Capital Goods & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.

68-69
Fitter - Drilling

Screw thread and elements

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the terminology of screw threads
• state the types of screw threads.

Screw thread terminology This is the diameter by which the sizes of screws are
stated.
Parts of screw thread (Fig 1)
Minor Diameter: For external threads, the minor diameter
is the smallest diameter after cutting the full thread. In the
case of internal threads, it is the diameter of the hole drilled
for forming the thread which is the minor diameter.
Pitch Diameter (effective diameter): The diameter of
the thread at which the thread thickness is equal to one half
of the pitch.
Pitch: It is the distance from a point on one thread to a
correspond ing point on the adjacent thread measured
parallel to the axis.
Lead: Lead is the distance of a threaded component
moves along the matching component during one complete
revolution. For a single start thread the lead is equal to the
pitch.
Helix Angle: The angle of inclination of the thread to the
Crest: The top surface joining the two sides of a thread. imaginary perpendicular line.
Root: The bottom surface joining the two sides of adjacent Hand: The direction in which the thread is turned to
threads. advance. A right hand thread is turned clockwise to
Flank: The surface joining the crest and the root. advance, while a left hand thread is turned anticlockwise.(
Fig 3)
Thread angle: The included angle between the flanks of
adjacent threads.
Depth: The perpendicular distance between the roots and
crest of the thread.
Major Diameter: In the case of external threads it is the
diameter of the blank on which the threads are cut and in
the case of internal threads it is the largest diameter after
the threads are cut that are known as the major diameter.
(Fig 2)

211
Screw threads - types of V threads and their uses
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the different standards of V threads
• indicate the angle and the relation between the pitch with the other elements of the thread
• state the uses of the different standards of V threads.
The different standards of V threads are:
- BSW thread: British Standard Whitworth thread
- BSF thread: British Standard fine thread
- BSP thread: British Standard pipe thread
- B.A thread: British Association thread
- I.S.O Metric thread: International Standard Organisation
metric thread
- ANS: American National or sellers’ thread
- BIS Metric thread: Bureau of Indian Standard metric
thread.
BSW thread (Fig 1): It has an included angle of 55° and

the depth of the thread is 0.6403 x P. The crest and root

are rounded off to a definite radius . The Fig 1 shows the
relationship between the pitch and the other elements of
the thread.
This thread of metric standard is represented in a drawing
BSW thread is represented in a drawing by giving the major by the letter ‘M’ followed by the major diameter for the
diameter. For example : 1/2” BSW, 1/4” BSW. The table coarse series.
indicates the standard number of TPI for different diameters.
BSW thread is used for general purpose fastening threads. Ex : M14, M12 etc.
BSF thread: This thread is similar to BSW thread except For the fine series, the letter ‘M’ is followed by the major
the number of TPI for a particular diameter. The number of diameter and pitch.
threads per inch is more than that for the BSW thread for Ex : M14 x 1.5
a particular diameter. For Example, 1” BSW has 8 TPI and
1 “BSF has 10 TPI. The table indicates the standard M24 x 2
number of TPI for different dia. of BSF threads. It is used in American National Thread (Fig 4): These threads are
automobile industries. also called as seller’s threads. It was more commonly used
BSP thread: This thread is recommended for pipe and prior to the introduction of the ISO unified thread.
pipe fittings. The table shows the pitch for different diameters.
It is also similar to BSW thread. The thread is cut externally
with a small taper for the threaded length. This avoids the
leakage in the assembly and provides for further adjustment
when slackness is felt.
BA thread (Fig 2): This thread has an included angle of 47
1/2°. Depth and other elements are as shown in the figure.
It is used in small screws of electrical appliances, watch
screws, screws of scientific apparatus.
Unified thread (Fig 3): For both the metric and inch
series, ISO has developed this thread. Its angle is 60°. The
crest and root are flat and the other dimensions are as
shown in the Fig 3. This thread is used for general fastening
purposes.
212 CG & M: Fitter (NSQF - Revised 2022) Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.68 & 69
Screw pitch gauge
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the purpose of a screw pitch gauge
• state the features of a screw pitch gauge.

Purpose The thread profile on each blade is cut for about 25 mm to

30 mm. The pitch of the blade is stamped on each blade.
A screw pitch gauge is used to determine the pitch of a The standard and range of the pitches are marked on the
thread. case. (Fig 1)
It is also used to compare the profile of threads.
Constructional features
Pitch gauges are available with a number of blades
assembled as a set. Each blade is meant for checking a
particular standard thread pitch. The blades are made of
thin spring steel sheets, and are hardened.
Some screw pitch gauge sets will have blades provided for
checking British Standard threads (BSW, BSF etc.) at one
end and the metric standard at the other end.

Taps
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the uses of hand taps
• state the features of hand taps
• distinguish between the different taps in a set.

Use of hand taps: Hand taps are used for internal To form the cutting edges, flutes are cut across the thread.
threading of components.
The end of the shank of the tap is made of square shape for
Features (Fig 1): They are made from high speed steel. the purpose of holding and turning the taps.
The threads are cut on the periphery and are accurately The end of the taps are chamfered (taper lead) for assisting,
finished. aligning and starting of the thread.

CG & M: Fitter (NSQF - Revised 2022) Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.68 & 69 213
The size of the taps, the thread standard, the pitch of the For identifying the type of taps quickly - the taps are either
thread, the dia. of the tapping hole are usually marked on numbered 1,2 and 3 or rings are marked on the shank.
the shank.
The taper tap has one ring, the intermediate tap has two
Marking on the shank are also made to indicate the type and the bottoming tap has three rings. (Fig 2)
of tap i.e. first, second and plug.
Types of taps in a set : Hand taps for a particular thread
are available as a set consisting of three pieces. (Fig 2)
These are:
– First tap or taper tap
– Second tap or intermediate tap
– Plug or bottoming tap.
These taps are identical in all features except in the
tap lead.
The taper tap is to start the thread. It is possible to form full
threads by the taper tap in through holes which are not
deep.
The bottoming tap (plug) is used to finish the threads of a
blind hole to the correct depth.
Table for tap drill size

B.S.W. (55°) B.S.F. (55°)

Tap size Threads per Tap drill Tap size Threads per Tap drill
(inch) inch size (mm) (inch) inch size (mm)

3/16 24 3.7mm 3/16 32 3.97mm

7/32 24 4.5mm 7/32 28 4.6mm
1/4 20 5.1mm 1/4 26 5.3mm
5/16 18 6.5mm 5/16 22 6.75mm
3/8 16 7.94mm 3/8 20 8.2mm
7/16 14 9.3mm 7/16 18 9.7mm
1/2 12 10.5mm 1/2 16 11.11mm
9/16 12 12.1mm 9/16 16 12.7mm
5/8 11 13.5mm 5/8 14 14mm
11/16 11 15mm 11/16 14 15.5mm
3/4 10 16.257mm 3/4 12 16.75mm
7/8 9 19.25mm 7/8 11 19.84mm
1” 8 22mm 1” 10 22.75mm

NPT National pipe thread

Tap size Threads per Tap drill Tap size Threads per Tap drill size
(inch) inch size inch (inch) inch inch
1/8 27 11/32 1 11 1/2 1 5/32

1/4 18 7/16 1 1/4 11 1/4 1 1/2

3/8 18 19/32 1 1/2 11 1/2 1 23/32

1/2 14 23/32 2 11 1/2 2 23/16

3/4 14 15/16 2 1/2 8 2 5/8

214 CG & M: Fitter (NSQF - Revised 2022) Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.68 & 69
 Tap drill sizes ISO Inch (Unified) thread

NC National coarse NF National Fine

Tap size Threads per Tap drill Tap size Threads per Tap drill size
(inch) inch size inch (inch) inch inch

1/4 20 13/64 1/4 28 7/32

5/16 18 17/64 5/16 24 17/64
3/8 16 5/16 3/8 24 21/64
7/16 14 3/8 7/16 20 25/64
1/2 13 27/64 1/2 20 29/64
9/16 12 31/64 9/16 18 33/64
5/8 11 17/32 5/8 18 37/64
3/4 10 21/32 3/4 16 11/16
7/8 9 49/64 7/8 14 13/16
1” 8 7/8 1” 14 15/16
1 1/8 7 63/64 1 1/8 12 1 3/6
1 1/4 7 17/64 1 1/4 12 1 11/6
1 3/8 6 17/32 1 3/8 12 1 19/64
1 1/2 6 1 11/32 1 1/2 12 1 27/64
1 3/4 5 1 9/16
2” 4 1/2 1 25/32

Machine taps
Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state the characteristics of machine taps
• name the different types of machine taps
• state the features and uses of different types of machine taps.
Machine taps: Machine taps of different types are available.
The two important features of machine taps are
– Ability to withstand the torque needed for threading
holes
– Provision for eliminating chip jamming.
Types of machine taps
Gun tap (Spiral pointed tap) (Fig 1)

These taps are especially useful for machine tapping of

through holes. In the case of blind hole tapping, there Flute-less spiral pointed tap (Stub flute taps) (Fig 3)
should be sufficient space below to accommodate the
chips. While tapping, the chips are forced out ahead of the These taps have short angular flutes ground on the chamfered
tap. (Fig 2) end, and the rest of the body is left solid. These taps are
stronger than gun taps.
This prevents the clogging of the chips and thus reduces
Flute-less taps are used for tapping through holes on
the chances of tap breakage. These taps are stronger
materials which are not thicker than the diameter of the
since the flutes are shallow. The flutes of these taps do not
holes. Flutes spiral point taps are best suited for tapping
convey chips.
soft materials or thin metal sections.
CG & M: Fitter (NSQF - Revised 2022) Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.68 & 69 215
Helical fluted taps/spiral fluted taps: These taps have
spiral flutes which bring out the chips from the hole being
tapped. (Fig 4)

These are useful for tapping holes with slots. The helical
land of the tap will bridge the interruption of the surface
being threaded. The helical flutes of the tap provide a shear
cutting action, and are mostly used to tap holes in ductile
materials like aluminium, brass, copper etc.
Spiral fluted taps are also available with fast spiral. (Fig 5) These taps have projecting lobes which actually help in
These taps are best suited for tapping deep holes as these forming the thread. (Fig 8) Since there are no chips in the
can clear the chips faster from the hole. (Fig 6) process, it is very valuable in places where chip removal
poses problems. These taps are excellent for tapping
Thread forming taps (Fluteless taps) copper, brass, aluminium, lead etc. The thread finish is
These taps form threads in the hole by displacing the also comparatively better than in the fluted taps.
material and not by cutting action. (Fig 7)

General informative points on taps

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• differentiate between hand tap and machine tap
• identify the parts of a machine tap
• state the constructional features of a machine tap.

Unlike tapping with the three piece set of hand taps, the
machine tap cuts the entire threaded profile in one operation.
The machine tap is normally made of tool steel and
consists of the shank (2) and the cutting section (1) as
shown in (Fig 1). The cutting section itself is subdivided
into two areas. The start (3), which serves for cutting, and
the guiding section (4) for the feeding motion and smoothing
of the newly cut thread. (Fig 1)

Straight and spiral groove machine taps are available. The

diameter of the shank and the shape of its end vary between
the various standards. The shank diameter may be
smaller, equal to or larger than the thread diameter. The
shank ends are available in straight design, with square
ends as shown in (6) or with driving shoulders.
The number of flutes (5), may be even or odd. With an even
number of flutes, measuring of the diameter (7) is easier. Chip removal (flow) takes place at the start of the tap. The
(Figs 2a and 2b) rake angle must be adapted to the material to be machined.
Hard and brittle materials require a small rake angle and

216 CG & M: Fitter (NSQF - Revised 2022) Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.68 & 69
soft materials need a larger rake angle. The ‘hard’ type tap is used for tapping brittle materials like
cast iron. In case a ‘normal’ type tap is used on cast iron,
Accordingly three types of taps are available.
the tap cutting edges get blunt soon and the tap cannot be
Type normal (Fig 3b ) with a rake angle of approximately used again on ductile materials like mild steel. The fine
12°. cast iron splinters wear the external diameter of the cutting
Type soft (Fig 3c) with a rake angle of approximately 20°. edges of the tap causing them to tend to become blunt, and
when the same tap is used on steel which is more flexible
Type hard (Fig 3a) with a rake angle of approximately 3°. it is elastically pressed away (8) at the cutting point.
The normal type of rake angle taps can be used in most Behind the cutting edge the material returns to the machined
cases. The start must be ground symmetrical. Before diameter. The depth of the groove also causes jamming of
using the tap, it is necessary to check that the cutting the guiding section of the tap. (Fig 4)
edges are not chipped, and all the edges are sharp.

Pipe Threads and Pipe Taps

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• state parallel and taper pipes threads
• determine the wall thickness and threads per inch (TPI) of BSP threads
• state the method of sealing pipe joints
• determine blank sizes for threading as per B.S 21 - 1973 and I.S. 2643 - 1964.

Pipe threads
The standard pipe fittings are threaded to British Standard
pipe (BSP). The internal pipe threads have parallel threads
whereas the external pipes have tapered threads as shown
in Fig 1.

The next two threads have fully formed bottoms but that
tops. (B)
The last four threads have flat tops and bottoms. (C)
Sealing pipe joint
Fig 3 shows that the pipe has several fully formed threads
at the end. (A)

The pipe joint shown in Fig 4 consists of the following:

B.S.P. threads
1 Parallel female thread
Galvinized iron pipes are available in sizes ranging from
2 Tapered male thread
1/2” to 6” in several different wall thickness. The table 1
shows outside diameters and threads per inch from 3 Hemp packing
1/2” to 4”. (Fig 2)

CG & M: Fitter (NSQF - Revised 2022) Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.68 & 69 217
 The hemp packing issued to ensure that any small space
between two metal threads (male and female threads) is
sealed to prevent any leakage.
Pipe taps
Internal pipe threads are usually cut with standard taper
pipe taps. (Fig 5)

Table 1
BSP - Pipe sizes Threads Outside diameter/
or DIN 2999 inch mm of the pipe (A)
(inside) (B)

1/2” 14 20.955 mm

3/4” 14 26.441

1” 11 33.249

11/4” 11 41.910

11/2” 11 47.803

2” 11 59.614

2 1/2” 8 75.184

3” 8 87.884

4” 8 113.030

218 CG & M: Fitter (NSQF - Revised 2022) Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.68 & 69
Capital Goods & Manufacturing Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.70
Fitter - Drilling

Tap wrenches, removal of broken tap, studs

Objectives : At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• name the different types of tap wrenches
• state the uses of the different types of wrenches.
Tap wrenches: Tap wrenches are used to align and drive Solid type tap wrench (Fig 3)
the hand taps correctly into the hole to be threaded. These wrenches are not adjustable.
Tap wrenches are of different types, such as double-ended They can take only certain sizes of taps. This eliminates
adjustable wrench, T- handle tap wrench, solid type tap the use of wrong length of the tap wrenches, and thus
wrench etc. prevents damage to the taps.
Tap Material: Made from a single piece of solid Cast iron
Double - ended adjustable tap wrench or bar type tap (or) steel. Cast iron and steel are used because of strong,
wrench (Fig 1) durable and unlikely to deform under pressure.

This is the most commonly used type of tap wrench. It is

available in various sizes- 175, 250,350mm long. These tap
wrenches are more suitable for large diameter taps, and
can be used in open places where there is no obstruction
to turn the tap.
It is important to select the correct size of wrench.
T- handle tap wrench (Fig 2)
These are small, adjustable chucks with two jaws and a
handle to turn the wrench.
This tap wrench is useful to work in restricted places, and
is turned with one hand only. Most suitable for smaller
sizes of taps.

Removing broken taps

Objectives: At the end of this lesson you shall be able to
• name the different methods of removing broken taps
• state the methods of removing broken taps.
A tap broken above the surface of the workpiece can be
removed using gripping tools like pliers.
Taps broken below the surface pose a problem for removing.
Any one of the several methods given below can be used.
Use of tap extractor (Fig 1)
This is a very delicate tool and need very careful handling.
This extractor has fingers which can be inserted on the
flutes of the broken tap. The sliding collar is then brought
to the surface of the work and the extractor turned
anticlockwise to take out the broken tap.
A light blow on the broken tap with a punch will help to
relieve the tap if it is jammed inside the hole.
Use of punch (Fig 2)
In this method the point of the punch is placed in the flute
of the broken tap in an inclination and struck with a hammer
219
the positioning of the punch should be such that the broken Use of arc welding
tap is rotated anticlockwise when struck.
This is a suitable method when a small tap is broken at the
bottom of materials like copper, aluminium etc. In this
method the electrode is brought in contact with the broken
tap and stuck so that it is attached with the broken tap. The
tap may be removed by rotating the electrode.
Use of nitric acid
In this method nitric acid is diluted in a proportion of about
one part acid to five parts of water is injected inside. The
action of the acid loosens the tap and then it is removed
with an extractor or with a nose plier. The workpiece should
be thoroughly cleaned for preventing further action of the
acid.

While diluting acid mix acid to water.

Annealing and drilling the tap
Use of spark erosion
This is a method adopted when other method fail. In the
process the broken tap is heated by flame or by other For salvaging certain precision components damaged due
methods for annealing. A hole is then drilled on the to breakage of taps, spark erosion can be used. In this
annealed tap. The remaining piece can be removed either process, the metal (broken tap ) is removed by means of
by using a drift or using an EZY - OUT (extractor). This repetitive spark discharges. The electrical discharge occurs
method is not suitable for workpieces with low melting between an electrode and the electro - conductive workpiece
temperatures such as aluminium, copper etc. (Fig 3) (tap) and the minute particles are eroded both from the
electrode and the workpiece. In many cases it may not be
necessary to remove the broken tap completely. ( After a
small portion has been eroded, a screw- driver or punch
can be used to remove the remaining portion of the tap.) The
shape of the electrode also need not be round. It can be for
assisting the tools for routing the broken tap.

220 CG & M: Fitter (NSQF - Revised 2022) Related Theory for Exercise 1.5.70