Lecture- 2

Network Models
 2-1 LAYERED TASKS

We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an

example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.

Topics discussed in this section:

Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy

2.2
 Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter

2.3
 2-2 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.

Topics discussed in this section:

Layered Architecture
Peer-to-Peer Processes
Encapsulation

2.4
 Note

ISO is the organization.

OSI is the model.

2.5
 Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model

2.6
 Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model

2.7
 Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model

2.8
 2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL

In this section we briefly describe the functions of each

layer in the OSI model.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

2.9
 Figure 2.5 Physical layer

2.10
 Note

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.

2.11
 Figure 2.6 Data link layer

2.12
 Note

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.

2.13
 Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery

2.14
 Figure 2.8 Network layer

2.15
 Note

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.

2.16
 Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery

2.17
 Figure 2.10 Transport layer

2.18
 Note

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a segment from one process to another.

2.19
 Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message

2.20
Figure 2.12 Session layer

2.21
 Note

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.

2.22
 Figure 2.13 Presentation layer

2.23
 Note

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.

2.24
 Figure 2.14 Application layer

2.25
 Note

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.

2.26
 Figure 2.15 Summary of layers

2.27
 The TCP/IP Reference Model

■ The TCP/IP reference model.

2
8
 2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE

The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly

match those in the OSI model. The original TCP/IP
protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-
network, internet, transport, and application. However,
when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.29
 Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model

2.30
 Full Forms: TCP/IP and OSI model

■ SMTP – Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

■ FTP – File Transfer Protocol
■ HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
■ DNS – Domain Name Server
■ SNMP – Simple Network Management Protocol
■ SCTP - Stream Control Transmission Protocol
■ TCP – Transmission Control Protocol
■ UDP – User Datagram Protocol
■ ARP - Address Resolution Protocol
■ RARP - Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
■ ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol
■ IGMP - Internet Group Management Protocol
■ IP – Internet Protocol

2.31
 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing

2.32
 2-5 ADDRESSING

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing

the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.

Topics discussed in this section:

Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses

2.33
 Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP

2.34
 Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP

2.35
 TCP/IP v/s OSI
■ 4 Layers ■ 7 Layers
■ Did not clearly ■ Distinction between
distinguish between these three concepts
service, interface are explicit.
and protocol. ■ Protocols in the OSI
■ Protocols in TCP/IP model are better
model are not hidden than in the
hidden and tough TCP/IP model and can
to replace if be replaced relatively
technology easily as the
changes. technology changes.
3
6
■ The protocols came ■ The model was not
first, and the model biased toward one
was really just a particular set of
description of the protocols, a fact that
existing protocols. made it quite general.
■ Designers have much ■ Designers did not have
experience with the much experience with
the subject and did
subject and have not have a good idea
clear idea of which of which functionality
functionality to put in to put in which layer.
which layer.

3
7
 Example 2.1

In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a

frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.

2.38
 Figure 2.19 Physical addresses

2.39
 Example 2.2

As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks

use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.

2.40
 Example 2.3

Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers

connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.

2.41
 Figure 2.20 IP addresses

2.42
 Example 2.4

Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the

Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.

2.43
 Figure 2.21 Port addresses

2.44
 Note

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,

but the logical addresses usually remain the same.

2.45
 Example 2.5

As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit

address represented by one decimal number as shown.

753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.

2.46
 Note

The physical addresses change from hop to hop,

but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.

2.47
2.48
 BASIS OF LAN MAN WAN
COMPARISON
Expands to Local Area Network Metropolitan Area Wide Area Network
Network
Meaning A network that It covers relatively It spans large
connects a group of large region such as locality and connects
computers in a small cities, towns. countries together.
geographical area. Example Internet.

Ownership of Private Private or Public Private or Public

Network
Design and Easy Difficult Difficult
maintenance
Propagation Delay Short Moderate Long
Speed High Moderate Low
Fault Tolerance More Tolerant Less Tolerant Less Tolerant
Congestion Less More More
Used for College, School, Small towns, City. Country/Continent.
Hospital.

3.49
 A scientist (Alice)
working in a research
company, Sky
Research, needs to
order a book related to
her research from an
online bookseller
(Bob), Scientific
Books.

Transmitted
data changes
to signal.

3.50
 Note

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic signals.

3.51
Network Devices
HUB

Ethernet was invented in 1973 by

Bob Metcalfe

Connect multiple ethernet devices together

Multiple input-output ports

Broadcasting by nature

Signal introduced at input of any port appears at output of every port except
the original incoming port

Sends frames to all devices on a network

Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple
wires coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star
topology which connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data
packets are sent to all connected devices. In other words, the collision
domain of all hosts connected through Hub remains one. Also, they do not
have the intelligence to find out the best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
• Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as
a repeater as well as a wiring center. These are used to extend the
maximum distance between nodes.
• Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and
power supply from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the
network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used to extend
the distance between nodes.
• Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote
management capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network
devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic passing
through the hub and to configure each port in the hub.
HUB

Advantages
Historically, main reason for purchasing hubs was their price

Hubs are generally easy to install and maintain

A good option for home networking

Disadvantages
A frame is passed along or "broadcast" to every one of its ports which results in
unnecessary traffic

This places a lot of traffic on the network and can lead to poor network response times
Uses of Hub

Hubs are used to create small Home Networks

Hubs are used in Organizations and Computer Labs for connectivity

It Makes one device or peripheral available throughout the whole network

AMPLIFIER
•An amplifier is an electronic device that can increase the power of a signal
Input Signal Output Signal

Working of Amplifier
REPEATER

•Repeater is a device that receives a signal and retransmits it.

•Repeaters work at the physical layer of OSI model.

•Used to extend transmissions so that signal can cover long distances

•Some types of repeaters broadcast an identical signal, but alter its method of
transmission

•It consists of three components – receiver, frequency converter

and transmitter.
Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the signal over
the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to extend the length to
which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted
about repeaters is that they not only amplify the signal but also regenerate it. When the signal
becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology connectors
connecting following the original strength. It is a 2-port device.
REPEATER

Advantages
Easily extend the length of the network

No overhead processing, so very little performance degradation(if any)

It can connect signals from same network type that uses different types of cables

Disadvantages
Does not support connection of different network architecture.

Number of repeaters between two ends should be limited.

 How is Hub and Repeater related?

•A repeater and a hub both work on the Physical Layer of the OSI Model.

•A Hub is essentially a multiport repeater.

•Both are very “dumb” devices (no offense to any of you repeaters out there).
 How is Repeater different from Amplifier?

•Amplifier is used to magnify a signal, whereas repeater is used to

receive and retransmit a signal with a power gain.

•Repeater has an amplifier as a part of it.

•Sometimes, amplifiers introduce some noise to the signal, whereas

repeaters contain noise eliminating parts.
•Amplifier is used to magnify a signal, whereas repeater is used
to receive and retransmit a signal with a power gain.

•Repeater has an amplifier as a part of it.

•Sometimes, amplifiers introduce some noise to the signal,

whereas repeaters contain noise eliminating parts.
 Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with
add on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of
the source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working
on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it
a 2 port device.

Types of Bridges
• Transparent Bridges:- These are the
bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e.
whether or not a bridge is added or deleted
from the network, reconfiguration of the
stations is unnecessary. These bridges
make use of two processes i.e. bridge
forwarding and bridge learning.
• Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges,
routing operation is performed by the
source station and the frame specifies
which route to follow. The host can
discover the frame by sending a special
frame called the discovery frame, which
spreads through the entire network using
all possible paths to the destination.
Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can
boost its efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and
performance. A switch is a data link layer device. The switch can perform
error checking before forwarding data, which makes it very efficient as it
does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets
selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch divides the
collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.
Types of Switch
1. Unmanaged switches: These switches have a simple plug-and-play design and
do not offer advanced configuration options. They are suitable for small networks
or for use as an expansion to a larger network.
2. Managed switches: These switches offer advanced configuration options such as
VLANs, QoS, and link aggregation. They are suitable for larger, more complex
networks and allow for centralized management.
3. Smart switches: These switches have features similar to managed switches but
are typically easier to set up and manage. They are suitable for small- to
medium-sized networks.
4. Layer 2 switches: These switches operate at the Data Link layer of the OSI model
and are responsible for forwarding data between devices on the same network
segment.
5. Layer 3 switches: These switches operate at the Network layer of the OSI model
and can route data between different network segments. They are more
advanced than Layer 2 switches and are often used in larger, more complex
networks.
6. PoE switches: These switches have Power over Ethernet capabilities, which
allows them to supply power to network devices over the same cable that carries
data.
7. Gigabit switches: These switches support Gigabit Ethernet speeds, which are
faster than traditional Ethernet speeds.
8. Rack-mounted switches: These switches are designed to be mounted in a
server rack and are suitable for use in data centers or other large networks.
9. Desktop switches: These switches are designed for use on a desktop or in
a small office environment and are typically smaller in size than rack-
mounted switches.
10. Modular switches: These switches have modular design, which allows for
easy expansion or customization. They are suitable for large networks and
data centers.
Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect
LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains
of hosts connected through it
 IEEE STANDARDS FOR ETHERNET

IEEE 802.3 is a set of standards and protocols that define Ethernet-based networks. Ethernet
technologies are primarily used in LANs, though they can also be used in MANs and even WANs.
IEEE 802.3 defines the physical layer and the medium access control (MAC) sub-layer of the data
link layer for wired Ethernet networks.
versions of IEEE 802.3 protocol
•IEEE 802.3: This was the original standard given for 10BASE-5. It used a thick
single coaxial cable into which a connection can be tapped by drilling into the
cable to the core. Here, 10 is the maximum throughput, i.e. 10 Mbps, BASE
denoted use of baseband transmission, and 5 refers to the maximum segment
length of 500m.
•IEEE 802.3a: This gave the standard for thin coax (10BASE-2), which is a
thinner variety where the segments of coaxial cables are connected by BNC
connectors. The 2 refers to the maximum segment length of about 200m
(185m to be precise).
•IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for twisted pair (10BASE-T) that uses
unshielded twisted pair (UTP) copper wires as physical layer medium. The
further variations were given by IEEE 802.3u for 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-T4
and 100BASE-FX.
•IEEE 802.3i: This gave the standard for Ethernet over Fiber (10BASE-F) that
uses fiber optic cables as medium of transmission.
 13-1 IEEE STANDARDS

In 1985, the Computer Society of the IEEE started a

project, called Project 802, to set standards to enable
intercommunication among equipment from a variety of
manufacturers. Project 802 is a way of specifying
functions of the physical layer and the data link layer of
major LAN protocols.

Topics discussed in this section:

Data Link Layer
Physical Layer

13.82
 Figure 13.1 IEEE standard for LANs

13.83
 Figure 13.2 HDLC frame compared with LLC and MAC frames

13.84
 13-2 STANDARD ETHERNET

The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s

Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Since then, it has
gone through four generations. We briefly discuss the
Standard (or traditional) Ethernet in this section.

Topics discussed in this section:

MAC Sublayer
Physical Layer

13.85
 Figure 13.3 Ethernet evolution through four generations

13.86
 Figure 13.4 802.3 MAC frame

13.87
 Figure 13.5 Minimum and maximum lengths

13.88
 Note

Frame length:
Minimum: 64 bytes (512 bits)
Maximum: 1518 bytes (12,144 bits)

13.89
 Figure 13.6 Example of an Ethernet address in hexadecimal notation

13.90
 Figure 13.7 Unicast and multicast addresses

13.91
 Note

The least significant bit of the first byte

defines the type of address.
If the bit is 0, the address is unicast;
otherwise, it is multicast.

13.92
 Note

The broadcast destination address is a

special case of the multicast address in
which all bits are 1s.

13.93
 Example 13.1

Define the type of the following destination addresses:

a. 4A:30:10:21:10:1A b. 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE
c. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF
Solution
To find the type of the address, we need to look at the
second hexadecimal digit from the left. If it is even, the
address is unicast. If it is odd, the address is multicast. If
all digits are F’s, the address is broadcast. Therefore, we
have the following:
a. This is a unicast address because A in binary is 1010.
b. This is a multicast address because 7 in binary is 0111.
c. This is a broadcast address because all digits are F’s.
13.94
 Example 13.2

Show how the address 47:20:1B:2E:08:EE is sent out on

line.

Solution
The address is sent left-to-right, byte by byte; for each
byte, it is sent right-to-left, bit by bit, as shown below:

13.95
 Figure 13.8 Categories of Standard Ethernet

13.96
 Figure 13.9 Encoding in a Standard Ethernet implementation

13.97
 Figure 13.10 10Base5 implementation

13.98
 Figure 13.11 10Base2 implementation

13.99
 Figure 13.12 10Base-T implementation

13.100
 Figure 13.13 10Base-F implementation

13.101
 Table 13.1 Summary of Standard Ethernet implementations

13.102
 13-4 FAST ETHERNET

Fast Ethernet was designed to compete with LAN

protocols such as FDDI or Fiber Channel. IEEE
created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u. Fast
Ethernet is backward-compatible with Standard
Ethernet, but it can transmit data 10 times faster at a
rate of 100 Mbps.

Topics discussed in this section:

MAC Sublayer
Physical Layer

13.103
 Figure 13.19 Fast Ethernet topology

13.104
 Figure 13.20 Fast Ethernet implementations

13.105
 Figure 13.21 Encoding for Fast Ethernet implementation

13.106
 Table 13.2 Summary of Fast Ethernet implementations

Multi level transmit non-return-to-zero (NRZ)-invert

13.107
 13-5 GIGABIT ETHERNET

The need for an even higher data rate resulted in the

design of the Gigabit Ethernet protocol (1000 Mbps).
The IEEE committee calls the standard 802.3z.

Topics discussed in this section:

MAC Sublayer
Physical Layer
Ten-Gigabit Ethernet

13.108
 Note

In the full-duplex mode of Gigabit

Ethernet, there is no collision;
the maximum length of the cable is
determined by the signal attenuation
in the cable.

13.109
 Figure 13.22 Topologies of Gigabit Ethernet

13.110
 Figure 13.23 Gigabit Ethernet implementations

13.111
 Figure 13.24 Encoding in Gigabit Ethernet implementations

13.112
 Table 13.3 Summary of Gigabit Ethernet implementations

13.113
 Table 13.4 Summary of Ten-Gigabit Ethernet implementations

13.114