the
smallest planet in the solar system
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Importance of the earth`s solar system

 Rocks of meteorites are rich in iron, nickel and
silica
 Craters and depressions made by landing
meteorites become centres of tourist attraction
which brings foreign exchange to the country,
e.g. Great Meteor Crater in Arizona in USA.
 Sun`s heat and light support life on Earth.
 Moon leads to rising and falling of tides
 Planet Earth supports life

Developments related to solar system

 In 2005 another bright planet was discovered
that seems larger than Pluto. Still there are eight
planets.  As the Earth revolves around the sun, the place
 Pluto is no longer a planet because it does not where light shines the brightest changes, E.g.
have the following characteristics for it to be the poles receive less light than the Equator
called a planet because of the angle that the land around the
poles receive the sun`s light.
 It does not orbit the sun
 When the North Pole is tilted towards the sun, it
 It is not large enough or it is a dwarf planet
gets more heat and light from the sun as it is
 It does not have cleared its orbit of other objects
presented at a greater angle than the Northern
Hemisphere. Northern Hemisphere becomes
Space probes or rocket launched vehicles carry
warmer. This is summer in Northern
instruments, cameras and other data gathering
Hemisphere and winter in South.
equipment above the Earth`s atmosphere. They relay
 When Southern Hemisphere is tilted towards
pictures and measure the Earth. This involves
the sun, there are reversal of seasons in the two
interplanting or deep – space measurements.
hemispheres
 Probes orbit an object or make a soft landing
on it, e.g.
Eclipse of the moon (lunar eclipse)
 The deep space exploration though the Viking
probe landed on Mars and conducted tests there.
 Pioneer and Voyages II and I landed on Jupiter
and Saturn
 Voyages II visited Uranus and Neptune

The position of the earth in relation to the sun

 The Earth orbits the sun in an elliptical orbit
and the moon orbits the Earth with the same
kind.  Eclipse of the moon occurs when the Earth is
 During rotation, the Earth spins on its between the sun and the moon. The moon
imaginary line called axis in anticlockwise moves into the Earth‟s shadow. The Earth
direction in every 24 hours. The Earth rotates blocks sun‟s light from reaching the moon`s
from the West to the East. This is why the sun surface, as result it casts a shadow on the moon.
rises in the East and sets in the West.  Lunar eclipse occurs at night only during full
 The Earth is tilted at an angle of 23.40. The moon. The moon remains in darkness for about
Earth orbits the sun in an anticlockwise motion, two hours.
coming to the same position among the stars
every 365.26 Earth days. The moon also orbits Eclipse of the sun (solar eclipse)
the Earth in an anticlockwise motion.  This happens when the moon comes between
the Earth and the sun
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 Equator is one of the great circles. A great

circle is a longitude or latitude that divides the
Earth into two halves. The Earth is spherical in
shape due to a number of reasons as stated in
the following paragraph.

Reasons for the spherical shape of the earth

 The moon casts its shadow on the Earth`s 1. Gravitational force at the centre of the Earth
surface. This means that only a small section of called core
the Earth receives total solar eclipse which  It pulls things to the centre of the Earth
takes about seven and half (7.5) minutes.  This force makes the spherical shape of the
 Solar eclipse occurs during the day Earth

The relation of the position of the sun and its 2. Centripetal force
contribution to the life and human activities It pulls both poles towards each other, hence
 Solar energy is an alternative to fuel wood. In flattening the area at the poles.
this case, solar energy is also known as clean
fuel. 3. Centrifugal force
 Solar energy is generated without polluting the  This the out-ward throwing or pushing
environment force along the Equatorial area due to
 Solar energy is relatively cheap and affordable Earth`s rotation.
to many people living in rural areas who have  As the Earth is rotating, it creates force that
no access to hydro-electricity pushes thing away from it.
 Solar energy is renewable  Centrifugal creates a bulging shape at the
 Use of solar energy has helped in reducing the centre of the Earth along the Equator.
demand for fossil fuels. Less exploitation of oil
means a better environment because oil reserves Proofs of the spherical shape of the earth
are never depleted and land is not excavated. 1. Arial photograph of the Earth from a satellite
 Solar energy is clean, safe, and sustainable and looks spherical
meets safety standards. These results in absence 2. Rotation of the Earth leads to sunrise and
of public health risk associated with solar sunset
energy. During sunrise, places to the East see the sun
earlier than those in the West. If the Earth was
 Solar energy does not require an elaborate
flat all parts of the Earth would have sunlight at
transport system like tankers or poles which
the same time.
have negative impact on the environment. It
also helps to reduce transmission costs
3. Circumnavigation
It is movement on the Earth`s surface in a
Shape of the Earth
straight line while maintaining same direction
 The Earth is spherical whose shape is known as
will bring a person back to the same starting
“oblate spheroid”. Oblate spheroid means that
point from the opposite direction.
the Earth is flattened at the poles and has a
bulge at the Equator as shown in the figure
4. Satellite images of the Earth from space
below. The Earth is neither flat nor round.
The Earth casts a spherical shadow on the moon
 The Earth`s diameter at the poles is about during the lunar eclipse.
12,713km while at the Equator is 12,757km. Its
circumference is believed to be about
40,000km; this varies at different parts of the
Earth due to its shape.

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5. Curved horizon of the Earth  The Earth`s axis is tilted at an angle of 66 ⁄ 0

to the Earth`s orbit plane or it slopes 23 ⁄ 0

away from the perpendicular.
 Complete rotation takes 23hrs 56 minutes
which is rounded up to 24hrs. This means that
the Earth takes about 4 minutes for 1 degree
longitude.
 The Earth rotates at a speed of about 1600km/hr
It is evidenced by the approaching ship whose and this gradually decreases up to zero towards
smoke and a mast appear first. On the other the poles. This difference in velocity causes
hand, when the ship is departing, smoke and the Coriolis Effect. Coriolis Effect refers to the
mast disappear last. If the Earth was flat the force created by the rotation of the Earth.
whole ship would appear once.  The Earth spins in space though there no stand
to support it.
6. Surveying with poles on a level ground.
 The Earth spins on its axis from West to East.
This makes the sun seen to be moving from the
East to West.

Results of Rotation of the Earth

 Day and night or sunrise and sunset
 Rising and falling of tides
When poles of equal lengths are pegged into
the flat ground at equal intervals along a  Deflection of ocean currents and winds
straight line, the central pole looks higher than  Changes in time zones or the difference of time
the other on either side. This shows the curved between meridians.
shape of the Earth.  Changes in the atmospheric pressure over the
Earth`s surface
7. If all the planets in the solar system are
spherical, the Earth is also spherical. Day and Night
Side of the Earth facing the sun receives sunlight,
Effects of the Earth`s Shape thus experiences daytime, while the opposite side
 It affects the calculation of time has darkness known as night.
 It affects how people mark the location of a
place and how the y indicate direction
 It affects amount and strength of sunlight
received at different places

The earth`s movements

There are two major Earth`s movements in space are
that include:
 Rotation Falling and Rising of Tides
 Revolution  Tides are periodic rising and falling of the sea
level caused by gravitational force between the
Rotation of the Earth moon, the Earth and the sun.
 This is the spinning of the Earth on its own  However, the sun has less significant effect on
axis. An axis is an imaginary line that joins tides because of a great distance between the
North and South Poles through the centre of the Earth and the sun.
Earth at an inclined angle of 23 ⁄ 0.  High tides are experienced on the side of the
Earth that faces the moon whereas the opposite
side has low tides.
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 When the location reaches a point facing directly

away from the moon, a second high tide occurs.
With another quarter turn, the location
experiences another low tide. You easily
experience the occurrence of tides on the shore.
 At high tides water level rise in the seas, while at
low tides there low water level in the seas.

Deflection of Winds and Ocean Currents

Wind and ocean currents are deflected to the right in
Northern Hemisphere and in the Southern
Hemisphere they are deflected to the left. OR winds
move in clockwise direction in Northern Hemisphere
and in Southern Hemisphere winds move The Process of Revolution
anticlockwise direction. This deflection is as result  Due to elliptical shape of the earth`s orbit, the
of Coriolis Effect. sun comes closer to or distant from the sun at
one period of the year than another.
Changes in the Atmospheric Pressure over the  The greatest distant position of the Earth from
Earth’s Surface the sun in the orbit of the Earth is called
 As the rotates, it causes air to move towards the aphelion.
Equator where it is spread over a wider area,  The greatest aphelion is 152 million kilometers
creating low air pressure away from the sun which falls on 4th July every
 At the poles there is high air pressure because air year.
molecules are concentrated in short latitudes.  The nearest distance of the Earth from the sun is
There is a reduced surface area at the poles and called perihelion which occurs on 3rd January.
has high air pressure while in the Equatorial
regions had a large surface area with low air
pressure.

Changes in Time Zones

 Rotation causes differences in time over the
Earth`s surface. For instance, as the Earth rotates
from West to East, sunrise is seen earlier in the
East than in the West. E.g. Kenya gets sunrise
earlier than Angola.
 Earth`s rotation is in an anticlockwise direction,
that is moving from West to East through 3600
in 24hrs. This means that in 1hr it covers 150 or
10 are takes 4 minutes.

Revolution of the Earth

During perihelion, the Earth is 147.3 million
 It is the movement of the Earth around the sun
kilometers away from the sun
along elliptical path called orbit. It revolves at a
Variation of the atmospheric pressure over the
speed of 96,000km/hr.
earth`s surface
 Complete revolution takes 365 ⁄ days (clear
year) and 366 days (leap year). In leap year, the Results of Revolution of the Earth
month of February ends with 29 day. Leap year  Changes in the position of the midday sun at
comes after every four years, a year that is different times of the year
divisible by 4.  Variation in length of day and night

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 The seasons  On 22nd December when the sun is directly

 Differences in altitude of the midday sun overhead on Tropic of Capricorn, the South Pole
(Antarctic Circle) faces sun directly and
Changes in the Position of the Midday Sun at experiences continuous 24 hours of light while
Different Times of the Year North Pole (Arctic Circle) experiences
 As the Earth revolves around the sun, the continuous 24 hours of darkness.
position of overhead sun changes  On 21st June when the sun is directly overhead
 There is equinox (equal day and night) all over on Tropic of Cancer, the North Pole (Arctic
the Earth`s surface on 21st March and 23rd Circle) faces sun directly and experiences
September. The sun is directly overhead along continuous 24 hours of light while South Pole
the Equator. (Antarctic Circle) experiences continuous 24
 On 21st June, the sun is vertically overhead hours of darkness.
along the Tropic of Cancer (23 ⁄ 0N). It is
The Seasons
summer solstice in Northern Hemisphere and
 Season refers to a period of the year separated
winter solstice in Southern Hemisphere. The
from another by changes or differences in
term solstice means the sun`s stand still.
weather conditions. Seasons are caused by the
 On 22nd December, the sun is vertically
positions of the Earth during revolution.
overhead along the Tropic of Capricorn
 Tilting and revolution of the Earth lead to
(23 ⁄ 0S). It is summer Southern Hemisphere differences in the amount of sunlight received at
and winter solstice in Northern Hemisphere. different latitudes
 The word solstice comes from Latin word „sol‟
(for sun) and „sostere‟ (for stand – still).
Therefore, the term solstice means the sun`s
stand still between its Northward and Southward
journey.

Variation in Length of Day and Night

 Revolution and tilting of the Earth lead to
variations of day and night at different times in
different places.
 When the sun is in Northern Hemisphere, the
regions in Northern Hemisphere experience long
hours of sunshine and short nights while in
Southern Hemisphere regions experience short
hours of sunshine and long nights.
 On the other hand, when the sun is in Southern
Hemisphere, the regions in Southern There are four main seasons which are:
Hemisphere experience long hours of sunshine  Summer
and short nights while regions Northern  Autumn
Hemisphere experience short hours of sunshine  Winter
and long nights.  Spring

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UNIT 3

HYDROSPHERE
Success criteria
Students must be able to:
1. Explain the term hydrosphere
2. Explain the term hydrological cycle
3. Explain the main features and processes of hydrological cycle
4. Explain the importance of hydrological cycle
5. Explain factors that disturb hydrological cycle
6. Suggest ways of maintaining hydrological cycle

Hydrosphere refers to all the water on the earth. It

includes the fresh water found in rivers, lakes and Arctic Ocean
oceans. Hydrosphere covers 71% of the earth‟s  It is 14 million square kilometers.
surface. Ocean is a larger body of water on the  It is the smallest and shallowest ocean.
earth`s surface. Southern hemisphere has larger part  Much of the ocean is frozen
of water than northern hemisphere. The oceans  It lies to the North of North America and
include: Indian Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, Pacific Eurasia.
Ocean, Arctic Ocean and Southern Ocean. There are  Northwards it extends across the frozen seas
also some small oceans. surrounding the North Pole to the Pacific with
which it is linked by the Bering Strait
Pacific Ocean
 It is the largest The major world`s water bodies
 It covers third of the earth`s surface Ocean Area (million km2)
 It is about 179.7 million square kilometers Pacific 165
 It has numerous islands and deeps or trenches Atlantic 82
 It forms the western coasts of South and North Indian 73.5
America and eastern Asia. Southern Ocean 20.3
Arctic 14
Atlantic Ocean
 It is less than half the size of the Pacific Ocean Sea Area (100 km2)
 It is the second largest ocean Mediterranean 2505
 It covers one – fifth of the earth`s surface South China 2318
 Its area is about 82.4 million square kilometers Bering 2269
Caribbean 1943
Indian Ocean Gulf of Mexico 1544
 It is bordered by Africa on the west, India and East China 1248
China on the north, and Australia and East Yellow Sea 1243
Indies on the east. Sea of Japan 1008
 It is the world`s third largest ocean North Sea 575
 It is about 20% of the earth`s volume. Black Sea 461
Baltic Sea 422
 Its area is about 73.5 million square kilometer
Caspian Sea 372
The Southern Ocean
Lakes Area (100 km2)
 It surrounds the Antarctica continent.
Erie 28
 It is the fourth largest ocean Malawi 23
 It is about 20.3km2 in area.
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Chad 16 d. Water bodies: They include wetlands, rivers,

Turkana 9 lakes and ocean. They play important role by
providing a surface area on which evaporation
HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE should take place.
This is the continuous movement of water from the e. Soil: Soil holds water. It includes the rocks in
earth‟s surface to the atmosphere, from there to the the mountains.
land and the sea. Or it refers to the circulation of
water from the Earth`s surface to the Earth`s f. Precipitation: It refers to a form of moisture
atmosphere, from there back to the land and sea. from the atmosphere.
It is also the releasing of water from the
Features of hydrological cycle atmosphere onto the earth`s surface. There are
a. Sun: different forms of precipitation such as rainfall,
 It provides heat energy for evaporation and fog, hail and sleet.
transpiration to take place.
 It also promotes plant growth which is also Processes of Hydrological Cycle
a very important feature of hydrological a. Evaporation: This is the loss of water from the
cycle. soil and the water bodies into the atmosphere.
b. Transpiration: It is the loss of water from
b. Vegetation: vegetation into the atmosphere.
 It releases water into the air through c. Evapotranspiration: It is the combination of
transpiration. evaporation and transpiration which means
 It also helps to control global warming by the loss of water from the soil, water body and
absorbing carbon dioxide from the air vegetation into the air.
through photosynthesis and releasing d. Condensation: Turning of water vapour into the
oxygen into the air. Carbon dioxide is liquid water to form clouds. Water vapour
greenhouse gas that causes global warming condenses into liquid water upon reaching a
by keeping the earth`s atmosphere hot. That dew-point or a condensation level. Dew-point
high temperature prevents condensation. is a very low temperature in the atmosphere
 Furthermore, vegetation prevents soil which allows condensation to take place. Global
erosion and conserves soil moisture by warming disturbs hydrological cycle by raising
providing cover to the soil. this temperature. As a result, drought persists.
e. Run-off: This is the surface water that moves
c. Clouds: These are masses of small droplets of down the slopes. Run-off is so rapid on the bare
water it the atmosphere. ground that leads to soil erosion and then silting.
Where there is vegetative cover, water is trapped
and forced to enter the soil.
f. Infiltration: This is the entry of water into the
ground. Vegetation encourages infiltration.
g. Percolation: This means the movement of the
underground water. This water reaches the main
water bodies those expose it to the surface where
it can evaporate.

Ways that Disturb Hydrological Cycle

 Deforestation.
Vegetation helps to release water into the air
Clouds formed as a result of condensation through transpiration. It also prevents global
which turns water vapour into liquid water that warming by absorbing carbon dioxide from the
come on earth as rain. air through photosynthesis.

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 It helps to regulate temperatures of different

 Acid rain places
It destroys vegetation as well causes of all water  It maintains the level and flow of rivers that
bodies to dry out. enable the generation of hydroelectricity.
 Global warming that disturbs condensation in  It helps to purify water for human use.
the air.  It sustains water supply on the earth`s surface
 Air pollution. that supports life.
 Poor farming methods that destroy the
environment Ways of Conserving Water
 Poor farming methods that cause soil erosion.  Using less water for daily purposes by turning
 Setting bushfire. taps off when not in use.
 Draining water bodies.  Use non – toxic cleaners and biodegradable
 Overstocking that leads to overgrazing. soaps and detergents that will not harm the
marine environment when they are washed away
Ways of Maintaining Hydrological Cycle after use.
 Afforestation and reforestation  Rain water harvesting.
 Use clean source of energy that does not cause  Minimizing the amount of paved and cement
air pollution. surfaces which prevent infiltration of water into
 Prevent bushfires the ground.
 Use of better farming methods that do not cause  Planting vegetation on the shorelines which help
soil erosion. to trap pollutants and prevent them from
entering the main water body.
Importance of Hydrological Cycle  Reduce the use of fertilizers and other chemicals
 It maintains habitat of aquatic animals. on lawns and gardens.
 It brings about rainfall.

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UNIT 3

THE ATMOSPHERE
Success criteria
Students must be able to:
1. Explain the term atmosphere
2. Explain the composition of gases in atmosphere
3. Describe layers of atmosphere
4. Explain the importance of the atmosphere

The atmosphere refers to the layer of transparent Importance of gases in the atmosphere
gases and other substance surrounding the Earth and Nitrogen
held to it by the force of gravity. It improves soil fertility when it is absorbed by
It is composed of the gases, water vapour and dust nitrogen – fixing bacteria found in the root nodules
particles. It extends up to a height of about 600km of legumes.
above the sea level.
This sheet of air is denser at the sea level than at the Carbon dioxide
high altitudes. It is required by green plants as a raw material for
photosynthesis to take place.
The main aspects of the atmosphere It also absorbs the sun‟s heat which helps to
 Composition (or constituents) of the maintain moderate temperatures on earth.
atmosphere
 Structure  Water vapour
 Elements of weather It absorbs the sun‟s heat like carbon dioxide,
thus keep the earth warm.
Composition of the earth`s atmosphere It is the source of all clouds and precipitation.
 The Earth`s atmosphere is the mixture of  Oxygen
gases, suspended solids and liquids that It helps the body to release energy from the
surround the planet. food molecules.
 The Earth`s atmosphere is composed of: The atmosphere does not contain high
 78% nitrogen concentration of oxygen because of the
 21% oxygen following reasons:
 1% of other gases including carbon dioxide, It is highly flammable, so large concentration of
neon, helium, ozone and argon oxygen in the air would increase air‟s
 0 – 4% water vapour flammability.
Breathing excess oxygen for extended periods of
time may lead to oxygen toxicity which results
Argon Other
into death.
1% Gases
Oxygen 0%
 Ozone
21% It is group of oxygen formed by three oxygen
atoms to make one molecule. It prevents
dangerous ultraviolet (UV) sun‟s ray from
Nitroge reaching the Earth‟s surface that may cause skin
n cancer. Without ozone, the world would be
78% inhabitable.

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 Dust particles and other solid substances  Temperature decreases with increase in altitude
They act as surfaces on which condensation at the rate of 60C for every 1km rise (0.60C per
takes place to form clouds. 100m). Therefore, the decrease in n temperature
They also shield the Earth‟s surface from the with an increase in altitude is known as positive
intense heat from the sun. It provides a or normal lapse rate. When it reaches the
protective layer on Earth. tropopause, it stabilises at -180C.
 Tropopause is the upper limit of troposphere
Layers of the atmosphere and their that acts as a transitional zone to the next layer.
characteristics It is a region of inversion that marks the
The Earth`s atmosphere is divided into main four boundary between troposphere and stratosphere.
distinctive layers or zones which include:
a. Troposphere Stratosphere
b. Mesosphere  It is above the troposphere
c. Stratosphere  It extends to a height of 50km from the Earth`s
d. Thermosphere surface
 The upper limit of stratosphere is called
Each layer is separated by transitional boundaries. stratopause.
As indicated in the figure below.  There is an increase in temperature with an
increase in altitude (known as temperature
inversion or negative lapse rate.
 The increase in temperature is due to the
presence of ozone (O3) gas which absorbs ultra-
violet rays from the sun.
 Stratosphere is important to people to the
environment in the following ways:
 It prevents very harmful ultra-violet (UV) rays
from reaching the Earth`s surface by absorbing
them. UV rays cause skin cancer, genetic
mutations and cataract in human beings.
 It also prevents meteorites from hitting the
Earth`s surface by burning them up. These
meteorites would cause accidents and other
disasters on the Earth`s surface.

Mesosphere
 It extends from a height of about 50km to about
80km upwards.
 Temperature decreases with increase in height
from 00C at the stratopause to -1000Cat its
upper limit (positive lapse rate).
 There are the strongest winds in this zone
Troposphere  The mesosphere (the upper limit of
 It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere mesosphere) maintains constant temperatures as
 It extends from the Earth`s surface but its height increases.
altitude varies from one latitude to another. For
example, it is 18km at the Equator, 15km at the Thermosphere
tropics, 11km in the temperate regions and 8km  It extends from 80km to about 600km upwards.
over the poles.  Temperatures rise rapidly with increase in
height because of the absorption of the solar

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energy (negative lapse rate). Temperatures rise methane, chlorine, fluorine and water vapour. The
to nearly 1,5000C and above. greenhouse gases trap or absorb sun`s heat making it
 Gases here separate into different layers unable to escape into the space. This heat circulates
different from other zones where gases mix up. in the earth`s atmosphere, causing global warming.
The separate layers of gases in thermosphere
are: Effects of Global Warming
 Oxygen – lower layer  It causes flooding in coastal areas as a result of
 Helium zone – middle layer melting icebergs.
 Atomic hydrogen – uppermost zone  It leads to shifting of rainfall patterns that result
 The thermosphere and ionosphere have in unusual heavy rains or droughts.
positively charged ions, hence the name  It alters ecological balance due to change in
ionosphere. Ions are electrically charged ecosystem.
atoms. The ions in the ionosphere  Increased disease – carrying organisms
electromagnetic waves, such as radio signals  Increased acidity.
back to the Earth which also facilitates long  Increased rainfall in humid regions leading to
distance communications (telephone, fax, flooding, landslides and disease outbreaks.
internet and other forms of communication).
 Not all transitional zones show zero lapse rates. Causes of Global Warming
 Deforestation.
The Importance of Atmosphere  Setting extensive bushfires.
 Nitrogen compounds are plant nutrients. Plants  Causing air pollution.
absorb atmospheric nitrogen by means of  Draining of wetlands
nitrogen – fixing bacteria that turn it into usable
form. Ways of Controlling Global Warming
 Oxygen is used by people and animals for  Afforestation and reforestation
respiration. It also combines with rain water to Planting trees reduce and prevent global
form iron oxide that enable weathering to take warming. Trees absorb carbon dioxide from the
place. air through the process of photosynthesis. In
 Carbon dioxide is required by plants to make this case, vegetation is described as the lung of
plant food in the process called photosynthesis. the earth as it is where gas exchange takes place
Without carbon dioxide, plants could not on earth.
produce oxygen  Use of clean source of energy that does not
 Water vapour and carbon dioxide help pollute the air, e.g. solar and hydro-electricity.
preventing heat loss from the Earth`s surface.  Preventing wildfires.
 Ozone layer prevents very harmful ultra-violet  Countries should make International agreements
(UV) rays from reaching the Earth`s surface by that help reducing the emission of greenhouse
absorbing them. UV rays cause skin cancer, gases into the air.
genetic mutations and cataract in human beings.  Conserving the wetlands.
Emissions from supersonic jets, fallout from
nuclear explosions, some fertilizers and Depletion of Ozone Layer
fluorocarbons destroy ozone layer. Ozone is a sheet of gas in the atmosphere that
prevents sun`s ultra-violet rays from reaching the
Emerging issues on the atmosphere and the earth which causes skin cancer to people. It is caused
environment by:
 Chlorofluorocarbon gas (CFC) is released
Global Warming into the Earth`s atmosphere by:
Global warming is the warming up of the earth`s  Refrigerators
atmosphere caused by the increased accumulation of  Aerosol sprays
greenhouse gases that trap more heat from the sun.  Air conditioning
The greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide,
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 Manufacturing of foam mattresses  It damages soil fertility.

 It leads to death of lakes and aquatic animals.
CFCs are harmful gas that destroys ozone layer.  It destroys vegetation.
Then ultra-violet rays easily reaches the earth`s
surface. Ways of Preventing Acid Rain
 Use of clean source of energy.
Effects of Depletion of Ozone Layer  Use of efficient car engine that causes less air
 Increased cases of skin cancer due to ultra – pollution.
violet rays from the sun.  Making international agreements to end acid
 Suppression of human immunity system by rain.
being exposed to UV rays.
 Reduction in crop yield hence persistent Ways of Maintaining the Atmosphere
famine.  Planting trees (Afforestation and re –
Afforestation)
Acid Rain  Providing civic education on the importance of
This is the type of rain formed when car and keeping environment safe
industrial fumes are dissolved in rainwater to form  Conserving forest, water and soil resources
solutions of nitrous and nitrite acids.  Using more environment – friendly raw
materials
Effects of Acid Rain  Proper waste disposal
 It erodes statutes and buildings.  Establishing tree nurseries
 It lowers pH levels in the soil.

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UNIT 4

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Success criteria
Students must be able to:
 Explain the terms weather and climate
 Explain the elements of weathers
 Explain factors that affect elements of weather
 Identify instruments that affect elements of weather
 Interpret weather data and symbols

Weather refers to the daily condition of the  Rainfall gives life to plant and animals
atmosphere.

Climate Elements of weather

 Climate is the average weather condition of an  Precipitation (rain, dew, sleet, snow, hailstorm)
area observed over a long period of time. This  Temperature
may take up to about 30 years.  Air pressure
 Therefore, the study of climate and its impact  Cloud cover
on the Earth`s surface is called climatology.  Sunshine
 Humidity
Difference between weather and climate  Wind (speed/direction)
Weather Climate SUNSHINE
 Takes a short  Takes many years This is the light or amount of radiation received on
period of time (about 30 -40 the Earth`s surface from the sun.
 It is present years)
everyday  Depends on Factors that Affect Amount of Sunshine
 Affects specific whether after a  Cloud cover: it is very hot during clear skies
area long period. and cool during dense cloud cover.
 It is unpredictable  Affects a large  Aspect: it refers to the slope of the land in
area relation to the position of the sun. Therefore,
 It is predictable North – facing slopes in Southern Hemisphere
and South – facing slopes in Northern
Importance of Weather Hemisphere gets more sunlight than the
 Thick clouds help lowering temperature of the opposite sides.
place by preventing direct sun`s heat from  Latitude:
striking the Earth`s surface. Equatorial regions get more sunlight than Polar
 Amount of water vapour determines amount of Regions.
precipitation received in the area  Vegetative cover
 Water vapour regulates temperature by
absorbing, reflecting and scattering solar Temperature
radiation Temperature refers to the amount of heat or coldness
 Weather forecasting helps to plan for various in a place.
activities
 Temperature affects food, dress and type of Factors that Affect Temperature
houses human beings build  Cloud cover

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 Distance from the sea  There is high temperature in the Equatorial

 Altitude Region because there are equal days and night
 Latitude throughout the year.
 Aspect  In temperate region there is high temperature in
 Prevailing wind summer because days are longer than nights.
 Ocean currents
 Length of the day Altitude
 Vegetative cover
 Human activities

Cloud cover
 Dense clouds reduce sun`s heat during the day
and keeps warm at night. Clouds absorb the Altitude is the height above the sea level. At the sea
sun`s heat. level temperature increases with decrease in altitude.
 On the other hand, during clear skies day In winter, nights are longer than days which results
temperature is very due to direct sun`s heat in low very temperatures.
reaching the Earth`s surface while it is cool at
night. In the diagram above, temperature is very low at
point D while at point A there is very high
Distance from the sea temperature.
Temperature near the sea is high and low
temperature away from the sea. This is because Aspect
water absorbs and retains sun`s heat for long hours This is the slope of the land in relation to the
as compared to land. Land absorbs heat and loses it position of the overheard sun. Land that slopes
very rapidly. northwards in Southern Hemisphere is warmer than
land that slopes southwards.
Latitude On the other hand, in Northern Hemisphere land that
 There is high temperature in Lower Latitudes slopes southwards gets warmer than land that slopes
(Tropics) than in Higher Latitudes (Poles). northwards.
 This is determined by the position of the sun
and the distance of the sun`s rays before Prevailing Winds
striking the Earth`s surface. The temperature of wind is mainly dependent on its
 The sun`s rays reach Equatorial region at a right area of origin and the surface over which it blows.
angle hence increased intensity. On the Poles  Wind that blows from cold region lowers
the sun`s rays are received at an acute angle temperature of the area to which it blows. On the
where intensity of heat is very low. other hand, wind that blows from hot region is
 In the figure below, there more intense heating warm.
at A than at B and C. As a result, temperature is  Winds that blow over a warm area are also
higher at A than a B and C. warmed. Winds that blow over cold area are
cool.

Vegetative cover
Bare ground is very hot during the day while
forested area is very cool because trees prevent
direct sun`s heat from hitting the ground.

Ocean Currents
Length of the Day Cold ocean currents lower temperature on the
western coasts while eastern coasts have high

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temperatures due to nearness to warm ocean smaller given areas shown in the diagram
currents. bellow:

Human Activities
a. Carbon dioxide released from car exhausts and
industries raise atmospheric temperature that
creates global warming.
b. Land structures such as tarmac and buildings
absorb the sun`s heat that raise temperature in Rotation of the earth
the Earth`s atmosphere. Air thrown away from the poles spreads and
occupies larger surface area in the Equatorial region
Atmospheric pressure thereby reducing its pressure.
It is the weight of air at any point on the Earth`s The air that goes back to the poles from the
surface. This averages up to 1 kg/cm2. Equatorial region occupies shorter latitudes and gets
concentrated on a small space. This increases air
Factors that Affect Air Pressure pressure.
 Temperature
 Rotation of the Earth
 Altitude
 Wind speed

Factors that influence air pressure

 Altitude
Altitude is the height above the sea level. Air
pressure decreases with an increase in altitude.
Air at the ground level is heavier than it is
higher up above the earth‟s surface. Air
molecules are concentrated at the low ground
creating high pressure while air molecules are Instruments that measure elements of weather
scattered in highlands causing low pressure. Air  Maximum & minimum thermometer or six`s
pressure at the sea level is higher than that at thermometer for measuring the daily maximum
the top of the mountain. For example, at the sea and minimum temperature.
is 1000mb while on top of Mulanje mountain is  A rain gauge for measuring rainfall.
less than that.  A hygrometer or wet & dry bulb thermometer
for measuring humidity.
 An aneroid and simple mercury barometer for
measuring air pressure.
 Wind vane and wind sock for showing wind
direction.
 Cup counter anemometer for measuring wind
speed.
 Campbell Stoke sunshine recorder for recording
duration of sunshine
 Temperature  The Gunn Bellan radiometer or sunshine
Air pressure decreases as temperature increases integrator for measuring intensity of sunshine.
because molecules spread out over a larger area.  Evaporation pan or tank and piche evaporimeter
The reverse is that air pressure increases as for measuring the rate of evaporation.
temperature decreases because molecules fill
A weather station

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This is a place where elements of weather are  Its roof must be made of double boarding to
measured. prevent sun`s heat from reaching the box.
A good weather station should be sited on the  It should have a sloping roof in order to allow
following places: water to drain off.
 It should be on an open and spacious ground far  One side must be hinged and act as a door.
from tall trees and buildings. Trees intercept
rain drops from reaching rain gauge. Trees and Thermometers
tall buildings also act as a wind break. Hence
wrong results.
 Relatively flat or gently sloping ground
 It should not be a concrete surface to avoid in –
splashes back into the rain gauge. Concrete
ground also absorbs more heat from heat from It is a narrow glass tube which is graduated and
the sun which can give false information to the contains liquid called mercury.
instruments It has a metal index.
 It should be well fenced and gated to prevent
vandalism by animals and theft. When temperature rise, mercury expands and pushes
mercury up the tube. When temperature is low,
A Stevenson screen mercury contracts and drops and leaves the metal
index behind.

 It is a narrow glass tube which is graduated and

contains liquid called alcohol. It records the
daily minimum temperatures.
 It has also a metal index.
 When temperature falls, the alcohol contracts
and its curved end called meniscus pulls the
index down along the tube. When temperature
rises, the alcohol expands and flows past the
A Stevenson screen is a wooden box found at a indicator.
weather station that holds instruments for measuring  The minimum temperature is obtained by
elements of weather, more especially thermometers, reading the scale near the meniscus as shown in
E.g. six`s thermometer, barometer and hygrometer. the figure below.

Properties of a Stevenson screen Six`s thermometer or Maximum & minimum

 It should be louvered to allow free circulation of thermometer
air inside the box.
 It is made up of wood to prevent absorption and
conduction of heat.
 It should be painted white to reflect sunlight.
 It should face away from direct sun light to
prevent direct sunlight from entering the box.
 It should be placed at 121cm above the ground
in order to prevent the ground heat from
reaching the box.

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This is the difference between maximum and

minimum temperatures. You subtract maximum
temperature from minimum temperature of the
day.

Formula:
= (maximum – minimum) temperature
= 370C – 130C
= 240C

 Mean monthly temperature

 It is a U – shaped glass tube which is graduated It is the average temperature for the month. It is
and filled with mercury and alcohol. calculated by obtaining the mean daily
 When temperature rises, alcohol in the left limb temperature for all the days of the month.
expands and while mercury in the right limb
vaporizes and occupies space in the conical Formula:
bulb.
 As alcohol expands in the left limb, it pushes
the mercury downwards, which then rises
upwards in the right limb, as it pushes the metal
index.  Mean annual temperature
 When temperature falls, the alcohol vapour in This is the average temperature for the year.
the conical bulb in the right limb turns into
liquid and pushes the mercury downwards The steps for calculating mean annual temperature is
towards the left limb. At the same time, the a follows:
alcohol in left limb contracts allowing mercury a. Calculating the daily mean temperature
to flow up. b. Calculating the mean monthly temperature
c. Obtain the sum of the monthly temperature for
NB: the minimum temperature is obtained in the 12 months.
early hours of the day, around 5am and 6am while d. Divide the sum by 12 to obtain the mean annual
maximum temperature is recorded in the afternoon, temperature
around 2pm.
Example:
For example, maximum temperature = 37 C and 0 Mean annual temperature range for Salima in 0C
minimum temperature = 130C
Annual temperature range
 Mean (average) daily temperature It is the difference between the highest and the
The sum of the minimum and maximum lowest temperature of the month.
temperatures is divided by 2.
How to Calculate Annual Temperature Range
Formula:  Calculate mean monthly temperatures for 12
months
=
 Calculate the annual range of temperature by
subtracting the lowest mean monthly
= temperatures from the highest mean monthly
temperature of the year.
= 250C
Presentation of Temperature Records
 Diurnal (daily) temperature range There are many ways of presenting temperature data
such as using
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 Simple linear graphs F. Large cloud cover shows high humidity whereas
 Maps: temperature is represented by means of clear skies show that low humidity.
isotherms. Isotherms are lines drawn on a G. Atmospheric pressure
weather map that show places of the same  High atmospheric pressure leads to low
temperature humidity because when air molecules
contract the volume of air reduces as it has
Humidity less absorbs less amount of water vapour.
It refers to the amount of water vapour in the  While low air pressure leads to high
atmosphere. It is also defined as the degree of humidity because air molecules expand
dampness in the air. enabling it to absorb more moisture.
Absolute humidity refers to the actual amount of
water vapour of a given volume of air at a particular Measurement of Humidity
temperature.
Wet bulb thermometer is covered by a muslin
Relative humidity refers to the ratio between cloth which is dipped in the container filled with
absolute humidity of a given mass of air and the liquid, mercury which moistens the cloth.
maximum amount of water vapour that air could Evaporation takes place on the cloth.
hold at a given temperature.
Dry bulb thermometer has no muslin cloth in order
Water vapour condenses in the atmosphere upon to assist giving the amount of water vapour in the
reaching a dew point (a low temperature that allows atmosphere by subtracting its value from that of the
condensation to take place). Condensation of water wet bulb thermometer.
vapour results in the formation of clouds, rain,
snow, fog, frost and dew. How hygrometer works
 Water evaporates from a muslin cloth when
Factors that Affect Humidity there is less amount of water vapour in the
A. Temperature atmosphere. This cools a wet bulb thermometer
High temperature leads to more evaporation that and causes mercury to contract showing smaller
increases the amount of water vapour in the reading than that of a dry bulb thermometer.
atmosphere. Temperature of dry bulb thermometer is not
High temperature causes air to expand in the affected.
atmosphere that helps it absorbing more water  If air is saturated (100% full of moisture)
vapour. humidity may not take place and both readings
B. Latitude remain the same.
Humidity is higher in Equatorial regions because
there is a high rate of evaporation that increase Conclusion
amount of water vapour in the atmosphere than  Large difference shows low humidity
in the Polar region where there is very low  Small difference shows high humidity
evaporation rate.  No difference represents that air is saturated
C. Amount of dust in the atmosphere
Amount of water dust in the air encourage the Hygrometer
formation of clouds as small water molecules It is an instrument for measuring humidity which is
cling around them to form water droplets. kept in a Stevenson screen. It is also called a wet
D. Distance from the sea and dry bulb thermometer.
The coastal areas have relative humidity where
water vapour is constantly being added into the
atmosphere due to high evaporation rate. On the
other hand, the interior of the continents have
low humidity.
E. Cloud cover

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 Inside the instrument is a metal box which

contains very little air and a spring inside to
prevent it from collapsing.
 The lid of the box is flexible so that it goes up
and down slightly when there is any change in
the atmospheric pressure.
 This movement is transferred by the system of
levers to a pointer or a hand which moves
across a scale on the top of the instrument.
Measurement of air pressure  When air pressure rises, the box lid bends
Air pressure is measured using an instrument called inwards and a pointer goes up to higher
barometer. There two types of barometers known as readings. When air pressure is low, the box
simple mercury barometer and aneroid expands and the arrow goes down to lower
barometer. numbers.

Simple Mercury Barometer

 It is a glass tube which graduated in centimeters
or inches and filled with liquid, mercury. Wind Direction
 A tube is dipped in an open jar containing
mercury. Mercury flows out of the tube into the
container until its column is balanced with by
the atmospheric pressure exerted on it. Mercury
is responsive to the atmospheric pressure.
 When air pressure is higher, its weight is
exerted on the mercury in the jar and it to rise
 It is measured using wind vane and wind sock.
up in the tube indicting high air pressure.
 It is made up of a horizontal and freely rotating
arm fixed on a vertical iron bar standing firmly
on the ground.
 The arrow points towards the source direction of
the wind.
 A wind vane is raised to a height of 10 metres
above the ground where there is little friction.

Wind sock

Aneroid Barometer

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 It consists of a pole tied with a bag – like cloth fixed on vertical metal bar at a height of 10m
which is closed at one end and open at the other. above the ground. The cups rotate freely as the
 A bag is tied to a pole at a height of 10 metres wind blows. When wind is stronger, the cups
above the ground. rotate very fast and the speed (kilometer per
 The open end faces the direction of wind. Wind hour) of rotations is indicated on the
socks are common at the airports. speedometer.

Recording Wind Direction Anemometer is also used for measuring the distance
A wind rose is used for recording the direction of covered by wind in the particular direction per hour.
wind of a particular place in each month. It consists
of eight compass directions. Each line represents a
day or date in a month when wind blew from a given
direction. For example, the winds mostly come from Wind distance = speed X time
the south eastern direction, known as the south Instead of anemometer, wind speed can be given by
easterly trade wind. observing the speed of other objects which are being
pushed by wind.

Factors for Determining the Speed of Wind

 Barometric gradient or pressure gradient

 Barometric gradient is the rate at which air
pressure changes between two points. This
provides a force that pushes air from a
region of high pressure to a region of low
pressure. It determines the strength and
The number (5) at the centre represents calm days. direction of wind.
These are days without strong winds.  Closely spaced isobars indicate high
pressure gradient where there a sudden
Cup Counter Anemometer change in pressure air pressure, thus wind
 It is used for measuring wind speed. speed is so high.
 It is made of three or four cups fixed on iron
arms that rotate freely. Iron arms are firmly

 Widely spaced isobars represent low pressure This is the force created by the Earth`s rotation that
gradient where wind speed is very low. deflects the freely moving bodies, such as wind and
water.
Coriolis force or geostrophic force
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 Wind is deflected to the right in Northern Friction

Hemisphere and the left in Southern Hemisphere 1. Wind speed on land surfaces is slower than on
due to differences in velocity of the Earth`s water because of many obstacles such as trees
rotation between the latitudes. Velocity of the and relief features.
Earth`s rotation gradually decreases from 2. Land features also cause wind to change
1600km/hr at the Equator to zero at the Poles. direction as they act as a wind break.

Scale Wind Speed Wind Description Observable Effects of Wind

Number (Km/hr)

0 0 Calm Smoke rises vertically

1 1–3 Light air smoke drifts Wind direction shown by the way
2 4–6 Light breeze Rustling leaves
Wind is felt on face
Wind vane moves
3 7 – 10 Gentle breeze Light flags blow out
Twigs and leaves move constantly
4 11 – 16 Moderate Dust and loose paper blow about
Small breeze branches are moved
5 17 – 21 Fresh breeze surface Small trees sway
Crested waves form on water
6 22 – 27 Strong breeze Whistling on telegraph wires
Large tree branches move
Umbrellas get blown
7 28 – 33 Moderate gale Tree trunks sway
Difficult to walk against the wind
8 34 – 40 Fresh gale Twigs are broken off from the trees
9 41 – 47 Strong gale Light damage to buildings
10 48 – 55 Whole gale Trees uprooted
Buildings are destroyed
11 56 – 63 Storm General and widespread destruction
12 64 Hurricane Massive destruction

Campbell Stokes Sunshine Recorder  This is an instrument which is used for

measuring the duration, hours and minutes of
sunlight for a particular day.
 It is made up of a T – shaped metal base
standing 4 feet above the ground with three
holes on it.
 A sub – base is screwed on top of the metal so
that it can be leveled and also rotated through a
small angle in the horizontal plane. Sub – base is
locked in position by circular nuts.

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 The instrument is located in a place that receives

sunshine throughout the day and all round the Measurement of rainfall
year.  Rainfall is measured by an instrument called
 It has three sets of grooves on its inner face rain gauge.
which carry three different sensitive cards for
recording sunshine duration for different times
of the year, that when the sun is at the Equator,
another one when the sun is in the Southern
Hemisphere and the third when the sun is in the
Northern Hemisphere. The card is graduated in
hours and minutes.
 A glass tube focuses the sun`s rays which burn
the traces along the card as the sun moves. The
unburnt sections show that the sun`s rays were
blocked by the clouds.
 An instrument records the number of hours  Rain gauge consists of several components:
and minutes of sunshine received in an area  An outer hollow cylinder of sheet metal with an
per day. open upper end and lower end that slopes
` outwards, widening at the bottom.
Gunn – Bellan Radiometer  A metal cylindrical can covered with a lid that
 It is an instrument used for measuring the has a narrow opening and is fitted with a wire
amount of radiation received in a particular time. handle.
 An instrument consists of a black hole copper  A funnel which measures four inches (11cm)
sphere sealed to the end of a burette tube. The from the rim and five inches (12.8cm) in
tube extends a considerable distance inside the diameter is fitted on the cylinder.
copper sphere thus allowing about 40ml of  A bottle with a narrow neck (collecting jar) is
distilled water to be retained within a sphere. Air placed inside the inner can.
in the sphere and burette is reduced to about one  The funnel tube enters the bottle through the
third of the normal pressure. small opening in the cover of a can. The lid
 Solar radiation that falls on the sphere is cover and the small hole reduce loss of water
absorbed and raises temperature of the water through evaporation.
inside the blackened copper to its boiling point
about 700C under reduced pressure. Vapour Properties of a Rain Gauge
flows down the burette tube and condenses on  It should be 305mm above the ground and
the sides. The amount of water transferred by the firmly fastened in order to rainfall splashes into
distilling at any given period of time is a the rain gauge from the ground.
measure of the amount of radiation received in  It should be sited away from the trees and
that time. buildings because these intercept raindrops from
 The sphere and the top part of the burette are reaching the rain gauge
enclosed in a vacuum glass bulb to reduce heat
transfer to or from the sphere by conduction or How Rainfall is measured
convection.  Firstly remove the funnel
 The whole instrument is mounted upright within  The rain collected in a glass jar is the emptied
a cylinder sunk into the ground to keep the lower into a graduated cylinder which is 3.8cm
end of the burette tube cool. A rim of the  Reading is done at an eye – level
cylindrical housing should be 1cm.  It is tapered in order to avoid loss of water
 The instrument should be exposed in an open through evaporation
place where it will receive the sun`s rays
throughout the day and year. Grass should An Automatic Rain gauge
constantly be mowed and kept short.
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 It consists of a drum and a clock. It shows time  Mean monthly rainfall: this is the average
and the amount of rainfall received in the area. rainfall for a particular month
 A rise of water levels in the drum clauses a float  Total annual rainfall: the sum of the total
to rise. This causes an attached pen to plot a amount of rainfall received in the area in a year.
graph of rainfall against time. When the  Mean annual rainfall: total average rainfall
chamber is full, it tilts and water pours out. received in a place per a year.

Factors that Lead to Inaccurate Data Recorded Presenting Rainfall Data

from All Instruments Methods of presenting rainfall data are:
 Locating instruments in a wrong place, e.g.  Using graphs known as histograms
near trees  Using weather maps. Lines drawn on a weather
 Human error such as: map that join places of the same amount of
 Making incorrect reading and recording rainfall are called isohyets.
 Inconsistent reading and recording of data
 Inaccuracy in calculating the raw data in the Calculating Rainfall Conditions
course of converting it into standard form.
 Defects of measuring instruments  Rainfall intensity
 Use of substandard measuring instruments that
leads to recording wrong data
 Poor maintenance of instruments
 Interference of instruments by people and  Annual rainfall total = monthly totals added
animals  Effective rainfall = rainfall – evaporation =
water grain
Calculating and Analysing Rainfall Data
 Daily rainfall totals Rainfall Descriptions
Ti is the amount of rainfall collected by a rain  Over 1500mm – very high
gauge at a particular weather station  1000mm – 1500mm – high
 Total monthly rainfall  500mm – 1000mm – moderate
It is obtained by adding the total rainfall figures  250mm – 500mm – light
for a period of one month.  Below 250mm – very light
 Mean monthly rainfall
You add all the monthly totals for the year (12 Alternative Descriptions of Rainfall
months) and divide it by 12  1500mm – very wet
 Total annual rainfall  1000mm – 1500mm – wet
This is monthly rainfall totals for the 12 months  750mm 1000mm – moderately wet
in a year are added to come up with total annual  250mm – 750mm dry
rainfall.  Below 250mm – very dry
 Mean annual rainfall
It is the average rainfall of the place plus annual Factors that Determine the Amount of Rainfall
rainfall totals collected for a period of 15 years Received in the Area
and divide the sum by 15 years.
a. Prevalent Wind Direction
Recording and Analysing Rainfall Data  Winds that blow from cold region to a warm
The amount of rainfall collected can used to region do not bring rainfall. On the other
calculate the following: hand, winds from a warm region towards a
 Daily rainfall totals: amount of rainfall cool region bring a lot of rainfall.
collected in a day.  The region where the Trade Winds meet is
 Total monthly totals; Sum of the daily rainfall called the Inter- Tropical Convergence
for the month

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Zone (ITCZ). ITCZ brings cyclonic or collecting weather data from different weather
frontal rainfall in Malawi during summer. stations
 On – shore wind carry moisture from the sea  Some of the activities carried out by the
and bring rainfall onto the land. Off – meteorologists at a weather station are:
shore wind brings little or no rainfall.  Observing and measuring temperature and
atmospheric pressure at different levels of the
b. Relief or Altitude atmosphere by the use of balloons which relay
Mountains lead to the formation of relief rainfall information in the form of radio sounds
on the windward side. Warm moist wind that  Interpreting space satellite photographs relayed
rises over the mountain is cooled and condenses to ground satellites through remote sensing,
to form clouds that fall down as rainfall. The  Producing weather maps on computers to
other side of the mountain that has little or no display various weather patterns on local,
rainfall is known as leeward side or rain regional and international levels.
shadow.  Analysing data from various weather stations in
the country.
c. Ocean currents
Areas adjacent to cold ocean currents receive Other Advanced Weather Equipment
little or no rainfall, whereas regions adjacent to a. Balloons
warm ocean currents receive a lot of rainfall.  They are sent every day from weather
Cold ocean currents prevent the formation of stations to the upper atmosphere. They are
rainfall. attached to a box called radiosonde which
carries various instruments, such as
d. Vegetation thermistar and aneroid barometer.
 Vegetation adds water into the atmosphere  Thermistar, aneroid barometer and other
through the process of transpiration. instruments are used for measuring
 Vegetation also prevents global warming by temperature, humidity, wind speed and
reducing amount of carbon dioxide from direction.
the air through photosynthesis.  Radiosonde also carries radio transmitters
which automatically send signals to a
e. Global warming receiving station on the ground until the
Global warming refers to an average increase in balloon bursts.
atmospheric temperature which in turn
negatively affects rainfall patterns. As air is b. Satellites
heated, it expands increasing its water holding They are used for transmitting global weather
capacity. In this case no more condensation may information. There are two main types of
take place. Therefore, global warming prevents satellites namely polar orbiting satellites and
condensation. geostationary satellite.
f. Latitude Polar Orbiting Satellites
There are more rains in the Equatorial regions  They orbit around the Earth and send back
than Polar Regions. All this is because there is information which is inform of clouds,
high temperature in the Equatorial regions that storms, temperature and other weather
creates a lot of evaporation. elements.
 Landsat satellites send information on land
Weather forecasting use while meteosat sends information on
 It is an application of current technology and cloud cover.
science to predict the state of atmosphere for a
particular period of time. Accurate weather data
is obtained considering many variables, such as

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Geostationary Satellite and winds. These may influence people`s

a. They are satellites which are set on the Earth`s choice of activities and type of food and
surface to receive information from the satellites clothing.
in space.
b. The photographs taken by the satellites are then Types of Climates
used at the weather stations for weather  Equatorial Climate
forecasting.  Monsoon Climate
c. They also provide information for mapping land  Savanna Climate
use, plotting water temperatures in oceans or  Hot Desert Climate
making location of icebergs. The images of the  Mediterranean Climate
photographs are recorded electronically  Tundra Climate
Other Important Data Collecting Tools Factors that Affect Climates
 Radar: they are used for determining the a. Latitude:
location of storms and other forms of Temperature and rainfall in Equatorial Regions
precipitation which may lead to undesirable are very high while Polar Regions have low
weather conditions. temperature with little or no rainfall.
 Computers: they are used for collecting data
from satellites. b. Aspect
Aspect refers to the slope of the land in relation
Importance of Weather Forecasting to the position of the sun. In southern
 In aviation weather information helps to ensure hemisphere, the slope that faces north gets more
safe takeoff and landing of aeroplanes heat from the sun than the one that faces south.
 It helps farmers to plan their activities properly On the other hand, the slope that faces south in
 It helps people to choose proper dressing for the northern hemisphere gets more heat from the sun
day than the one that faces north. This means that
 It helps in guiding tourists slopes that face opposite directions have
 It helps in planning and timing sporting different climates.
activities
 It assists the military to plan their activities, e.g. c. Distribution of Mountain Barriers
when landing a bomb. The opposite sides of the mountain have
 It helps to prepare for climatic disasters like different climates. The side of the mountain that
floods. faces rain bearing wind receives relief rain.
 It helps fishermen to determine the movement This is called a windward side. Warm moist
and migration of fish. wind that rises over the mountain is cooled and
 It helps to design suitable housing. condenses to form clouds that fall down as
 It provides sailors with information on rainfall. The other side of the mountain that has
condition of the sea in order to avoid dangerous little or no rainfall is known as leeward side or
storms rain shadow.

Climate d. Continentality or Distance from the Sea:

 Climate refers to an average weather condition Coastal areas are hotter than those areas in the
experienced in the area over a long period of interiors of the continents. Water absorbs and
time. retains more heat from the sun than land. That is
why coastal areas are hotter than places way
 Areas with the same climate are called climatic
from the sea.
regions or climatic zones. Climatic zones can
be in the same latitudes and similar positions
(same continent).
 Each climatic zone is characterized by prevalent
weather conditions such as temperature, rainfall
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e. Wind Direction:  Shire Valley and Lakeshore areas have highest

On–shore winds carry moisture from the sea and temperatures.
bring rainfall to the land. Where winds are off-  Lowest temperatures are recorded in high
shore there is little or no rain fall. plateau areas of Mulanje, Zomba, Dedza, Nyika
plateau, Vipysa Plateau and Misuku Hills.
The Climate of Malawi  Moderate temperatures are experienced in
The climate of Malawi is Tropical Continental or Mulanje, Zomba, Dedza, Nyika plateau, Vipysa
savanna climate. The climate of Malawi is Plateau and Misuku Hills.
described in terms of temperature and rainfall
distribution Rainfall Distribution in Malawi
 Annual rainfall in Malawi ranges from
700mm to 2400mm with average annual
rainfall of about 1180mm.
 Highest rainfall is experienced in high
altitude and mountain areas of Mulanje,
Zomba, Dedza, Nyika plateau, Vipysa
Plateau and Misuku Hills.
 Lowest rainfall is recorded in Lakeshore and
Shire Valley areas.
 Moderate rainfall is experienced in Mulanje,
Zomba, Dedza, Nyika plateau, Vipysa
Plateau and Misuku Hills.

Causes of Climate Change

Natural causes
 Volcanic eruptions
Volcanism release large amounts of sulphur
dioxide, water vapour, dust and ash which absorb
the sun`s heat and raise atmospheric temperature.
 Movement of some parts of the Erath
Geological activities lead to formation of
mountains that influence climate. Earth`s
movement also cause displacement of land
surface in relation to latitudes which in turn
cause climate change.
 Shifting of the Earth’s Poles
The geographical locations of the Earth`s North
and South Poles constantly change due to
changes in the planet`s molten core. The
shifting of the pole`s position also changes the
locations of some regions in relation to
Temperature Distribution in Malawi latitudes, thus leading to climate change of
 The main annual minimum and maximum those regions.
temperatures for Malawi range from 120C to
320C. The highest temperatures are experienced Human causes
at the end of October and early November.  Burning fossil fuels
Thereafter, rainfall modifies temperature in This releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
winter. and other gases which trap the sun`s heat and
cause global warming. Global warming creates
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drought conditions since it prevents  Extreme weather events such as severe floods,
condensation. droughts and tropical cyclone
 Deforestation  Melting of ice in Arctic and Antarctic seas
It leads to largest concentration of carbon due to rising temperature causes flooding in
dioxide that would be used by vegetation coastal areas.
through photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is a  Changing sea levels due to global warming
green house gas which causes global warming. swamps some coastal towns.
 Increased agricultural activities
Cattle farming leads to increased amount of Climate Change in Malawi
methane in the atmosphere. Climate in Malawi has brought about a lot of
In addition to that, land clearing to open up a environmental problems such as drought, frequent
farm land leads to largest accumulation of floods, strong winds and landslides.
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.  Droughts results in crop failure and food
 Urbanization insecurity.
Growth of towns leads to deforestation as all  Frequent floods because of intense rainfall
the vegetation is cleared for construction of results into destruction of property and death of
infrastructures such as roads and buildings. people.
In industries and concrete surfaces absorb and  Strong winds damage crops and buildings.
release large amount of heat that causes global  Landslides destroy property, land, water
warming. resources and life.
 Rapid population growth
It causes pollution. It also creates high pressure Possible Solutions to Climate Change
on forest resources, leading to deforestation and  Reduce emission of greenhouse gases by using
then global warming. alternatives to fossil fuels, e.g. using
hydroelectricity and biogas for cooking.
Effects of Climate Change  Protecting endangered species and wetlands.
 Disruption of ecological systems; drought  Proper waste disposal
conditions lead to extinction of some plant and  Recycling and reusing some waste products
animal species  Establishing strict laws and heavy penalties for
 Scarcity of food and water due to the absence non – environmental friendly actions by
of water that encourage plant growth. companies and industries.
 Diseases  Conducting public awareness campaigns on the
Rising temperatures leads to spreading of causes and effects of climate change.
disease like malaria.

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UNIT 6

BIOSPHERE
Success criteria
Students must be able to:
1. Describe the term biosphere
2. Explain the components of biosphere
3. Explain the importance of biosphere
4. Describe problems affecting biosphere
5. Suggest ways of maintaining biosphere

In Greek, ‘bios’ means life and ‘sphania’ means  It filters ultraviolet rays, preventing it from
sphere. Therefore, biosphere refers to the layer of entering the Earth`s surface that could cause
the Earth where life exists. It ranges from the depths skin cancer.
of the oceans (more than 8km deep up to a height of  It determines weather conditions
more than 100km above the Earth`s surface where
some birds can fly. Hydrosphere
 This refer to the Earth`s water system. It is also
Biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems which defined as all the water on the Earth`s surface
is also known as a zone of life on Earth. found in rivers, lakes and seas.
Biospheres are any closed, self – regulating systems  Water of the hydrosphere forms a vast
containing ecosystems. circulating system like evaporation,
condensation and transpiration.
Therefore, ecosystem refers to the interconnections
or interrelationships of the atmosphere, lithosphere Functions of Hydrosphere
and hydrosphere that help to support life on the  Habitat of all aquatic species
Earth`s surface.  It allows plants to grow
 It is used for domestic and industrial purposes
Components of biosphere and their relationships
 Animals and people drink water
They are the atmosphere, hydrosphere and
lithosphere.
Lithosphere
 It is part of the Earth`s surface that contains
Atmosphere
rocks and soil. The rocks of the Earth`s
 It is a thin layer of gases that surround the
lithosphere are basalt and granite.
Earth`s surface.
 Soil together with water and air forms the basis
 About 95% of mass of air is concentrated in the
of terrestrial of life.
first 11km above the Earth
 Pollen grains, spores and other bacterial
Functions of the Lithosphere
materials occur up to the height of about 9km
 It provides essentials minerals which are useful
above the Earth`s surface
for the survival of living organisms.
 At sea level the proportions of the main gases
 It is habitat of animals
are 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 0.03, carbon
 It holds surface and underground water
dioxide.
 It holds and supports plants
 The greatest abundance of life in the
atmosphere is above the Earth`s surface.
Components of the biosphere and the circulation
of the materials in the ecosystem
Functions of the Atmosphere
 In the nutrients circulation, the components of
 It is used for metabolic processes such as
biosphere are producers, reducers and
respiration
consumers.

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Ways of maintaining biosphere

 Use of alternative sources of energy, e.g. using
hydroelectricity instead of firewood.
 Using more fuel – efficient cars that cause less
air pollution
 Protecting endangered plant and animal species
 Proper disposal of wastes to avoid polluting
water, air and soil.
 Reuse and recycle trash
 Reduce the use of resource in order to sustain
their utility to the environment
 These three components depend on the soil, air  Ban trade in products of endangered species.
or water. All biological activities rely on energy  Educate and engage communities in
of gross primary productivity, the energy bound conservation
of photosynthesis.
Methods of forest conservation
Importance of biosphere a. Afforestation and Reafforestation
 It provides plants with carbon dioxide for  Replanting the felled areas with young
photosynthesis. seedlings
 High levels of forests create higher  Planting trees in erosion prone areas, on
evapotranspiration that bring about rainfall roadsides and in erodible areas
 Plants produce oxygen for respiration in b. Providing public awareness to encourage tree
animals and people growing and conservation.
 Natural resources are source of raw materials c. The government should pass and enforce laws
for industrial development on forest conservation
 Water and vegetation create shelter for animals d. Developing countries should develop
 Vegetation is source of medicine alternative sources of energy such as solar,
 The past plants and marine organisms were hydroelectric power and biogas.
transformed into fossil fuels (coal and e. Communities should be advised to plant tree
petroleum) which provide energy for human species that regrow fast once cut, e.g. leucaena
needs. Petra means rock while oleum means and eucalyptus.
oil. Therefore Petroleum means oil from rocks. f. Practicing agroforestry
g. Planting tree species that have multiple uses
Problems affecting biosphere h. Establishment of demonstration farms that help
There are many human activities that destroy intensifying public awareness or civic education
biosphere such as:
 Setting extensive bushfire Importance of forest conservation and
 Deforestations management
 Poor waste disposal that causes pollution of  They help to maintain hydrological balance
environment through transpiration.
 Making settlement in coastal lands and river  They protect water catchment areas
bank  Controlling soil erosion
 Cultivating along river banks  They act as a windbreak, thus prevent wind
 Oil spills by leaking tankers erosion
 Excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides.  Forests reduce the impact of global warming by
 Poaching reducing levels of carbon dioxide from the
Earth`s atmosphere through photosynthesis.
 Overfishing

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UNIT 7

ENVIRONMENT
Success criteria
Students must be able to:
1. Explain the term environment
2. Identify components of environment
3. Classify components of environment
4. Explain how the components of the environment and the Earth are related
5. Explain the importance of various components of environment are related

The term environment refers to external conditions 3. Social Environment

that surround an organism. It includes people`s cultures,, communities and
institutions which individuals interact with.
Classification of Organisms in the Environment
Organisms in the environment are classified into  Economic Environment
three main groups namely: It includes all monetary resources and wealth.
 Biotic things (they include humans, other
animals and plants). Classification of Environment
 Life support systems (water, soil, air, light and Environment is classified into natural and
energy) artificial.
 Man – made things (buildings, roads, bridges,
etc)

Ecosystem on the other hand refers to the

interrelationship and interdependence of all living
and non – living organisms within the environment.
This means that when one area of ecosystem is
disturbed, the rest is also affected in the way.
Ecology on the other hand refers to the study of
ecosystem and their habitat.

Components of natural environment and their

relationships
1. Natural Environment Importance of components of environment
It is divided into the following categories: Plants
a. Abiotic components  Forests are source of raw materials, e.g. timber
Hydrosphere (water on the Earth) for making furniture
Lithosphere (soil and rocks)
 Herbs are source of medicine
Atmosphere (gases)
 Vegetation purifies air through photosynthesis
b. Biotic components
c. Biosphere (living organism)  Vegetation provides habitat of wildlife
 Vegetation provides humans aromatic
2. Man - made Environment fragrances and oils which are used for making
It involves all constructed features such as perfumes and body lotions
buildings, roads, bridges, airports and park.  Vegetation covers and protects soil from being
eroded

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 Plants ensure water quality by holding  It offers many recreational activities

sediments and filter pollutants before dirty  It is used for generation of hydroelectricity
water joins the main water body. Air
 It is used for respiration by breathing oxygen
Land and breathing out carbon dioxide.
 It is used for agriculture  It is source of wind energy
 It is source of minerals worth mining  It enables air and aeroplane to fly in the air
 It provides soil and space for construction of  Oxygen is used for combustion of fuels.
buildings Combustion produces energy used for cooking,
 It provides people with space to construct roads, lighting and driving locomotives
bridges, railway lines and ports.  Air promotes plant growth through
 It is where industries are constructed photosynthesis that aids food manufacturing in
 It is home of variety of plant and animal species plants
 It is used for inflating tyres of bicycles and
Water vehicles.
 It is used for domestic purposes such as
cooking, drinking and washing Animals
 Water is required in industries for the  They are sources of nutritious food to humans
manufacturing of goods  They help people by working in their gardens
 It is habitat of aquatic animals, e.g. fish and  They are source of raw materials, e.g. animal
hippos. skins are used for making belts
 Water promotes plant growth in agriculture  Horses are used for sporting activities
 It is source of water transport by ships and  Farm animals are source of people`s livelihood
boats

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UNIT 8

ECOSYSTEM

Success criteria
Students must be able to:
1. Explain the term ecosystem
2. Explain the components of ecosystem
3. Describe how components of ecosystem are interrelated
4. Describe factors that disturb ecosystem
5. Explain ways of disturbing ecosystem
6. Explain the importance of ecosystem

Ecosystem refers to a community of living These are categorized into the following
organisms in conjunction with the non – living categories:
components of their environment which interact as a 3. Primary or first order consumers
system. They are all herbivores such as rabbits, elephants,
Ecosystem is also defined as the interrelationship of cattle, goats and deer.
living and non – living organisms within the 4. Secondary or second order consumers
environment. This means that when one area of They include small carnivores like snakes, cats,
ecosystem is disturbed, the rest is also affected in the fox and dogs
way. 5. Tertiary or third order consumers
Ecology on the other hand refers to the study of They are larger carnivores like wolves and
ecosystem and their habitat. hyenas.
Biotic and abiotic factors are linked together through 6. Quaternary or fourth order consumers
nitrogen cycles and energy flows. Ecosystems are They are largest carnivores such as lions,
defined by the network of interactions among the alligators, tiger and humans.
organisms and between organisms and their 7. Decomposers or reducers (saprotrophs)
environment. They are organisms that feed on dead bodies.
They include bacteria and protozoa. These
Components of ecosystem organisms are important because they break
Abiotic Biotic down dead materials that release important
Sunlight Primary producers nutrients needed by plants to grow.
Temperature Herbivores
Precipitation Carnivores Interdependence of organisms in an ecosystem
Water or moisture Omnivores Organisms depend on each other in ecosystem in the
Soil or water chemistry Detritivores food chain or food web
(E.g. P, NH4+)
Food Chain
Biotic components Food chain is a series of organisms each dependent
1. Producers or autotrophs on the next as a source of energy and nutrition in a
They are green plants which manufacture their biological community.
own food from simple raw materials like water,
air and mineral salts in the presence of sunlight The position of organisms in a food chain is called
through the process called photosynthesis. trophic level. There are fewer organisms in a higher
2. Consumers or heterotrophs trophic level. The decrease in the numbers represents
These obtain food from plants which include all the fact that, due to loss of energy, fewer organisms
animals, human beings and non – green plants can be supported at each successive level.
such as fungi.
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Energy Sun  Some forest ecosystems act as sponges,

intercepting rainfall and absorbing water
through root systems that prevents floods and
Producer Plants runoff.
 Dead organisms improve soil fertility by adding
humus into the soil
Primary consumer Herbivores, e.g.  Vegetation maintains quality of air by releasing
elephant oxygen through photosynthesis.
 Vegetation controls the run – off, thus
preventing soil erosion and silting
Secondary consumer Small carnivores, e.g.  Forest ecosystems are source of medicine and
lizard raw materials.
 Mountains and water provide recreation
activities, such a biking, hiking and swimming.
Tertiary consumer large carnivores, e.g.
Lion Factors that Disturb Ecosystems
 Deforestation
Food web
 Setting bushfires
It is a network of food chains which are
 Over – exploitation of natural resources such as
interdependent.
mineral.
Grasshopper Lizard  Rapid population growth which creates
increased pressure on natural resources.
 Causing air, water and land pollution
Grass Rabbit Hawk  Global warming.

Ways of Maintaining Ecosystems

Mouse Snake  Practicing afforestation and reafforestation
 Establishing forest reserve areas
Some consumers change positions in a food chain as  Organizing efforts to pick up debris from water
their diet differs. For example, as human beings eat resources
fruits, they become primary consumers. On the other  Using alternative energy resources
hand, humans become secondary consumers when  Preventing pollution by recycling and proper
they eat other animals. waste disposal
 Providing civic education on the conservation
Importance of Ecosystem of ecosystems.
 It provides food in their natural state (e.g. wild  Controlling rapid human population growth
fruits, fish, etc.) and in managed landscapes
(agriculture).
 Vegetation in ecosystem modifies climate by
releasing water vapour into the air and reduce
carbon dioxide which is a greenhouse gas.

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UNIT 9

NATURAL RESOURCES
Success criteria
Students must be able to
1. Explain the term natural resources
2. Explain the different types of natural resources
3. Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable resources
4. Explain how natural resources are mismanaged in Malawi

Natural resources  Deforestation

Natural resources are things provided by nature.  Overfishing
There are two main type of natural resources  Poor waste disposal
namely:  Use of obsolete technologies and practices in
1. Renewable resources land that lead to loss of soil and soil nutrients,
They are resources that replace themselves, e.g. including depletion of water resources
water, wind, vegetation, animals and sunlight  Rapid population growth and over – use of
2. Non-renewable resources various natural resources
They are resources that do not replace  Poaching that endanger that rare animal species,
themselves, e.g. rocks and minerals. such as elephants and rhinos whose horns and
tusks are at a very big demand.
Difference between renewable and non-  Large scale mining
renewable resources
 Lack of long term vision on how to make
proper use of natural resources
Renewable resources Non – renewable
 Overfishing
resources
They can be recycled They cannot be recycled
Effects of Mismanaging Natural Resources
 Declining quality and quantity of water
They cannot depleted by They can be depleted by
overuse, e.g. sunlight overuse  Land degradation and food insecurity
 Loss of biodiversity due to deforestation,
They cannot be exhausted They can be exhausted pollution and bushfire
 Increase in disease infections such as cholera
Importance of natural resources and cancer
 Minerals are source of income  Increased vulnerability to natural disasters such
 Vegetation and animals provide food as floods and frequent droughts
 They are source of raw materials  Insufficient hydroelectricity generation due to
 They are habitat for animals silting and drought conditions.
 They are source of energy
Ways for managing natural resources
 They attract tourists
 Protecting some endangered species like
 Air and water sustain life
hardwood trees, elephants, rhinos, sharks, etc.
 Controlling human activities in order to use the
Mismanagement of Natural Resources in Malawi
resources wisely so as to ensure no wastage.
There are certain human activities that lead to
 Recycling in order to reduce the amount of
mismanagement of natural resources in Malawi that
include: natural resources to be used every year. It also
prevents pollution.
 Pollution
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 Use of alternative sources of energy that do not  Improving energy efficiency and conservation.
pollute the environment. E.g. hydro-electricity,  Protecting and preserving areas which are
solar power, geothermal and wind energy. deemed environmentally fragile (such as steep
 Promotion of natural resources management, slope) by planting trees.
conservation and utilization in order to ensure  Rehabilitating degraded land in order to sustain
sustainable productivity of land and utility of land resources.
ecosystems.  Promoting community awareness,
 Putting in place waste disposal measures in understanding and initiatives in land resources
order to minimize land degradation and management to ensure sustainable utilization of
pollution. land resources

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UNIT 10

NATURAL DISASTERS
Success criteria
Students must be able to
1. Explain the term natural disaster
2. Differentiate natural disaster from natural hazards
3. Describe different types of natural disaster
4. Explain the effects of natural disaster
5. Explain the term risk management
6. Suggest ways of managing natural disaster

Disaster refers to any sudden hazard that causes There are factors that affect vulnerability which
injuries and death of people as well as destruction of include:
property.  Proximity to hazardous event
 The quality and state of buildings and their
Natural disasters are also defined as the location with respect to any hazards
consequences or events triggered by natural hazards  Population density in the area proximal to
that overwhelm local response capacity and hazardous events
seriously affect the social and economic  Public education and understanding of the
development of a region. For example, a cyclone is hazards
not a natural disaster if it does not affect habitable  People`s economic status
areas and attract human response. It becomes a  Existence and non – existence of early
natural disaster if affects settled areas and cause warning systems
damages, injuries and death of people.  People`s age, sex and health status
A natural disaster is a major adverse event that
The Main Categories of Disasters
results from natural processes of the Earth. They
a. Natural disasters
disasters include floods, earthquakes, volcanism, They are disasters which are caused by natural
landslides, avalanches, tsunamis. forces that include:
 Floods
Risk
 Storms or cyclones
A risk is a measure of the expected losses due to
hazardous events that occur in the area over a  Landslides
specific period of time. A risk depends on the  Earthquakes
following factors:  Volcanic eruptions
1. Nature of a hazard  Tsunamis
2. Vulnerability of the elements which are
affected. b. Man – made disasters
3. Economic value of those elements. They are disasters caused by human errors,
intent, negligence and as result of failed
Vulnerability is inability to withstand a hazard or to systems. They are:
respond to hazardous events.  Wars
Vulnerability is also the inability to take effective  Terrorism
action to insure against losses. This can also be  Transport and industrial accidents
explained as the degree to which a person is likely to
experience harm by being exposed to disruptions or
stress.
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Types of natural disasters slowly, but can affect the most of the
 Geologic or geomorphological Disasters continent and entire populations for months or
They are caused by the Earth`s movement even years.
such as earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides and  There are multiple hazards coming from
the tsunamis. These are difficult to predict. extreme weather event that occur once or in
 Atmospheric Disasters succession. For example, heavy rains bring
They are caused by bad weather conditions about flooding and mudslides. In temperate
that include tropical cyclones, tornadoes, latitudes, severe summer weather (thunder and
droughts, severe thunderstorms, lightening, lightning storms or tornadoes) is accompanied
extreme heat and cold. Although people by heavy hail and flash floods. Winter storms
cannot stop these, they can have some special with high winds and heavy snow or freezing
provision such as in terms of clothing and rain can also cause avalanches (ice that slides
special air conditioning systems to resist on mountain slopes), high run – off and
extreme temperatures. flooding...
 Water Related Disasters  All these are known as environmental
They are floods and mudslides, but they are hazards which are caused by natural
usually the consequences of extreme weather processes. Some hazards can also be caused
events. by human activities. Hazards caused by
Biological Disasters human activities include soil erosion, soil
These are caused by insect infestation degradation, pollution, and desertification and
(locusts), disease epidemic and other related epidemic diseases.
infections.
Risk
Natural disasters are also grouped into the following  Risk involves the likelihood of any action in
categories: life that may hurt and apply to the area of
a. Rapid Onset Disasters environmental decision making.
They develop with little warming and strike  Risk assessment involves the analysis of risk
rapidly (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, to determine the probabilities of an adverse
floods, landslides, severe thunderstorms, effect.
lightening and wildfires)  The use of facts and assumptions to estimate
the probability of harm to human health that
b. Slow Onset Disasters may result from exposure to specific toxic
They take time to develop (e.g. drought, insect agents is called risk management. Risk
infestation and disease epidemics). management helps people to make decisions
on how to evaluate and deal with such
Natural hazards occurrences very early.
 Natural hazards are severe and extreme
weather and climatic events that occur Effects of natural disasters
naturally in all parts of the world. An event
become a hazard when people`s lives and 1. Lightning
livelihoods are destroyed. This is a major This is a flash of light in the sky which is
barrier to economic development. caused by an electric current that flow
 Some of the notable natural hazards are between different clouds or between the
tornadoes, flash floods, droughts, tropical clouds and the ground. Lightnings mostly
storms, desert storms, cyclones, thunderstorms accompany convectional rainfall. Lightning
and lightning, blizzards and extreme that occur between the clouds does not cause
temperatures. any damage on Earth; but the one that forms
 Tornadoes and flash floods are short – lived, between the clouds cause a great deal of
violent events that affect relatively a small damage, such as fire on trees and houses,
area. On the other hand, droughts develop
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falling of trees, loss of people`s lives and Effects of Cyclone

injuries due to burns.  Floods and landslides
One common type of lightning is known as  Destruction of farm land and homes.
forked lightning because a single streak of
lightning can break into several branches or 5. Waterspouts
streaks. This is very dangerous.  These are a funnel – shaped mass of water
which occurs on the oceans or lakes
2. Windstorms where there is localized heating. Its
 These are the strong and fast moving formation resembles that of a tornado.
winds that destroy objects on the way.  Water is lifted in the air up to a height
 Dust devil or whirl wind is a local swirl several meters above the sea level whose
of wind which collects a lot of dust from sprays move swiftly over the land surface.
the ground. Ti forms a funnel shape at the  When sprouts reach the land, they become
top. tornadoes. This means they are sprouts
 Whirl wind is caused the strong when they are on water and tornadoes
convection currents formed by localized when they are on land. For example, Lake
heating of the land. Victoria experiences sprouts.
 The effects of storms are death of people
and blowing off of rooftops. Effects of Sprouts
 Destruction of crops and buildings on the
3. Harmattan Winds coast
This is a hot, dry and dusty wind that  Capsizing of small boats on the lake.
originates from the Sahara desert onto the
Coast of Guinea. It forms a thick cloud of dust. 6. Tornadoes
It is a very destructive wind that develops over
Effects the land. It moves at a very high speed of about
 Dust causes poor visibility 330km/hr causing a lot of damage. The winds
 It causes breathing problems are common in the Mississippi Valley in USA.
 It damages cocoa pods in cocoa – growing
countries. 7. Blizzards
These are snow – storms that are caused by
4. Tropical Cyclones strong winds that blow in temperate regions
 Tropical cyclones are strong winds that during winter. The negative effects are that
develop where the trade winds meet. snow piles up on the ground and also it causes
Cyclones develop over the oceans where poor visibility.
warm air masses and cold air masses
meet. Warm air rises over cold air mass Effects of Windstorms on the Environment
where it is cooled and condenses that  They destroy trees and crops
yield rains. Floods may result due to  Destruction of boats, ships and buildings
continuous, heavy showers which are  Some storms cause respiratory and eye
accompanied by thunderstorms. diseases
 The heat set free by condensation enables  Poor visibility
a cyclone to rotate.  They accelerate the spreading of bushfires
 Cyclones take different names in various which destroy forest.
areas that include:
 Typhoons in Asia 8. Earthquakes
 Hurricanes in West Indies Earthquake refers to the sudden movement of
 Willies Willies in Australia the Earth`s surface. Or it is defined as the
 Cyclone shaking of the Earth`s surface. It is caused by
the convection currents in the mantle.
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Effects of Earthquakes Negative Effects of Soil Erosion

 Destruction of buildings and other  Loss of fertile top soil which results in poor
infrastructures. crop yields
 They cause injuries and death of people.  It causes silting that prevents generation of
 They raise or lower a sea floor hydroelectricity and drying up of water
 They raise or lower coastal rocks bodies. Silting is the process by which
 They cause landslides and deep cracks on water bodies are filled with mud and other
rock surfaces deposited sediments from the land.
 They cause huge tidal waves called  Deepening of water table due to gullies.
tsunami.  It causes water pollution because the
sediments carry pollutants into the water
9. Volcanoes body.
Volcanoes have both positive and negative  Loss of natural habitat as repeated erosion
economic effects. destroys vegetative cover

Positive Effects of Volcanoes 11. Floods

 Volcanic mountains modify climate, e.g. Floods are the overflows of surface water
they bring relief rainfall when its volume exceeds the hydraulic
 Weathered volcanic rocks are rich in plant capacity of water body.
nutrients
 Volcanic mountains are source of precious Factors that Lead to Frequent Flooding
minerals worth mining  Low – lying land where water is spread
 Volcanic mountains are source of rich over a land surface
timber  Heavy rainfall received in the nearby
 Volcanic activities attract tourists which highland areas
bring wealth to the country  Raised river bed due to silting cause water
to spill over the banks
Negative Effects of volcanoes  The area is covered with black cotton
 Loss of life. Lava flows, hot ashes, dust and earth which gets saturated and force water
poisonous gases kill people. to flow on the surface
 Destruction of property  When a river has a wide flood plain and
 Volcanic gases pollute air shallow channels allows water to spread
 Volcanic features on the land surface act as over the large area.
transport and communication barriers.
For example, it is difficult and very Negative Effects of Flooding
expensive to construct roads through the  Loss of life and destruction of property
mountains.  Flooding water become breeding places of
disease causing organisms, such as
10. Soil Erosion mosquitoes
It is the removal fertile top soil that leads to  Famine and food shortage as floods destroy
poor plant growth and food insecurity. crops
 Floods wash away transport and
Positive Effects of Soil Erosion communication lines
 Rich soil deposits in the flood plains are  Stagnant flood waters lead to loss of soil
good for agriculture fertility due to logging and leaching
 Sand and gravel deposits in flood plains are
used for construction of buildings and other
important infrastructures.

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Measures for managing disasters Natural Disasters Commonly Occurring in

1. Floods Malawi
 Constructing water reservoirs and dams in 1. Floods
flood – prone areas in order to store The mostly affected areas are the Lower Shire
excess water. Valley (Chikwawa and Nsanje), Lakeshore
 Building dykes and levees on river banks Districts of Mangochi, Salima, Nkhotakota and
of rivers that are affected by flooding. Karonga. Big rivers are also affected such as
 Establishment of afforestation, Bua, Ruo, Mwanza, Khombezi, Lusa, Rukuru
reafforestation and agro - forestation and Lalanje Rivers.
programmes in the highlands and along 2. Earthquakes
the river banks in order to check the speed Earthquakes affect the rift valley areas
of water (Lakeshore and Shire Valley). Salima and
 Improvement of channels by dredging, Karonga are mostly hit by the earthquakes.
straightening and protecting the river 3. Drought
banks as well as clearing the banks of Drought affects the Southern parts of Malawi,
debris more especially the following areas: Nsanje,
 Constructing canals, diversion ditches and Chikwawa, Neno, Phalombe, Zomba, Ntcheu,
channels in flood prone rivers that drain Blantyre Balaka and Chiradzulu.
away excess water and restrict 4. Landslides
overflowing of water in rivers. This is the sliding or the mass movement of rock
 Providing civic education to the public on material down the slopes. The areas affected
control measures areas in Malawi are Mtiya Village in Zomba,
 Establishing national programmes to Phalombe, Ntchenachena and Chiweta in Rumphi
District
survey areas that are prone to flooding
5. Storms or cyclones
It develops in the Indian Ocean reaches Malawi
2. Ways of Coping with Lightning
via Mozambique. It affects the Southern Region
 Providing civic education on the dangers of
of the country such as
lightning and how to avoid them
 People should not carry large metal objects
Causes of Natural Disasters
when it is raining. Metals are good
a. Deforestation: it leads to severe erosion and
conductors of electricity.
then uncontrolled run – off. This results into
 People should not sit on the verandas made silting of rivers that may flood later.
of corrugated iron sheets. Deforestation also creates the problem of global
 Fitting lightning arrestors on the buildings. warming which causes climate change.
Deforestation also triggers landslides on the
3. Ways of Coping with Windstorms and mountain slopes.
Blizzards b. Overcrowding: in overcrowded areas, disease
 Governments of affected areas should outbreaks and natural disasters cause a great
evacuate people from windstorm – prone damage and deaths.
areas c. Construction in disaster prone areas
 The governments of the affected areas d. Wildfires
should provide people with relief items e. Pollution; it spreads airborne diseases and
like food, shelter, clothes and funds. global warming.
 Governments should educate people about f. Poor agricultural activities like making ridges
the importance of insurance policies so that along the slopes, cultivating in river banks and
they can be compensated when disasters using fire for clearing the fields.
come.
 Through the early warning systems through Disaster Risk Management
the radios, TVs and newspapers It is the systematic process that involves all activities
done before, during and after the occurrence of a
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hazard event to prevent or reduce the impact of a Preparedness

disaster.  Ensuring enough food reserves in stores
 Early warning systems through mass
1. Risk Management Measures for media
Earthquakes  Conducting public awareness and civic
 Keep sharp objects away from where education campaigns
people sleep  Planting early maturing crops
 Making settlement away from earthquake  Planting crops with early rains
prone areas  Promoting village savings and loans
 Carrying out public awareness campaigns
and civic education on earthquake hazards 4. Risk Management Measures For Landslides
 Store hazardous materials in appropriate  Practice proper agricultural methods like
containers making terraces on slope for cultivation.
 Plant trees on mountain slopes and river
Preparedness banks
 Identify safer places very close to your home  Capture and drain water before it reaches
 Construct houses with reinforcements that landslide prone areas
may withstand effects of earthquakes  Refill pit holes after mining is over
 Protect yourself with flexible materials like  Conducting public awareness and civic
mattresses education campaigns on landslides.
 Carry out public awareness campaigns on  Settle away from landslide prone areas (e.g.
precautionary measures against earthquakes. mountain slopes and river banks)

2. Risk Management Measures for Cyclones Preparedness

 Construct houses with roof – slopes  Identify safer places for evacuation
 Plant trees around the houses and crop fields  Ensure enough food reserves and other
on a bare ground essential supplies
 Encourage proper land use  Have emergence means of transportation
 Making laws that prohibit deforestation and communication
 Construct animal pens with loose materials.  Construct proper water runoff channels and
drainage systems
Preparedness  Refrain from deforestation and vegetation
 Identify safer places for evacuation removal
 Ensure enough food reserves and other
essential supplies 5. Floods
 Conducting public awareness and civic  Building raised houses if settled in flood
education campaigns prone areas
 Provide early warning systems through mass  Afforestation
media  Encourage people to settle in uplands
 Construct embankments, e.g. dykes
3. Risk Management Measures For Drought
 Growing drought tolerant crops Preparedness
 Restricting irrigation farming  Identify safer places for evacuation
 Promoting afforestation  Ensure enough food reserves and other
 Use of alternative sources energy to essential supplies
replace fuel energy.  Providing civic education on the impact of
 Practicing water harvesting and hazards identify and train volunteers as first
conservation responders

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Responses to Disaster Risks Factors to Be Considered When Managing

 Providing relief items and shelter to affected Disasters
people in the affected areas. Relief items  Being informed about the issue in order to
include food, clothing, utensils and beddings. enable you bring about the change
 Taking injured persons to hospitals  Concentrate on the issues and do something to
 Assist carrying out search and rescue operations focus your energy
 Evacuate to safer places  Make environment awareness and behaviour
 Disconnecting electrical appliances during the change a concern
hazards  Get all the facts and try to get appropriate
 Providing emergency shelters to homeless action programmes initiated
victims  Think globally and act locally by being aware
 Stock and allocate relief items to safer place of the global conditions and working to
 Protect yourself with cushion, mattresses, or improve the particular areas
thick blankets during earthquakes.  Making laws at national level and bye – laws at
 Stay away from buildings and tall trees during local level that help managing natural disasters.
an earthquake

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UNIT 11

POPULATION
Success criteria
Students must be able to
1. Explain the term population
2. Describe composition of population
3. Analyze population composition of the area
4. Explain population composition at district and regional levels where the school is located
5. Explain the meaning of the term population distribution
6. Describe factors that affect population distribution in the area
7. Explain how population distribution affects the allocation of resources
8. Explain the meaning of the term population density
9. Explain factors that influence population density
10. Explain the effects of population density on resources
11. Explain the meaning of the term population growth
12. Explain the impact of population growth on the family and environment.

POPULATION
The word „populus’ is a Latin term which means Population pyramid or population structure
people. Therefore, population refers to a group Age – sex pyramid is a simple graph that shows the
individual organism of the same species in a given relative number of people at different ages by gender
area. These include people, plants and animals. in a population. It helps to study age – sex structure
of every population.
Human population refers to the number of people Age – sex pyramid helps people to people to have
living in a given area at a particular time. an idea of characteristics of each population.

Each population has characteristics that give its Types of population pyramid or population
identity. Characteristics for each population include:  Expanding (triangular) Pyramid
 Birth rate  Stationary or Stable (rectangular) Pyramid
 Death rate  Declining (constrictive) Pyramid
 Sex ratio. This is the ratio of males to females
in an age set of a given population. Expanding Population Pyramid
 Mortality rate
 Age – sex ratio
 Dependency ratio
 Age distribution
 Special distribution
 Effects of migration
 Life expectancy

Composition of population
Population composition is refers to characteristics of
a group of people in terms of age, sex, ethnicity and
religion. Therefore, population composition in terms
of age and sex is called population structure.

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It has the following characteristics: Cause of This Rectangular pyramid

 A broad base and narrow top  Low birth rate
 High proportion of children and low proportion  Low infant mortality rate
of adults  Low death rate.
 There is rapid population growth: ageing  High migration rates into the country
parents are being replaced by more babies
 There is low life expectancy as there are few It has the following characteristics:
adults.  It has very small youthful population.
 The population is called a youthful population  There is very large ageing population due to
as there are more youths than adults. low mortality rate.
 Developing countries have this type of  It has very high dependency ratio in terms of
population like Malawi, Kenya, Zambia and adults and low dependency ratio on the part of
Uganda. the youths.
 There is high life expectancy with many elders.
Causes of expanding population pyramid  There is very high dependency ratio more
 High birth rate especially in the ages of 0 – 19. Dependency
 High infant mortality rate ratio is the number of people in the non –
 Dependency on agriculture as many families economically active age group to that
have many children as a cheap source of labour economically active age group. More adults of
 High death rate due to inadequate health care. up to the age of above 65 and children up to the
 Low life expectancy due to low living standards age of 14 years create this dependency ratio.
(malnutrition, chronic hunger, illnesses,
unemployment). Declining Pyramid
 Lack of contraceptives
 Dependency ratio
It is the proportion of the population aged under
15 years and over 65 years who rely on a small
economically active population for survival.

Rectangular Pyramid

Characteristics of declining pyramid

 It has narrow base, wider at the middle, and
remains wide until at the top showing low
proportion of children as compared to adults
 It points downwards, meaning slower birth rate
than death rate. The ageing parents are not
replaced. As a result, population declines.
 This as a result is called old or ageing
This is also known as ageing population structure population as there are more adults than
because it is mostly composed of adults. There are children
more adults than youths. Developed countries like  USA and Japan have this type of population.
UK, Norway, Germany, Sweden, Denmark and
Canada have the ageing population structure.

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Causes of stationary and rectangular pyramids number of live births per woman by the time the
 High life expectancy due to better living period of child bearing comes to an end.
standards  High fertility rate results in high population
 Low death rates due to improved health care growth while low population density leads to
 High employment levels for women low populations.
 High education levels for women
Factors that Influence Women`s Fertility Rates
Effects of Youthful Populations  Level of education: educated women tend to
 High crime rates have fewer children than uneducated women.
 Juvenile delinquency  Employment levels: Working women have
 Street children fewer children than just house wives or non –
 Pick pocketing working women more especially in rural areas.
 Increased demand for social services  Traditional and religious beliefs: many
 Poverty traditional families believe that that children as
 Strain on economy of the country. a source of wealth.
 The govern needs to train more teachers  Lack of medical facilities: this leads to high
and doctors in order to meet the demands of fertility rate because many women have many
the growing populations. children as a security against death
 The government also needs to create more  Poverty: people have many children in order
jobs in order to accommodate more people. to care for their parents at the old age.
 The government needs more money
construct under – five clinics and train more Low mortality rates or death rates
nurses This is the occurrence of death. This reduces the
 High taxes on workers to buy enough drugs in number of people in the area. There are three main
hospitals and schools causes of death namely:
 Slow development as government spends more  Old age
money for other developments projects.  Diseases
 War and accidents
Effects of Ageing Population
 More money is needed to support the ageing Reasons for Low Death Rates
population in terms of pension scheme and health  Improved personal hygiene, nutrition and
care services sanitation
 There are fewer workers left to fill the gaps left  Improved medical care, more especially to
by adults mothers and children
 Rising taxes for the fewer workers in order to  Provision of clean water supply that helps to
support the elderly people. reduce spreading of water – borne diseases
 Improved education and health care services to  Enforcement of law and order that reduces
children in the population that can easily attain tribal wars and conflicts
higher education and later enter into the work  Control of disasters and epidemics
force.  Better living standards whereby many people
can afford a balanced diet and medication
Factors that Influence Population Growth  Immunization of children against any killer
Factors that influence population growth are fertility diseases such measles
rate, mortality rate and migration.
a. Fertility Rates Population Distribution
b. Low death rates This is how people are spread out in the region. It is
also defined as the pattern of where people live.
Fertility is the ability of a woman to give birth to a People are not equally distributed all over the region
live child. On the other hand, fertility rate refers the due to a number of factors such as:

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1. Relief: lowlands, plains and river valleys have There is a moderate climate and suitable soil for
more people than rugged and hilly areas. agriculture. It has good sea ports as well as large
2. Resources: areas with rich natural resources oil and gas reserves
like water, fertile soil, wood, fish and minerals
have higher populations than areas that have no  Eastern Africa (Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti,
much needed resources. Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar,
3. Climate: suitable climate for agriculture Malawi, Mozambique, Rwanda, Somalia,
attracts more people to settle there. Harsh Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe)
climatic areas have little or no populations, e.g. Ethiopia and Kenya have mild temperatures and
Tundra Climates are not settled as they are plenty rainfall which encourage large
bitterly cold. population.
4. Government policy: government may resettle Large populations are also found around Lake
people in some areas in order to reduce pressure Victoria
in resources.
5. Political stability: peaceful and stable nations  Middle Africa (Angola, Cameroon, Central
attract more investors who employ many people African Republic, Chad, Congo, Guinea,
which results in large populations. Wars DRC, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Sao Tome
depopulate people due to deaths and fleeing to and Principe)
other countries. DRC has the largest population because of the
6. Natural hazards: disaster prone areas have Congo River system provides food, water and
little or no people to settle. transportation in the region.
7. Commerce: trading and towns have large
populations as many people for better services  Southern Africa (Botswana, Lesotho,
Namibia, South Africa and Swaziland)
How population is distributed across Africa South Africa has highest population in the
 North Africa (Egypt, Libya, Morocco, region because of:
Tunisia, Algeria, Sudan and Western There are rich mineral resources such as gold
Sahara) and diamond.
Due to desert climate there are little or no Rich agricultural coastal plain that receive
people in the deserts. rainfall

 Nile Valley and Delta How Population Distribution Affects Resource

There are large populations around Nile Valley Allocation
because of availability of water, good climate Population size, gender and sex are the most
and fertile soil for agriculture. important factors that determine allocation of
resources in the area as follows:
 Areas Around Mediterranean Sea  More resources are allocated to areas with large
There are large populations due to: populations
Abundant water supply for drinking and  Very young people need tend to have highest
irrigation demand for social services such as clinics and
There is suitable climate and fertile soils for schools.
agriculture  More elderly people need a lot of resources like
pension scheme
 Western Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso,  Population with more women of child – bearing
Nigeria, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, age requires more resources in terms antenatal
Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Togo and Sierra and nutrition faculties.
Leone).
Nigeria has the largest population of about 135
people because:

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Migration  Overcrowding in schools, public transport and

This refers to the movement of people from one area hospitals
to another. Migration is categorized into  More social problems like high crime rate
immigration and emigration.  Shortage of land for farming

Immigration is the movement of people into the Population change

country while emigration is the movement of This is the difference between the size of the
people out of the country. The area where people are population at the end and beginning of a period of
coming from is called a donor area while the area any given society or country. This can be in terms of
where they are migrating to is known as destination increase or decrease in population.
or recipient areas. Immigrants are people who
enter the country while emigrants are people who Factors that Influence Population Change
leave the country.
Factors Pull Factors in Recipient Areas
Factors that Cause Migration Social and  Entertainment
There are political, social and economic factors that Political  City life
cause people to migrate. These factors are put into Factors  Political stability
two groups like push and pull factors. Push factors  Political freedom
are those factors that drive people away from the Economic  Job opportunities
area. On the other hand, pull factors attract people Factors  Improved social services
to settle in the new areas. Physical  Favourable climate
Factors  Good soil
Factors Push factors in Donor Areas
Social and  Conflicts
Political  Witchcraft Birth rate
Factors  Wars Birth rate refers to average number of babies born in
 Insecurity every place for every 1000 people during a particular
 Disputes period of time.
Economic  Poverty
Factors  Unemployment Birth rate =
Physical  Natural disasters like floods  High birth rate leads to rapid population
Factors  Poor soil and climate growth.
 Epidemics
 Shortage of land for farming  Death rate: it refers to number of deaths per
and settlement 1000 who die in a particular area during a
Demograp High population particular period of time.
hic Factors Death rate =
 Migration: it leads to population growth in the
Effects of Migration on
recipient area whereas emigration depopulates
On Donor Areas
donor area.
 Neglected homes
 Empty schools
Population growth rate
 Retarded development This is the rate at which population of a country
 Poor road conditions grows. There are different types of population
growth rate that include:
On Recipient Areas a. Rapid growth rate
 Rapid population growth This is a situation where rapid growth of
 Shortage of social services population is experienced due to higher birth
rate than death rate.

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b. Slow growth rate

This is a nearly stagnant population growth Reasons for Low Death Rates in Developed
experienced where both birth and death rates are Countries (USA and UK)
low. E.g. in developed countries like Britain and  Good housing conditions
Germany.  Safe water supplies
c. Zero growth rate  More than enough food to eat
This is a stable population growth rate where  Advanced medical services.
both birth and death rates are almost equal. It is
also known as constant growth rate or Natural increase
stationary growth rate. In this case, population This is the difference between the number of births
growth rate is therefore zero. and number of deaths. This happens when birth rate
exceeds death rate. Malawi`s natural increase is30%
d. Negative growth rate per year for every 1000 people.
This is a situation where death rate surpasses
birth rate. In other words, death rate is lower Natural increase = birth rate – death rate
than death rate. As a result, there is e declining
population. Natural increase is caused by:
 High birth rates
Birth rate  Low death rates
It is the number of live births per year, taking 1000  Influx of people into the country
persons. This is termed as the crude birth rate
because puts together all people who are not capable
Natural decrease
of giving birth (like men, women, young girls and This is a condition that occurs when death rate
old women) with those who are in a position of to
exceeds birth rate. This leads to low population.
give birth (such as mature, married and unmarried Natural decrease is caused by:
women).
 Epidemics such as Ebola and HIV/AIDS
 Natural hazards such as flooding
In short, crude birth rate refers to the total number of
people who are not capable to give birth and those in  Severe drought
a position to give birth.  Pests and diseases that destroy crops lead
leading to food shortage, malnutritional
diseases and then death of people.
CBR= X 1000
 Civil wars in a country.

Death rate or mortality rate Infant mortality rate (IMR)

 This refers to the number of deaths per 1000  This is the number of children who day per year
persons. This is known as a crude death rate at the age of below 1 year per 1000 persons in
(CDR) because it does not consider the age and the population.
sex composition of the population of the
population at risk. IMR = X 1000

CDR = X 1000
Factors for High Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
 Shortage of medical services
Reasons for High Death rates in Developing  Greater number of children born to mothers
Countries  Poor nutrition to mothers and babies
 Dirty and unreliable water supplies  Less knowledge of health matters
 Poor housing conditions  Dirty water supply
 Poor access to medical services  Gender inequalities and abuse of power
 Epidemic diseases in some areas
 Diets that are short in calories and/or protein
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Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)  Making laws that limit the number of children
This is the number of mothers who die during per couple. E.g. in China the state controls
pregnancy or delivery. marriages and prevents early marriages by
imposing penalties on the offenders
MMR = X 1000  Convincing the population to accept family
planning methods. E.g. men in India are
encouraged to undergo vasectomy.
Factors for Maternal Mortality Rate
 Making laws that stop re – marriages after
 Early marriages and teenage pregnancies
divorce
 Inadequate health facilities and services
 Government should control under age
 Gender inequalities marriages and single motherhood.
 Greater number of children born to mothers  Instituting laws that prohibit high fertility rate
 Less knowledge of health matters  Encouraging the use of contraceptives among
 Poor nutrition to mothers the population and increase their accessibility
 Encouraging education of girls
Life expectancy
This refers to the average number of years that a Population density
person can expect to live. Life expectancy is This is the total number of people living in a square
calculated at birth of a child. Life expectancy is kilometer.
higher in women than that of men.
There is also higher life expectancy in developed
countries (like Japan and UK) than in developing Population density =
countries such as Malawi.
Factors for Low Population Density
Reasons for Low Life Expectancy  Extreme climate
 Poor nutrition  Rugged and hilly landscape
 Poor hygiene  Extreme remoteness (areas are hardly reachable)
 Epidemics  Infertile soil
 Poor sanitation
 Poor medical care Factors for High Population Density
 Moderate climate for settlement and farming
Reasons for Low Life Expectancy  Fertile farm land
 High living standards  Low land with gentle slopes and fertile soil
 High medical care  Good water supply for drinking and irrigation
 Increased use of vaccines  Wealthier areas in terms of industries that offer
 High nutritional levels more jobs
 Improved hygiene and sanitation  Poverty in developing nations tends to
encourage large family sizes.
Population explosion
Population explosion refers to the sudden rapid Overpopulation
population growth in an area which is as a result of a It is the state of imbalance where there is an
marked decrease in death rate and an increase in excessively high population in relation to potential
birth rate. resources in an area at a given time.

Causes of Population Explosion Causes of Overpopulation

 High fertility rate  Natural increase in population
 Reduced mortality rate  Decline in resources
 Influx of refugees into the country  A decline in the demand for labour
Ways of Avoiding Population Explosion

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Under population On Environment

It is the condition where the country`s population is  Pressure on forest resources which leads to
too small to develop its resources effectively enough deforestation, e.g. charcoal
in order to improve the living standards. The  Shortage of social services, such as drugs and
government is able to cut expenditures on education, teaching/learning resources (social
health and other services thereby making savings for environment)
other development projects  Land degradation due to continuous cultivation
of land.
Sex structure  It leads to cultivation along the river banks
It is the proportion of men to women. which results to siltation.

Impact of population growth on the family Importance of Controlling Rapid Population

Growth
On a family  It helps to improve access to health and medical
 Shortage of food services
 Shortage of land for crop cultivation  It reduces energy and food consumption and
 More social problems, e.g. fighting for limited hence, minimizes greenhouse emissions and
resources environmental degradation
 Poor living standards or poverty
 Difficult to provide basic necessities

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REFERENCES
Bowen, A.D. tell (1997). Map Reading for Southern Africa (2nd Edition). Cape Town: Maskew Miller
Longman.

Bunnet, R.B. (1973). General Geography in Diagrams. England: Longman.

Chanyenga, S. (2013). Arise With Geography: Students’ Book 1. Blantyre: CLAIM MABUKU.

Guiness, P and Nagle, G. (1990). Advanced Geography: Concepts & Cases. Holder & Stoughton.

Phiri, F.R. (2006). Senior Certificate Physical and Human Geography. Blantyre: Dzuka Publishing Ltd.

Selengo, E.S. et al (2014). Achievers Junior Secondary Geography, Students’ Book 1. Lilongwe:
Educational Ltd.

Waugh, D. (1995). Geography: An Integrated Approach. Delhi: Nelson House Mayfield Road.

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